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These are the telecommunication networks used for information and data exchange in
the form of text, multimedia.
These networks interconnect intelligent machines like computers, teletype-writers over
physical media like twisted wire pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, microwave links etc.
Each system is equipment with a trans-receiver for transmitting and receiving of
information. The complete system at each site is called a station or node. In the network
each station is assigned a unique address for accessing. The distance among stations
ranges from few meters to thousands of kilometers.
S S
S
S
Physical Network
S
S
S
S
(2) Metropolitan networks: The distance ranges from few kilometers to few hundred
kilometers.
(3) Wide Area Networks: The distance is in thousands of kilometers and the network
is spread over number of cities and even countries.
Applications of Data Communication Networks:
These networks have numerous applications. Some of them are listed below:
(1) Distributed Computing
(2) e-mail
(3) e-governance
(4) e-commerce
(5) Net banking
(6) On-line education
(7) Tele-Education
(8) Tele-medicine
(9) on-line shairing of information and multi media contant.
(10) Video on demand, Voice over Internet (VOI)
(11) Telecommuting which allows the employees to perform office work at home by
remote login.
(12) On-line collaboration on projects.
(13) Teleconferencing which allows people to share information without meeting at
common place.
(14) Disaster warning and management.
(15) Data base management system.
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data link Layer
Physical Layer
Application Layer ……………………………………. Application Layer
…………………………………….
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Physical Layer . Physical Layer
Station A Station B
Fig. 3: Information Flow Path between Layers
Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with the transmission and reception of unstructured
binary bit stream over physical medium. It covers the physical interface between the
devices and rules by which data are passed from one station to another. The layer has
following four important properties:
• Mechanical: It specifies the physical properties of the interface i.e. the pluggable
connector to a transmission medium. The connector joins number of signals
wires, called circuits.
• Electrical: It specifies the electrical characterstics by which data bits are
represented such as voltage levels, circuit impedances, signal format and also
the transmission bit rate.
• Functional: It specifies the different functions which are performed by individual
circuits of the physical interface between a system and the transmission medium.
• Procedural: It elaborates sequence of events by which data bits are exchanged
between two communicating stations over the physical medium.
Examples of physical standards at this layer are EIA-232F, wireless standards
and LAN standards.
A basic data communication link between two stations is shown in following fig.
Station A Station B
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is the user equipment which is connected to data
communication network. It may be a simple PC to a large computer system.
In physical layer the main concern is about transmission of raw data bits on a physical
link. In actual systems much more is needed to control and manage the information
exchange over the physical medium. A layer of logic is required over the physical
interface to achieve the necessary control. This logic has been given the name Data link
control protocol and the transmission medium between systems is called as Data Link.
Various requirements for effective data communication between two stations are;
Frame Synchronization: A station sends data in block or frames. The frame boundries
must be marked for proper identification.
Flow Control: The sending station must transmit frames at the rate which is either
equal or less than the rate the receiving station can sink them.
Error Control: When data bit stream are transmitted over a physical medium,
discrepancies occur in the data bits called errors. These errors have to be controlled or
corrected.
Addresssing: On a multipoint link the identity of the two communication stations
involved on information exchange must be specified.
Control and Data on Same Link: control information and data is sent on the same
physical link. Accordingly the receiver must be able to distinguish between the two types
of informations.
Link management: The initiation, maintenance and termination of a connection
requires a good amount of co-ordination and co-operation among communication
stations. Well defined procedures for management of this are required.
The above requirements are not met by physical layer. All these requirements are
incorporated in the data link layer.
Network Layer:
The basic function of network layer is to provide the transfer of information between the
stations across some type of communication network such as circuit switched, packet
switched network.
The higher layers are not involved in this task.
This layer specifies the destination address of the other system and also requests for
certain network facilities like priority.
There are three possible connections
Case I: Two stations are connected by direct point-to point communication link. The
network layer has minimal job in this case.
Case II: Two communicating stations are connected to same network.The lower three
layers are responsible for communicating with the network. The messages or packets
may pass through number of intermediate stations called network nodes before being
delivered to the destination station. The network nodes implement the lower three layers
of the architecture for the purpose. At each intermediate node there are two data link
layers and two physical layers. Each data link and Physical layer operates
independently to provise service to network layer.
A B
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Case III: The two stations may be connected o different networks, which are connected
directly or indirectly. In this case network layer has to implement internetworking
facilities to establish connection and reliable information exchange.
Transport Layer:
• The transport layer provides a mechanism for the exchange of data between two
end users.
• The transport layer is also concerned with optimizing the use of network
resources and services.
• The objective of the transport layer is to provide all the functiond and protocols
needed to satisfy a quality of service requested by user application. The
parameters used to express quality of service are throughput, delay, residual
error rate, delay time in establishing a connection, cost, security and priority.
• Following five protocol options exist at the transport layer
(i) Routing information protocol:
This is used to update the routing information at each station. This
information is needed to facilitate the communication with other stations.
(ii) Error protocol:
This protocol is used to report the errors by sending standard error
messages to the information source.
(iii) Echo protocol:
Special packets are transmitted over the network, which are echoed by
other stations.
These verify that the other nodes are operating correctly.
This feature is useful for performing network diagnostics.
(iv) Packet exchange protocol:
This protocol is used for a simple request/reply transactions.
(v) Sequenced-packet protocol:
This protocol allows the users to transmit many packets in sequential
order before requesting for a response. This facilities high speed data
transfer.
Session Layer:
The lowest four layers of OSI model provide the means for reliable communication and
also provide various options for quality of service.
The session layer is the user interface with the network.
The session layer allows the two presentation entities to establish, use and terminate
the connection, which is called session. It includes following functions
(i) Manages the dialog in an orderly manner and decides whose turn it is to
transmit and for how much time a user can have line.
(ii) Determines whether the communication in full duplex, half-duplex or simplex.
(iii) It establishes data synchronization checkpoints in the data flow to permit
backup and recovery from errors and failures. When ever a transport layer
connection is broken, the session layer automatically sets up a new
connection, resynchronizes both end of the connection and resumes dialog
from the last valid check point.
(iv) It provides functions for address mapping. This helps the remote users to
identify themselves.
(v) The session layer can also provide for ordering of message packets when the
transport layer does not.
Presentation Layer:
This layer performs functions of general nature which give the user a variety of services,
User has the choice of either using these services or not. These functions are
performed by user by calling library routines. Some important functions of presentation
layer are
Application Layer:
This is the top layer which contains application protocols with which user gains access
to the network.
Application Application
process 1 process 2
(i) Allow users to acess the network resources and associate them with the
right application.
(ii) Transfer files, messages and documents electronically.
(iii) Standardize database and operating system command language.
(iv) Ensures that users transmit functions like carriage return, line feeds, tabs
and subscripts in a commonly understood format.