TOPIC 2

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM,

PERIODIC TABLE
AND
PERIODICITY
COMPILED BY :
DR. FATIMAH SALIM
RAIHANA MOHD YUSOF
 CONTENT

2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS
2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.5 PERIODICITY
 2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

• state the postulate of the Bohr’s atomic model of
hydrogen.
• state the weaknesses in Bohr’s atomic model
 2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

• Bohr proposed a Planetary Model with the theory that electrons

revolve around nucleus.

• Bohr developed a Hydrogen Atom model explaining how the

structure of the atom changes when it undergoes energy
transitions.

• Bohr’s major idea is the energy of the atom was quantized

(definite amount), and amount of this energy is related to its
electron’s position.

• Bohr suggested that the electrons could only orbit the nucleus Planetary model
in specific orbits or shells with a fixed radius.
Emission spectrum of Hydrogen

Bohr’s experiment:
When an electric current is passed through a glass tube that contains
hydrogen gas, the tube gives off blue light. The light is passed through a
prism and split into four narrow bands of bright light.
An electron absorb energy in the form of photons to get excited (excited
state) to a higher energy level as long as the photon's energy was equal
to the energy difference between the initial and final energy levels.
The excited electron would be in a less stable position, so it would
quickly emit a photon to relax back to a lower, more stable energy level
(ground state).
 2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

The Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom (Postulates)

1. The H atom has only certain energy levels. The electron in H atom revolves
around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbits that has certain energy levels
(quantized) called stationary (n = 1, 2, 3 etc). The higher the energy level,
the further the orbit from the nucleus.
2. The atom does not change energy while the electron moves within an orbit.
3. The energy of atom changes when the electron moves to another orbit only
by absorbing or emitting photon. The energy of the photon equals the
difference between the two levels.
Ephoton = Eatom = Efinal – Einitial = hv
 2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

Electron Transition

Electrons in the first When H atom absorbs At excited state electron is

orbit (n=1), it closest energy, the electron jumps unstable. The electron
to the nucleus and to a higher energy level returns to the ground state
the H atom is in its (excited state). by emitting
lowest energy level, energy/photons in the
called the ground form of electromagnetic
state. radiation.
 2.1 THE BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

The Weakness in Bohr’s Atomic Model

• Could only explain the spectrum of hydrogen or any ions

that contain only one electron such as He+ or Li2+.
• Could not predict the energy levels & spectra of most
atoms/ions having more than one electron.
• The modern quantum mechanics retains Bohr’s concept of
discrete energy states and energy involved during the
transition of electron but totally reject the circular orbits
he introduced.
CHECKPOINT 1

QUESTION 1

State the postulate of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.

 2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to:

• state de Broglie’s postulate and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to

explain properties of electron.

• state all the four quantum numbers of an electron in an orbital.

 2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
2.2.1 THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRON

Schrödinger
equation
(1926)
Electrons position
De Broglie’s Heisenberg’s (coordinate) in atom
Postulate (1924) Uncertainty
Electron’s dual Principle (1925)
properties It is impossible to
If light wave can know exactly both
behave like a stream the momentum and
of particles the position of any
(photons), then moving particle at
perhaps particles the same instant of
(electron) can time.
possess wave
properties
 2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

2.2.1 The Properties of Electron

• Electron has dual nature properties :

 particle-like
 wave-like light

• Electron exhibit the properties of light:

 Electron carries energy.
 The energy depends on its frequency and
intensity.
 Electrons come in ‘packets’ or ‘bundles’, called
photons

The electrons (particles with mass)

experiences diffraction when passed
through narrow slit. It shows electron
behave like a wave
CHECKPOINT 2

QUESTION 1
State de Broglie’s hypothesis.
 2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

2.2.2 Quantization & Quantum Number

• Schrödinger equation generates a wavefunction that describes how the

electrons are distributed in space.

• A one-electron wavefunction is called an orbital.

• An orbital is a region in space outside the nucleus where there is a high

probability (>90%) of finding an electron.
 2.2 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

2.2.2 Quantization & Quantum Number

• Electrons in an atom are NOT all located at the same distance from nucleus.

• The quantum mechanic model describes the energy levels of the electron in
orbitals.

• The electrons located in specified space from nucleus which its energy limited
to discrete values. Each electron is characterised with a set of quantum
numbers:
 Principal quantum number (n)
 Angular momentum quantum number (l)
 Magnetic quantum number (ml)
 Electron spin quantum number (ms)
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Principal Quantum Number, n:

• Principal energy level of a specific electron also known as shell – distance of

electron from nucleus. Shell is identified by the letters K,L,M,N,O….

• The principal quantum number must be a positive integer (n = 1,2,3…)

Principal quantum 1 2 3 4 5
number, n
Letter designation K L M N O

• n is correlated with orbital size.

• As n increases, the energy of the electron in the orbital increases, the size
of orbital increase.
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER
Principal Quantum Number, n

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….

n=1 n=2 n=3

 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Angular momentum quantum number, l :

• The angular momentum quantum number determine the shape of orbitals
• Orbitals with the same value of n may have different shapes which are
designated as below.

Value of l 0 1 2 3
Orbital designation s p d f

• The angular momentum quantum number divides the shells into subshells.
• The value of l from zero to (n – 1) (positive integer).
• The higher value of l, the higher its energy level. Thus, s < p < d < f
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l

Shell n l (n – 1) subshells
K 1 0 1s
L 2 0, 1 2s, 2p
M 3 0, 1, 2 3s, 3p, 3d
N 4 0, 1, 2, 3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER
Magnetic quantum number, ml:
• Magnetic quantum number determines the orientation of orbitals
• Represent the number of orbital diagram to be drawn in a respective subshell.
• The value correlates with the number of preferred axes (x, y, z) in a particular
orbital.
• Can be any positive and negative integers between: - l to + l
ml = 0,± 1,± 2… (there are 2l + 1 possible values for ml).
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Correlation between l (orbital shape) and ml (electron’s orientation)

l = 0 (s orbital)

orbital shape (sphere)

ml = 0

1 orbital
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Correlation between l (orbital shape) and ml (electron’s orientation)

l = 1 (p orbitals) (dumbbell)

ml = -1, 0, +1 (3 orbitals)

px py pz
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Correlation between l (orbital shape) and ml (electron’s orientation)

l = 2 (d orbitals) (cloverleaf)

ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 (5 orbitals)

dxy dyz dxz dx2-y2 dz2

 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER
Magnetic Quantum Number, l
Value of l Value of ml
0 0
1 -1, 0, +1
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
Type of subshells No of orbital
s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7

• An orbital can hold up to two electrons. No. of electron in each energy

level can be determined by:
Example n = 2
l=1
ml = -1, 0, +1 = 3 orbitals
thus 3 orbital x 2e- = 6e-
l=0
ml = 0 = 1 orbital
thus 1 orbital x 2e- = 2e-

Therefore, n = 2
The total number of orbitals are 4
Number of electrons = 4 x 2e- = 8e-
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Electron spin quantum number ms:

 All electrons have a property called spin.
 An electron can spin on its own axis in one of two ways
(clockwise or anticlockwise) in a magnetic field.
 Withinorbital electron must have spin opposite spins
and two possible values:

Therefore, each electron has identical n, l, ml and ms

 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

• The quantum numbers’ restrictions and value range.

Quantum Restrictions Range

numbers
n Positive integers 1, 2, …..
l Positive integers less than n 0, 1, … (n-1)
ml Integers between –l and +l –l, …, -1, 0, +1, …, +l
ms -½ or +½ -½ , +½
 2.2.2 QUANTIZATION & QUANTUM NUMBER

Summary
n l ml Type of No. of Total no.
orbital electrons of
electron
n=1 0 0 1s 2 2

n=2 0 0 2s 2 8
1 -1, 0, +1 2p 6
n=3 0 0 3s 2
1 -1, 0, +1 3p 6 18
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 3d 10

n=4 0 0 4s 2
1 -1, 0, +1 4p 6
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 4d 10 32
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 4f 14
Atomic Wave Model Vs Bohr Model
CHECKPOINT 3

QUESTION 1

Determine the total number of orbital associated with the principal quantum
number n = 3.
CHECKPOINT 4

QUESTION 1

Write the four set of quantum numbers for each electron in a 3p subshell.
CHECKPOINT 5

QUESTION 1

List the values of n, l, and ml in the 3d subshell.

CHECKPOINT 6

QUESTION 1

Identify the maximum number of electrons that can be occupied in the principal
level for n = 3.
 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

• explain the shape of orbitals in terms of electron distribution.

• sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals.

 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

Electron distributions in Orbital :

• Distribution of electrons can be described using electron density.

• The density of electrons are delocalised forming orbitals.

• A collection of orbitals contributing to the overall size and ‘shape’ of an atom.

 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

Representation of Orbital:
• Orbital depiction provide maps of how electrons
are distributed in space.
• Example of electrons density depiction
 (a): electron distribution plot in 1s and 2s
orbitals as a 2 D graph.
 (b): 3 D nature of the1s and 2s orbital.
 (c): simplified orbital surface.
 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

• The quantum number that determines the shape of

an orbital is the l (angular).
• Each value of l is called by a particular letter that
designates the shape of the orbital
s orbitals - spherical
p orbitals - like two balloons tied at the knots
d orbitals - mainly like four balloons tied at the knot
 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

l = 0, the s orbital

• Each principal energy level has one s

orbital
• Lowest energy orbital in a principal
energy state
• Spherical in shape
• As n increases, the s-orbitals get larger.
 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

l = 1, p orbitals
• Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p orbitals which points
along a different axis;

 px, py, pz

• 2nd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state

• Two-lobed in shape
 2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS

2.3.1 Shape of Orbitals

l = 2, d orbitals

• Principal energy level where n = 3 or greater has five d orbitals which are aligned
in a different plane
 dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2 – y2, dz2

• Mainly four-lobed in shape (one is two-lobed with a donut-shaped ring along the
xy plane)
CHECKPOINT 8

QUESTION 1

Draw the following orbitals

a) 2s and 3s
b) 2px and 3px
c) 2py and 2pz

Your sketch should show the differences between these orbitals in terms
of size, shape and orientation.
 2.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

Learning Objectives
Students should be able to:

• apply the Aufbau Principle to explain the electronic configuration of atoms.

• apply Hund’s rule and Pauli Exclusion Principle to explain how electrons
fill in the orbitals in the ground state of an atom.

• write the electronic configuration of atoms or ions given the proton number
(and charge).

• determine the number of valence electrons for elements and their position
(group, period and block) in the Periodic Table given their electronic
configuration.
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons in the orbitals of an atom.

number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell
principal quantum
1s1
number n angular momentum
quantum number ℓ
Electron configuration by spdf notation/sublevels notation

H
1s
Electron configuration by Orbital diagram
 2.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

2.4.1 The Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Order Of Orbital Fillings
• Aufbau states, the electrons occupy orbital in the
order of increasing energy levels. The electron
must fills orbital starting with 1s as shown by the
diagram.

• Arrows are drawn through the diagonals, looping 1s

back to the next diagonal each time
2s 2p
• The order is :
3s 3p 3d
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s
4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d 6f
 2.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

2.4.1 The Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Order Of Orbital Fillings

• Energies of sublevels increase as n

increases (1 < 2 < 3, etc.) and as l
increases (s < p < d < f).

• As n increases, some sublevels

overlap.
CHECKPOINT 9

QUESTION 1

Write the full electron configurations for

(a) Sulfur (S), Z=16

(b) Calcium (Ca), Z=20

 2.4 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

2.4.1 The Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Order Of Orbital Fillings
• Hund’s rule: A set of orbitals of the same energy level (degenerate orbital),
the electron occupy the orbital singly with parallel spin before they occupy in
pair.
• An atom tends to have as many unpaired electrons as possible (same
charge repel).
• The most stable arrangement of the electrons in orbital is the one with the
greatest number of parallel spin.
• Example: Nitrogen (Z= 7)
Allowed Not allowed

1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
The p orbitals are half-filled; there are three
electrons and three p orbitals
2.4.1 The Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Order of Orbital Fillings
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

2.4.1 The Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle and
Order of Orbital Fillings

• Pauli’s Exclusion states, each orbital should contain a maximum of 2

electrons, which must have opposite spins.
• NO two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers
(n, l, ml, ms)

He (Z = 2) 1s2
Only (c) is acceptable
(a) 1s (b) 1s (c) 1s

• Electrons in (a) and (b) are both having the same set of quantum number are not
acceptable!!
EXAMPLE

Write the electron configuration for Nitrogen (Z=7) and draw its orbital
diagram.

SOLUTION

1s2 2s2 2p3 electron configuration

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ orbital diagram
1s 2s 2p
CHECKPOINT 10

QUESTION 1
An oxygen atom has a total of eight electrons. Write the four quantum
numbers for each of the eight electrons in the ground state.
CHECKPOINT 11

QUESTION 1
Write a set of quantum numbers for the third electron and the eighth electron
of Fluorine atom (Z = 9)
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

A full electron configuration shows all energy sublevels being filled.

Al (Z = 13) 1s22s22p63s23p1

A partial electron configuration shows only the highest energy sublevels being
filled (valence electrons).

Al (Z = 13) 3s23p1

A condensed electron configuration has the element symbol of the

previous noble gas in square brackets.
Al (Z = 13) [Ne]3s23p1

For this element the 3 valence electrons is located in 3s and 3p orbitals

 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

A full orbital diagram for Al (Z=13)

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

A partial orbital diagram for Al (Z=13)

3s 3p

A condensed orbital diagram for Al (Z=13)

[Ne]
3s 3p
CHECKPOINT 12

QUESTION 1
Write the full and condensed electron configurations, and partial orbital diagrams
for the following elements:
(a) Magnesium (Mg; Z = 12) (b) Phosphorus (P; Z = 15)
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Classification Of Electrons

• The electrons in the sublevels with the

highest energy shell are called valence
electrons.
• Electrons in lower energy shells are called
core/inner electrons.
• One of the most important factors in the way
an atom behaves (chemically and physically),
is the number of valence electrons.
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

P = 15 electrons there are 10 core electrons

1s22s22p63s23p3 and 5 valence electrons
[Ne]3s23p3

Ca = 20 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p64s2 there are 18 core electrons
[Ar] 4s2 and 2 valence electrons

Mn = 25 electrons (Transition Element)

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 there are 18 core
[Ar] 4s23d5 electrons and 7 valence
electrons
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Transition Elements
• The highest principal energy level is one less than the Period number.
• Sometimes an s electron is “promoted” to d sublevel.
• This is due to the orbitals overlapping resulting in smaller energy difference.

Scandium, Sc
Z = 21, Period 4, Group 3
[Ar]4s23d1 4s 3d
2.4.2 Electron Configurations Of Atoms & Ions

Transition Elements (Based On Periodic Table)

• The highest principal energy level is one less than the Period number.
2.4.2 Electron Configurations Of Atoms & Ions

Transition Elements (Based On Periodic Table)

1 18
2 13 14 15 16 17
1
2
3 Ar

4 4s2 As
5 3d10 4p3
6
7

As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
As has fifteen valence
electrons
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

• 4s sublevel lower in
energy than the 3d;
and therefore the 4s
fills before the 3d.
 But
the difference in
energy is not large.
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Anomalous

Some of the transition metals have irregular electron configurations in which the
ns only partially fills before the (n−1)d or doesn’t fill at all.
These electron configuration has extra stability associated with half-filled or
completely filled subshell.

Expected Half-filled or full

subshells

Cr = [Ar]4s23d4 Cr = [Ar]4s13d5

Cu = [Ar]4s23d9 Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
Partial Orbital Diagrams and Condensed Electron Configurations for the
Elements in Period 3.
Atomic no Elements Partial Orbital Full Electron Condensed
Diagram Configuration Electron
Configuration
3s 3p
11 Na 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1

12 Mg 1s22s22p63s2 [Ne]3s2

13 Al 1s22s22p63s23p1 [Ne]3s23p1

14 Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 [Ne]3s23p2

15 P 1s22s22p63s23p3 [Ne]3s23p3

16 S 1s22s22p63s23p4 [Ne]3s23p4

17 Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5 [Ne]3s23p5

18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6 [Ne]3s23p6
*Colored type indicates the sublevel to which the last electron is added.
Partial Orbital Diagrams and Condensed Electron Configurations for the
Elements in Period 4.
Partial Orbital Condensed Electron
Atomic no Elements Diagram Configuration

3s 3d
19 K [Ar]4s1

20 Ca [Ar]4s2

21 Sc [Ar]4s23d1

22 Ti [Ar]4s23d2

23 V [Ar]4s23d3

24 Cr [Ar]4s13d5

25 Mn [Ar]4s23d6
CHECKPOINT 13

QUESTION 1
Give the full electron configurations, and partial orbital diagrams for the
transition elements:

(a) Titanium (b) Chromium (c) Copper

(Ti; Z = 22) (Cr; Z = 24) (Cu; Z = 29)
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

• Many metals and nonmetals formed ion where the charge is predictable based
on its position in the Periodic Table
Group 1 = 1+,
Group 2 = 2+,
Group 16 = 2−,
Group 17 = 1−,
• Their ions’ electron configuration will be similar to the nearest noble gas
configuration.
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Representative Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne] Cation: atoms lose electrons to

Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] achieve an outer electron
Al [Ne]3s23p1 configuration as the previous noble-
Al3+ [Ne]
gas.

Anion: atoms gain electrons to H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

achieve an outer electron F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
configuration as the next noble- O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
gas.
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Representative elements whose ions have noble gas electron configurations.
Cations and Anions of Representative Elements
1+

2+

1-
2-
3-
3+
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Anions

 Halogens (Group 17) tend to gain an electron and attain the

electron configuration of the next noble gas (forming an anion with
charge 1−).
 Chalcogen (Group 16) tend to gain two electrons and attain the
electron configuration of the next noble gas (forming an anion with
charge 2−).

 Example:

F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] Halogens

O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] Chalcogen

 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Cation
 Alkaline
metals (Group 1) and Alkaline earth metals (Group 2) tend to lose one
and two electrons respectively and attain the electron configuration of the
previous noble gas (forming cations with charge 1+ and 2+).
Example:
Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]
Mg [Ne]3s2 Mg2+ [Ne]

 Transition
metals - Electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital,
followed by the (n – 1)d orbitals.
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms & Ions

Cation (Transition metals)

• Example: Iron atom has two electrons in 4s orbital
Fe atom = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 [Ar]
4s 3d

• When iron forms a cation, it first loses its valence electrons from 4s orbital
Fe2+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6 [Ar]
4s 3d
• It can then lose 3d electrons
[Ar]
Fe3+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
4s 3d

Therefore, Fe3+ ion is more stable than Fe2+ ion.

CHECKPOINT 14

QUESTION 1
Write the condensed electron configurations of the following transition metal
ions.
(a) Mn2+(Z = 25) (b) Cr3+(Z = 24)

QUESTION 2
Write the condensed electron configurations of the following transition metal
ions.
(a) S2- (Z = 16) (b) Ca2+ (Z = 20)
 2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.3 Classification of Elements into s, p, d, f in the Periodic Table

The order in which the orbitals are filled can be obtained directly from the
periodic table.
CHECKPOINT 15

QUESTION 1
An atom X, has 15 electrons. Without consulting a periodic table, answer the
following questions:

(a) Write the full electron configuration of atom X.

(b) Identify the position of X in the Periodic Table.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

• explain the trend of atomic and ionic radii across the period and down a
group based on effective nuclear charge and shielding effect.

• explain the variation in the radius of isoelectronic species based on

nuclear charge.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

• Periodicity is a regular repeating patterns related to the atoms’ valence electrons

that occur among elements.

• It organize the elements effectively, especially those who are newly discovered.

• These patterns are responsible in defining the elements in a group with similar
physical and chemical properties.

• The periodic table is organized into: Horizontal rows called periods and the
Vertical columns called groups.
 The Period number corresponds to the principal energy level of the valence
electrons.
 The Group number corresponds to the number of valence electrons.
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii
Atomic radius of an element is the distance between atomic nuclei in a sample
and divide that distance in half.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟐 The atomic radius is half of the experimentally
determined distance between the nuclei of
nearest neighbours in the solids.
Eg: Copper atom

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
The covalent radius of a non metallic element is
𝟐
half of the experimentally determined distance
between the nuclei of nearest neighbours in
the molecule.
Eg: Cl2
r+
The ionic radius of an element is the
distance between the nuclei of
neighbouring cations and anions. Eg: HCl
r-
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Trend in Atomic Radii

• Atomic radii of the representative elements decrease across the period.
 a steady increase in the Zeff across the period which causes the valence
electrons to be held more strongly by the nucleus.
• Atomic radii increase from down the group.
 principal quantum number, n, of the valence electrons increases down a group
(increase the number of shell) which causes the outer electrons to be pushed
further away from the nucleus (shielding effect).
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

• The total amount of attraction (positive charge) experience by an electron

especially the valence electrons towards the nucleus .
 Zeff can be approximated by the equation:

Zeff  Z – S

Where;

Z is the actual nuclear charge (proton number), and

S is the number of inner electrons (shielding constant)
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Across the Period, atomic radius decreases due to increasing in Zeff.
Increasing attraction between the nucleus and valence electrons causing atomic
size decreases.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Shielding Effect
• Shielding effect describes the attraction
between an electron and the nucleus in
any atom that exhibit more than one
electron shell.

• The inner electrons shield/repel the

valence electrons away from the nucleus.

• Repulsive forces between electrons in

repulsion
different sublevels are stronger than that
between electrons in the same sublevel.

• The more electron shells there are, the

greater the shielding effect experienced
by the outermost electrons.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

General Trends in Atomic Radii in Periodic Table
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii
Trends in Atomic Radii vs Atomic Number
CHECKPOINT 16

QUESTION 1
Write the electronic configuration of oxygen and fluorine. Which of these two
elements has a larger atom?
CHECKPOINT 17

QUESTION 1
Using only the general trends in Periodic Table, rank each set of main-group
elements in order of decreasing atomic size:

(a) Ca, Mg, Be (b) K, P, Ca (c) Be, Ca, N

 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii

Cation Anion
• The valence electrons are removed. • The new electrons are added into the
valence shell.

• The rest of the electrons will be • Repulsion between the added

attracted more strongly and closer to electrons and the existing electrons in
the nucleus. the valence shell causes the valence
 Cations are smaller than their parent electron being pushed further away
atoms from the nucleus.
 Anions are larger than their parent
atoms
• The cation valence electrons
experience a larger Zeff than the
valence electrons of its atom,
shrinking the ion even more.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii (Isoelectronic)

Isoelectronic: chemical species having the same number of electrons, and

hence the same ground-state electron configuration

Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne
 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii (Isoelectronic)

Cation Anion
• Down a group, increases the n • Down a group, increases the n
level, causing the cations to get level, causing the anions to get
larger. larger .

• Across a period, increases the Zeff • Across a period, increases the Zeff
for isoelectronic cations, causing for isoelectronic anions, causing
the cations to get smaller. the anions to get smaller.
Example: Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ Example: N3– > O2– >F–

Cation & anion radii comparison in isoelectronic series

N3- > O2- > F- > Ne > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
The Radii of Cation & Anion in Isoelectronic Species
CHECKPOINT 18

QUESTION 1
Rank each set of ions in order of decreasing size, and explain
your ranking:
(a) Ca2+, Be2+, Mg2+ (b) K+, S2−, Cl−
CHECKPOINT 19

QUESTION 1
For each of the following pairs, explain why one of the two species is larger:
a) N3− or F- b) Mg2+ or Ca2+ c) Fe2+ or Fe3+
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)

Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

• define first and successive ionization energies.

• explain the trend of first ionization energy across a period and down a group
in the Periodic Table

• explain the factors affecting ionization energies.

• explain the anomalous in ionization energy of group 2 and 13, and group 15
and 16.

• predict the electronic configuration and position of unknown elements in the

Periodic Table from successive values of ionization energies.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)
• IE is the minimum energy required to remove 1 mol electron from 1 mol of
atom/ion in the gaseous state.

• The greater the ionization energy of an atom, the higher the atom tendency to
retain its electrons.

Factors affecting IE

Atomic radii

Effective
Shielding
nuclear
effect
charge
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)
First ionization energy

• The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove one
mole of electrons in a valence shell from one mole of gaseous atom in its ground
state.

M (g) → M+ (g) + 1e (g) ∆H = First ionization energy

 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE) – Trend in IE
Summary of the First Ionization Energy vs Atomic number of Representative
Elements
Filled n=1 shell

Filled n=2 shell

1st IE (kJ/mol)

Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell

Atomic No of Elements
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE) – Trend in IE

 IE generally increase going across the period.

As the atomic radii decrease and Zeff increase across a period, the outer
electrons are more tightly held to the nucleus and higher IE have to be supplied
to remove the first electron.

 IE decrease with elements moving down a group.

As the atomic radii of the elements within a group increase from top to bottom,
the average distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus increase
(shielding) resulting in weaker nucleus-valence electron attraction.

Note:
 Atoms with a low IE tend to form cations.
 Atoms with a high IE tend to form anions because they are difficult to ionize
(except the noble gases).
 Trends in Ionization Energy (Generally)

Increasing 1st Ionization Energy

Increasing 1st Ionization Energy
CHECKPOINT 20

QUESTION 1
Using the periodic table only, rank the elements in each of the following sets in
order of decreasing IE1:
(a) Ne, He, Ar (b) Al, Si, P
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)
Anomalies in the First IE Trends

 The increase in the 1st IE across a period is NOT uniform.

 Two anomalies occur in Period 2 (Be, B, N & O) and Period 3 (Mg, Al,
P & S). They belong to groups 2 to 13 and groups 15 to 16.

 B and Al (Group 13) with smaller atomic radius are expected to have
higher IE than Be and Mg (Group 2), respectively, but the reverse
occurs.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)

Anomalies in the First IE Trends

• The first IE of B is lower than Be due to:

• the electron in B is being removed from a higher energy 2p orbital or partially
filled 2p orbital
• the electron experience a greater shielding effect.

Be   Be+  
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

   B+  
B
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
• Be has higher first IE than B due to:
• The electron in Be is being removed from a fully filled 2s orbital.
• Fully filled configuration is more stable.

Note: Similar phenomena in first IE is also observed between Al and Mg in Period 3.

 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)
Anomalies in the First IE Trends
• The first IE of N is higher than O due to:
• the electron in N is being removed from a half-filled 2p orbital, giving more
stability on the electrons, hence more energy (IE) will be required to remove
one of them.

• O has lower first IE than N due to:

• the electron in O is being removed from a partially filled 2p orbital.
• there are 2 electrons in the same 2p orbital, thus experience greater
repulsion making the electron easier to be removed.
Note: Similar phenomena in IE was observed between P and S in Period 3.
CHECKPOINT 21

QUESTION 1

The first ionization energies of elements with consecutive atomic numbers

below 20 are shown in following table.

Element P Q R S T U V W X
First y 520 900 800 1090 1400 1314 1680 2080
Ionization
Energy
(kJ/mol)

a) Plot a graph of first ionization energy against element.

b) Explain why there are hiccups on the first ionization energy between
element R and S and between element U and V.
c) Predict the first ionization energy of element P as compared to Q.
CHECKPOINT 22

QUESTION 1
Predict which element will have the higher first ionization energy in the
following pair given. Explain your answer.

(a) Si and P (b) N and O (c) B and Be

ANSWER
a) P has higher effective nuclear charge (Zeff) than Si, thus requires more energy
to be ionized.

b) The electron in N is being removed from a half-filled 2p orbital, giving more

stability on the electrons, hence more energy (IE) will be required to remove o
ne of them.

c) Be has higher first IE than B due to the electron in Be is being removed from a
fully filled 2s orbital. The fully filled configuration is more stable, thus requires
more energy.
CHECKPOINT 23

QUESTION 1
2500
D
2000

First ionization energy

C
1500
A

1000
B

500
E
0
A B C D E F G H I J
Element
The graph shows the trend of the first ionization energies of some
elements in Period 2 and 3 with consecutive atomic numbers below 20.
Choose one element that
a) has the tendency to form anion with charge -1.
b) is an atom with half-filled p electrons.
c) is very unreactive.
d) has anomaly in its first ionization energy.
e) is a member of Group 13
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)

Successive ionization energy

Example:
X (g) → X+(g) + e- IE1 first ionization energy
X+(g) → X2+(g) + e- IE2 second ionization energy
X2+(g) → X3+(g) + e- IE3 third ionization energy

IE1 < IE2 < IE3

 A positive ion will be formed once the first electron is removed.

 Removing the second electron from a positive ion is more difficult due to the
greater attraction between the electron to be removed and the nucleus.

 The removal of the third and the successive electrons will become much
more difficult progressively.
 2.5 PERIODICITY

Successive Ionization Energies of the Elements Lithium Through Sodium

 2.5 PERIODICITY

2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)

Successive Ionization Energy

Successive IE can be used to obtain clues to deduce the electronic

configuration of an element.

• A sudden increase in the amount of IE to remove an electron suggests

that the electron must come from a stable orbital (full or half full orbital).
• Thus, the total valence electrons can be predicted.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.2 Ionization Energy (IE)

Successive ionization energy

The first three ionization

energies of beryllium.
Example:
 A huge difference between IE2 and IE3,
indicating that this element has 2
valence electrons, therefore it is from
Group 2.
 The third IE is high because the
electron is removed from the inner
shell.
 Electrons from inner shell experience
greater effective nuclear charge (Zeff) .

Beryllium has 2 valence electrons, so

IE3 is much larger than IE2.
CHECKPOINT 23

QUESTION 1
Name the Period 3 element with the following ionization energies (in kJ/mol) and
write its electron configuration:

IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6

1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230

ANSWER
The largest increase occurs after IE5, that is, after the 5th valence electron has been
removed. The Period 3 element with 5 valence electrons is phosphorus (P; Z = 15).
The complete electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p3.
CHECKPOINT 24

QUESTION 1
a) Justify which atom between oxygen and sulfur should have a smaller first
ionization energy.
b) Justify which atom should have a higher second ionization energy: lithium or
beryllium.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity

Learning Objectives

Students should be able to:

• define the electron affinity and explain the trend in electron affinity of group
2, 15 and 18.

• explain the trend of electronegativity across a Period and down a Group in

the Periodic Table.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity

• EA is the energy change (ΔH) that occurs when 1 mol of electron is

accepted by 1 mol of atom in its gaseous state to form an anion.

X (g) + e- X- (g)

• The more energy been released (more negative), the larger the
electron affinity (EA).

Example: F (g) + e- → F ‾ (g) ∆H = -320 kJ

Li (g) + e- → Li ‾ (g) ∆H = -61 kJ
Na (g) + e- → Na‾ (g) ∆H = -54 kJ
Ne (g) + e- → Ne‾ (g) ∆H = +29 kJ
 EA of the main-group elements.

*The elements with the Highest Electron Affinity in any period are the
Halogen
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity
• For multiple charge anions, the electrons are added stepwise with different
electron affinity for each step. Consider the formation of an oxide ion from an
oxygen atom.

O (g) + e- → O‾ (g) ∆H = -142 kJ

O‾ (g) + e- → O2- (g) ∆H = +745 kJ

• The second EA is a positive value because an electron approaches an ion with

a net charge of –1.

• The incoming electron is strongly repelled by existing electrons, so more energy

is needed to overcome the repulsive forces.

• Atoms with a low EA (more positive ΔH value) tend to form cations, atoms with
a high EA (more negative ΔH value) tend to form anions.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity

• The trends in EA are not as regular as those for atomic

size or IE.

• As the atomic radius of the element decreases, the

attractive forces of the nucleus increases, hence the
tendency to accept electrons increases. Generally, the
EA values become more negative from left to right
across a period.

• Group 15 generally lower EA than expected because

extra electron must pair in the partially filled orbital – from
stable to less stable configuration.

• The trend for Group 17 down the group generally

becomes less negative because the atomic size become
larger. Thus, less attraction between incoming electrons
and nucleus.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity

• Group 2 and 18 generally very low EA because added electron

goes into higher energy level or sublevel.

• All noble gases exist as monoatomic species because they

are very unreactive and have little or no tendency to combine
among themselves or with other elements.

• The electron configurations of the noble gases show that their

atoms have completely filled outer s and p subshells,
indicating great stability.

• Thus, group 2 and 18 EA are less negative or more positive

of all elements, and they have less tendency to accept extra
electrons (smallest electron affinity- more positive value).
CHECKPOINT 25

QUESTION 1
Write equations representing the following process.

a. The third ionization energy (IE) of Fe.

b. The electron affinity (EA) of fluorine.
c. The first ionization energy (IE) for B.
d. The electron affinity (EA) of O-.
CHECKPOINT 26

QUESTION 1
Location of the alkaline earth metals in the Periodic Table is shown below.
Explain why their electron affinities are either positive or small negative values.
 2.5 PERIODICITY
2.5.3 Electron Affinity (EA) & Electronegativity

• Electronegativity of an element is to measure the ability of an atom to attract a

bonding pair of electrons in covalent bond.

• Trends in electronegativity are similar to those for EA.

 EN value decreases down a group
As the principle quantum number (n) of the elements increases, the Zeff
decreases, hence the strength to attract electrons decreases.

 EN value increases across a period

As the atomic radius of the element decreases, Zeff increases, hence the
strength to attract electrons increases.
Electronegativity Scale
Electronegativity Values for Representative Elements

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17

Period
1 H
2.1
2 Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
CHECKPOINT 27

QUESTION 1
Consider the following elements from the Periodic Table, rank them in the order of
increasing electronegativity value.

Al, B, Ca, C, F