“...

one of the sweetest pleasures as a game designer is

seeing your game played in ways that you did not
anticipate” (Salen & Zimmerman, 2003 p. 540).

University of Utrecht
Faculty of the Humanities
Degree program: pre-MA New Media & Digital Culture

Student: Mark A. Jansen

Student ID: 3637603

Title: Making the rules: the case of Halo

Month and Year: January 2011
Supervisor: R. Glas
1. Introduction In this section the research question, the research method and the theoretical
framework will be described.
The cause for this research is my personal experience with the First-Person
Shooter (FPS) game Halo on the Xbox console platform and the specific 2.1 Research question
way it was played in a social group.
The research answers the following research question:
1.1 Introducing the research
A. What is the motivation of game players in redefining the rules?
The research concerns the rules of the game. More specifically, it is about
changing the rules. Available content on online video site YouTube The question is broken down in the following sub-questions:
demonstrates that Halo is, and has been, played in radically different ways,
probably not foreseen by the game designer. Examples are ‘Red vs. Blue’ A1. Why were the players not satisfied with the suggested game
and the so-called ‘Warthog Battles’. The research concerns one of the many rules?
ways Halo can be played. Halo’s design offers players “...custom rules for
all the basic game types.” (MobyGames, 2011). However, not all elements
A2. What was the goal of changing the rules?
of the game are adaptable nor customizable, which leads to creative
solutions.
A3. What did the process of changing the rules look like?
1.2 Framing the object
2.2 Theoretical framework
The research concerns Halo’s competitive multiplayer gameplay mode.
More specifically, the research is about the team-based Capture The Flag Here I describe the theoretical framework employed in this paper.
(CTF) gametype within a Local Area Network (LAN) context. Furthermore,
the research only considers gameplay in the map ‘Sidewinder’. 2.2.1 Participation research

1.3 Defining game concepts
The paragraphs above contain potentially intimidating terms, such as FPS,
CTF and LAN. They may seem rather exotic to the reader who is unfamiliar
with them. Basic knowledge about these concepts is required for the reader
in order to understand this paper. However, it is beyond the scope of this
paper to review these concepts extensively. Therefore, I refer the reader to
the Appendix, where I provide a short description of relevant terms.
The paper concerns participation research. More specifically, ‘games as a
social phenomenon’, after one of the chapter titles in the “Handbook of
Computer Game Studies” by Raessens & Goldstein (2005). Within ‘games
as a social phenomenon’ the concept of participatory culture and the three
domains of participation are used. These domains are interpretation,
reconfiguration and construction (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 pp. 378-
381).

2. Research Design
2.2.2 Participatory culture
Although this research mainly uses the reconfiguration domain, I provide
here a short definition of the two other domains in order to grasp the
situation of reconfiguration. Thereafter I will adress reconfiguration
separately due its prominence in this research. Raessens uses the conceptual
framework of the British tradition of cultural studies to situate the concept
of interpretation. Here, cultural texts “...are viewed as open texts that
different groups of viewer interpret differentlym, depending on social,
cultural and other contexts...” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 375)
For Raessens, construction is “...understood as the addition of new game
elements. This can exist as modifying existing games, or as in making
entirely new games. Construction can take many forms and may seem
related to reconfiguration. However, Raessens explains that “You can really
speak of construction when players work with game-mods or game patches,
editing tools and source codes.” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 381). Here,
the player adds elements to the system.
2.2.3 Reconfiguration
According to Raessens, reconfiguration can be two things. First, it “...exists
in the exploration of the unknown, in the computer game represented
worlds.” (Raessens & Goldstein, 2005 p. 380). Second, reconfiguration is
“...when a player in this process of exploration is invited to give form to
these worlds in an active way by selecting one of the many pre-
programmed possibilities in a computer game.” (Raessens & Goldstein,
2005 p. 380). The player selects objects and actions from a fixed set, as
opposed to construction which concerns adding new elements. Essentially,
this is the basis of participation, where the designer controls the fixed and
finite set. The invitee, the user, has freedom in selecting an option limited to
the spectrum, or frame, offered by the designer.
The rules of a game are part of the configuration. Next, I will offer a brief
overview of what game rules are by means of the book Rules of Play,
written by Salen and Zimmerman.
2.2.4 Rules of the game
“To play a game is to follow its rules.” (Salen and Zimmerman,2004, p.
117). However, the phenomenon of game rules is more complex than this
sentence suggests. Rules are a fixed set of abstract guidelines; the game’s
formal structure. The rules determine which actions are permitted out of all
the possible actions. “Players voluntarily submit to the game, they limit
their behaviors to the specific restrictions imposed by the game rules.”
(Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 124). In effect, the game rules handicap
the players. As soon as the players are in-game, they are inside the games’
articifial context, its magic circle. Here, all players must obey the rules to
participate. In sum, game rules limit player action and they are explicit,
fixed, binding and repeatable (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 125).
Elements of the game rules are situated on a continuum from unstated to
stated. Salen and Zimmerman describe game rules on three levels, namely;
implicit, constituative and operational rules (2004, p. 130). Implicit rules
are the unwritten rules of a game, which is essentially about proper game
behavior. The constituative rules of a game are the formal structures that
exist below the rules presented to players. The operational rules are the
guidelines players require to play. Boundaries between these levels can be
fuzzy, especially between the operational and implicit rules. Here, the
context is important in determining which rule belongs where.
So, which rules are really the true rules of the game? In other words, do the
rules as formal structures of a game have a bearing on the game’s formal
identity? (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). Implicit rules are crucial,
but are also similar from game to game. Thus, these are not of the essence.
In turn, it is “The constituative and operational rules of a game [which]
work in concert to generate the formal “meaning” of a game.” (Salen and
Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). In the end, the three levels assist in determining
a clear ruleset which relates to the actions and outcomes of meaningful play.
When rules are ambiguous, the game is destroyed and the players lose their
interest. In turn, a game needs individuals, players, for support. Without
players, there is no game. “When a game creates ambiguity, it is always
within some larger frame that is clearly articulated and shared by all
players. … Rules themselves must ultimately be unambiguous.” (Salen and
Zimmerman, 2004, p. 137).
The five interviewees were selected from the group in question, which
Conflict is an intrinsic element of every game (Salen and Zimmerman, varied in size between 12 and 16. Sampling was based on the behavior
2004, p. 250). “One core principle of conflict in games is that it is fair. variable frequency of play, i.e. the interviewees were the most frequent
Game conflict is impartial conflict: it is premised on the idea that all players players of the group.
have an equal chance at winning, that the game system is intrinsically
equitable, that the game’s contest takes place on a level playing field...” 3. Structure of argumentation
(Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 260). Such a fair game would eliminate all
extraneous variables so that the player with the most developed skills wins
Here the argumentation structure of this paper is provided.
the game. This would give what Caillois, quoted by Salen and Zimmerman,
describes as “...precise and incontestable value to the winner’s triumph.”
The paper starts with and introduction of the research, the object under
(2004, p. 260). However, in practice most games strive for, but hardly ever
study and some relevant game concepts. In addition, I will clarify the
accomplish fair play.
questions guiding this research. Hereafter comes the theoretical framework.
In the analysis I will quote the interviewees and elaborate about what, why
2.3 Research method and how the players changed the rules of the game. These answers will be
connected to the theory provided by the theoretical framework. The paper
The research concerns a case study. The research method used in this study ends with a conclusion which answers the research questions.
is qualitative fieldresearch. More specifically, participatory ethnography,
since the researcher participated in the group himself. The analysis is based 4. Value of the research
on semi-structured interviews with a sample of respondents from the group
of players. The interviews were conducted by means of VOIP (Voice Over
Halo is part of the FPS-genre which is still very popular, with recent
Internet Protocol) telephony. The answers were recorded and these form the
releases regarding the Call of Duty and Medal of Honor franchises. The
basis on which the research question is answered.
research is valuable for both academics as well as game designers, because
it provides insights into what game players demand from the rules of the
2.3.1 Group game and the opportunity to change these rules. The goal is to produce
gameplay that appeals even more to game players.
The social group varied in size between 12 and 16 males who played
together on a regular basis. In 2006 the players’ age varied from 16 to 22 4.1 Scientific value
years. In 2010, all players were either having applied sciences and/or
university degrees or actively pursuing them. IIt is important to note that the
The research provides insights into what motivates the players of the object
social ties of the group were formed a priori to playing Halo. The people
under study to change the rules of the game. In turn, this contributes to the
involved were living in the same city and going to the same high school,
body of knowledge concerning participatory media culture as well as game
some of them situated in the same class. Furthermore, there were also
rules.
familial ties within the group, with two sets of three and two people being
brothers.
4.2 Societal value
2.3.2 Sample
With new releases of violent videogames such as Halo, societal uproar
occurs often. The FPS-genre is criticised for displaying aggression and
violence. The first-person view is supposed to make things even more
intense. Although this research is not after such effects or their very
existence, it may yield insight into what gamers consider to be ‘meaningful
play’ (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004, p. 134). This means that there is more
to a game than its visible content than suggested by the debate about
aggression and violence. Games can be a social phenomenon.
5. Analysis
6. Conclusion
7. imitations of the research
The research provides in-depth insights on a relatively ‘small’ area, since it
concerns a very specific combination of peripherals, software and people.
Thus, the results might be hard to generalise, at least beyond the FPS-genre.
This is due to the unicity and specificity of the case and its situation within
the context. Although the research concerns a case study, Halo can be
considered a typical FPS game. This speaks in favor of the generalisability
of the research within the FPS-genre.
It can be argued that the participation of the researcher in the group is a
weakness, because it may cause bias (Van Gemert, 2009). Therefore, issues
such as interpretation and personal factors may lead to different results
when replicating the research. To complicate matters, replicating this type
of research is difficult in itself, due to situational circumstances.
The group in which the researcher participated played together between
2003 and 2006. At this the researcher had no intent of doing research, so he
participated on an equal basis with the other participants. Therefore, there
was no role stress of being participant and researcher at the same time.
However, this brings the potential disadvantage of ‘going native’ (Van
Gemert, 2009). Furthermore, data collection took place in 2010, about four
years after the group stopped playing on a regular basis. This period
between the events and the collection and analysis may have negative
effects, such as respondent’s diminished ability to recall events from their
memory.
8. Bibliography
8.1 Academic sources
Van Gemert, F. 2009. De rijke inzichten van participerende observatie.
Retrieved from http://www.sociologiemagazine.nl/artikel/de-rijke-
inzichten-van-participerende-observatie
Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. H. (2005). Handbook of computer game
studies. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play : Game design
fundamentals. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Wright, T., Boria, E., & Breidenbach, P. (2002). Creative Player Actions in
FPS Online Video Games: Playing Counter-Strike. Retrieved from
http://www.gamestudies.org/0202/wright/
8.2 Non-academic sources
Esemono, 2010. A bird’s eye view of Sidewinder. Retrieved from
http://halo.wikia.com/index.php?
title=Sidewinder&image=Sidewinder-jpg
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of camping. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
camping.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of camper. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-camper.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of LAN. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-lan.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of console. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-console.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of multiplayer. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
multiplayer.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of first person. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
first_person.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of FPS. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-fps.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of capture the flag. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
capture_the_flag.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of peripheral device. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
peripheral_device.htm
Gaming Dictionary, 2011. Definition of power up. Retrieved from
http://www.metaboli.co.uk/gaming-dictionary/defnition-of-
power_up.htm
Magnike2, 2011. Sidewinder. Retrieved from
http://halo.wikia.com/wiki/Sidewinder
MobyGames, 2011. Halo: Combat Evolved. Retrieved from
http://www.mobygames.com/game/xbox/halo-combat-evolved
9. Appendix
9.1 Description of game concepts in alphabetical order
Camping, Camper, Camp
Camping is the action of staying in the same place (the camp) for long
periods of time, usually in hiding, and just waiting for the enemy to come
by. A camper is usually frowned upon in the FPS community (Gaming
Dictionary, 2011).
Capture The Flag (CTF)
Capture the Flag is ”...a special mode usually found in multiplayer games,
where two teams will engage in battle and try to take the opponent's flag in
order to bring it back to their own base, while protecting their own flag.”
(Gaming Dictionary, 2011).
Console
The console is “...an entertainment system, portable or not, which lets you
play video games.” . This research concerns the Xbox console.
First Person Shooter (FPS)
A First Person Shooter is “...a game which puts you in the driver's (or killer)
seat. You will indeed be seeing all the action through the eyes of the
character you are playing...” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011). The first person
game player sees “...through the eyes of the protagonist.” (Gaming
Dictionary, 2011).
Halo: Combat Evolved
Halo is “...a first-person shooter with considerable driving elements and the
first game in the popular Halo series... Halo also has a significant
multiplayer component with …capture the flag with the unusual addition
that the flag takes your weapon spot while you are holding it, so shooting
your way in and out of the base on your own is not an option … There is
also a game editor which allows you to set custom rules for all the basic
game types. All the playable weapons and vehicles from the campaign
mode are available in the multiplayer maps with the ability for members of
the same team to share the game's distinctive Warthog vehicle, which is
essentially a small truck with a mounted gun on the back.” (MobyGames,
2011).
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN abbreviates the descriptive term Local Area Network. Such as
network connects computers in a common location (Gaming Dictionary,
2011). Here, the network consists of four Xbox consoles located in a house,
often in two rooms due to the divide of the group into two competing teams.
Map
The map is the “...game universe you are in when you play a game.”
(Gaming Dictionary, 2011). This research is limited to one specific map
called ‘Sidewinder’.
Multiplayer
This research concerns multiplayer gameplay. This means “...a video game
that can be played by a few players ... over a network, over the Internet, or
in a LAN.” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011). Halo allows a total number of 16
players to play at the same time in the map Sidewinder.
Peripherals
Peripherals are “...hardware (as opposed to software) extension ... device[s]
used in computer science, like a mouse...” (Gaming Dictionary, 2011).
Example of peripheral devices in relation to the Xbox console are the
controller, network cables and the network hub/switch.
Powerups
Powerups are “...a bonus. It is an object that you can find in the game world
and that will add itself to your original skill to boost it. … These can be
either found in the game, or by killing an enemy, or even in secret places.”
(Gaming Dictionary, 2011).
Health Pack
The health pack restores the health of the protagonist, in-game it looks
similar to a first-aid kit.
Active Camouflage
Active camouflage makes the player transparent, and therefore less easy to
see. This power up is often referred to as invisibility, although it does not
make the players completely invisible.
Over-shield
The over-shield in Halo is called shield because it protects you against
enemy attacks. The word ‘over’ designates that it is located over the health
points. The over-shield restores automatically, while the health points can
only be restored by picking up a health pack.
Sidewinder
Sidewinder is one of the 13 available multiplayer maps of the game Halo.
From a bird’s eye perspective the map resembles a horseshoe. “The main
feature of this map is the ice patches on the front of the horseshoe in
between the bases... On the outer edge of the map are two large cliffs that
are connected to each base with teleporters. ... On the inner edge, there is a
network of tunnels which lead to the opposing bases. Four power-ups can
be found in the lower section of the tunnel. There is a Sniper Rifle, two
Shotguns, Health Pack, Plasma Pistol, Pistol and an Assault Rifle inside
each base.” (Halopedia, 2011).
9.2 Interview transcripts