Ch 22 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis the process by which organic substances are made from simple inorganic substances using
light energy
- Organisms, including plants, algae and certain bacteria, captures light energy and converts it into chemical
energy which is stored as organic substances in the body

- Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts of plant cells

- Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigment of chlorophyll, which absorb light energy to drive the
synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water
- Oxygen is released as a by-product

Word equation:
light energy
carbon dioxde + water glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll

Significance of Photosynthesis

1. Providing the basic food source for most organisms

- Plants are produces in the ecosystem
- During photosynthesis, light energy from the Sun is captured and converted to chemical energy stored in the
food and body materials in plants
- Organisms depend directly or indirectly on plants for food

2. Maintaining the energy flow in ecosystem

- The chemical energy stored in the plant is transferred to organisms at higher trophic levels through feeding
- Energy is eventually lost from the ecosystem
- Photosynthesis plays an important role in maintaining the input of energy from the sun and the flow of
energy in ecosystem

3. Maintaining the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

- Organisms continuously take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide during respiration
- Human activities, such as combustion of fossil fuels, also consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
- Plants, however, take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis

Notes:

Absorption of water: Roots

Transport of water: Xylem
Loss of water: By transpiration (Evaporation of water vapour from leaves)

Transport of nutrients: Phloem (in form of sucrose)

Storage of nutrients: In form of starch
Destarching is the removal of starch from the leaves of a plant by placing the plant in the dark for a period of
time. This is done before an investigation to ensure that any starch detected at the end of the investigation
is formed during the investigation.

Done by: Putting a plant in the dark for at least 24 hours

→ Let the plant use up the starch stored in leaves

Detection of starch produced by photosynthesis [Iodine Test]

1. Boil the leaf

Purpose: Kill the leaf cell

→ soften the leaves

(allow iodine to stain on the leaves later)

2. Transfer the leaf in alcohol

Purpose: Remove chlorophyll

→ Iodine colour can be easier to observe

3. Use hot water bath, turn off Bunsen burner

Purpose: Prevent explosion ∵ alcohol is flammable

4. Dip the leaf into the hot water again

Purpose: Remove alcohol from the leaf

→ allow iodine solution to stain on the leaf

*iodine solution = non-polar solvent

alcohol = a polar solvent
5. Spread the leaf on a white tile
 Requirements of Photosynthesis

1. Light

2. Carbon dioxide

Results:
- Leaf A (Control): Changes from
brown to blue-black in iodine
test. It shows the presence of
starch

- Leaf B (Experimental set-up) :

The solution remains brown. It
shows the absence of starch
because CO2 is absorbed by
potassium hydroxide pellets

3. Chlorophyll
- Chlorophyll is the major photosynthetic pigment in plants
- It absorbs mainly red and blue-violet light, but not green light (which is why plants containing chlorophyll
appear green in colour)

4. Water
- Water is needed by plants for many metabolic reactions
- If we remove all water from a plant, it will die
- There is no simple experiment to show that water is required for photosynthesis

Detection of oxygen produced by photosynthesis

○
A Supply CO2
- Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
- Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

○
B Absorb CO2
- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)/ soda lime (NaOH + etc)
- Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

Results:

The glowing splint relights. It proves the gas released from Hydrilla
is oxygen. Photosynthesis has taken place.
 Site of Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis occurs in all green parts of a plant, where chloroplasts are present
- Leaves contain the most chloroplasts and are therefore the main photosynthetic organs in plant
- The leaf is an organ specialised for photosynthesis
- It is adapted to ○
1 bring together the three raw materials of photosynthesis: Light, carbon dioxide and water
- and to ○ 2 remove the oxygen and food produced by photosynthesis

A plant
- leaf 葉
- stem 莖
- root 根

- flower 花
- fruit 果
A. How are Leaves adapted for photosynthesis?

1. Adaptations for absorbing light energy

- ○1 The leaf blade is broad and flat. This provide a large surface area for absorbing light
- Also, ○
2 it is thin so light can reach the photosynthetic cells easily

- ○
3 Midrib and an extensive network of veins support and maintain the shape of the leaf for better absorption
of light

- ○4 The palisade mesophyll is located at the upper part of a leaf, which is exposed directly to sunlight.
- ○5 It consists of closely packed cells that contain numerous chloroplasts
- This helps maximize the amount of light absorbed for photosynthesis

2. Adaptations for exchange of gases

- ○ 1 Leaves are thin, therefore carbon dioxide in atmosphere has to diffuse only a short distance from the
lower part of the leaf to the palisade mesophyll cells
- ○ 2 The epidermis contains numerous stomata (singular: stoma), which allows the passage of gases and water
vapour into and out of the leaf
- ○ 3 Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. The guard cells open the stoma when the conditions are
favourable for photosynthesis (i.e. light is present) and close it when the condition are less favourable (i.e.
light is absent)
- ○ 4 Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed with many air spaces between them. This allows gases to
diffuse freely inside the leaf

3. Adaptations for transport of water and food substances

- The midrib and veins contain vascular bundles, which are made up of xylem and phloem
- ○1 Xylem transports water and minerals to the leaf
- ○2 Phloem transports the products of photosynthesis away from the leaf

4. Adaptations for reducing water loss

- ○1 The upper epidermis and lower epidermis of the leaf are covered by a thin layer of waxy cuticle
- This reduces water loss by evaporation from the leaf surfaces so that water is conserved for photosynthesis

- ○2 In terrestrial plants, the upper epidermis of the leaf usually contains fewer stomata than the lower
epidermis.
- This helps reduce water loss

Structure of a leaf Adaptation for photosynthesis

Leaf blade - Broad and flat - Provide a large surface area for absorbing
light
- Thin - Light and gases can reach the
photosynthetic cells easily
Palisade - Located at the upper part - Maximize absorption of light
mesophyll of a leaf
- Cells closely packed and
numerous chloroplasts

Spongy - Cells loosely packed with - Allow gases to diffuse freely inside the leaf
mesophyll a lot of air spaces
between them
 Upper and - Covered by waxy cuticle
lower - Contain numerous
epidermis stomata
- More stomata on lower
epidermis
- Each stoma surrounded
by a pair of guard cells
Midrib - Contains vascular bundles
made up of xylem and
phloem
- Branches into an
extensive network of
veins
- Reduces water loss by evaporation
- Guard cells control the opening and closing
of the stoma to regular the passage of
gases and wate vapour into and out of the
leaf
- Transports water to the leaf and products
of photosynthesis away from the leaf
- Supports and maintains the shape of the
leaf
- Ensures efficient transport of materials

B. How are Chloroplasts adapted for photosynthesis?

- Chloroplasts are organelles where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells
- Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane
- The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane gives rise to flattened membranous sacs called
thylakoids
- The pigment chlorophyll is located in the thylakoid membranes

- The interior of the chloroplast is filled with a jelly-like fluid, called stroma
- ○1 Stroma contains enzymes that catalyse the photosynthetic reactions
- It also ○
2 contains starch grains which act as temporary stores for the products of photosynthesis

- Within the stroma, ○ 3 thylakoids are arranged in stacks, called grana (singular: granum)
- A chloroplast contains about 50 grana, each consisting of up to 100 thylakoids
- The stacking arrangement of thylakoids provides a large surface area to pack more chlorophyll for the
absorption of light, without taking up too much space
- Some ○ 4 thylakoids have tubular extensions which interconnect adjacent grana
- Therefore, the photosynthetic products can be transported efficiently within the chloroplast

Structure of a chloroplast Adaptation for photosynthesis

Stroma - Jelly-like fluid
Thylakoid - Large numbers of
thylakoids arranged in
stacks called grana
- Grana are interconnected
- Contains enzymes that catalyse the
photosynthetic reactions
- Contains starch grains which act as
temporary stores for the products of
photosynthesis
- Provide a large surface area to pack
more chlorophyll for the absorption
of light
- Allows efficient transport of
photosynthetic products within the
chloroplasts
 The Process of Photosynthesis

A. Photochemical reactions [Thylakoid membrane of chloroplast]

- Light-dependent stage/Light reactions (as they require light)
- These reactions take place on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast where chlorophyll is present

○1 Absorption of light
- When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light energy, the energy is passed to an electron which is raised to
higher energy levels
- The excited electron is emitted from the chlorophyll
- The electron enters the electron transport chain (which is made up of a series of electron carriers of
decreasing energy levels in thylakoid membrane)

○2 Photophosphorylation
- Energy released by the electrons is used to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by phosphorylation (adding a
phosphate to ADP)

○3 Photolysis of water
- Some energy released by electrons is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
- Hydrogen is taken up by hydrogen acceptor called NADP to form NADPH
- Oxygen, a by-product, is released as a gas to atmosphere
B. Carbon fixation [Stroma]
- Also called dark reactions (as it does not require light)
- Calvin Cycle requires ATP and NADPH from the photochemical reactions and it would stop soon if light is not
available

○1 Carbon fixation
- Carbon dioxide combines with 5-C compound to form an unstable 6-C compound, which immediately splits
into two 3-C compounds.

○
2 Reduction of 3-C compound to triose phosphate
- ATP and NADPH produced from photochemical reactions is used to reduce 3-C compound into triose
phosphate, a 3-C sugar
- ADP and NADP is regenerated and reused in photochemical reactions

○3 Formation of glucose or Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

- For each 6 molecules of CO2 are input, 12 triose phosphate (3-C) are formed
- 2 molecules of triose phosphate combine to make 1 molecule of glucose (6-C)

- 10 remaining molecules of triose phosphate are used to regenerate 5-C CO2 acceptors by using ATP, so that
the cycle can be repeated
 The Conversion of Photosynthetic Products

A. Synthesis of carbohydrates
- Triose phosphate are synthesised into glucose, which is the main source of energy for plant cells
- If glucose is not used immediately for metabolism, it is converted to starch for temporary storage in leaf cells
o Advantages:
o 1 It has compact structure, it allows packing more food in less space
o 2 It is insoluble in water, hence it will not affect the water potential of cells

- For transport, glucose is converted to sucrose which is transported by phloem, or other parts of plants, e.g.
roots or storage organs such as stem tuber
- It may be broken down into glucose for respiration, or converted back to starch for storage

- Glucose is also used to synthesise cellulose to build up cell walls.

B. Synthesis of lipids
- Plants can use intermediates of photosynthesis to synthesise glycerol and fatty acids, which then combine to
form lipids

Function
- Lipids are stored as food reserves in some plants
- Also it is used as component of cell membrane (phospholipids)

C. Synthesis of proteins
- The intermediates of photosynthesis, together with inorganic ions (e.g. nitrates and sulphates), are used to
form amino acids

Function
- Amino is the building block of proteins, which are essential for growth and repair
- Protein is also components of cytoplasm and cell membrane
- It is also used to make enzymes
 Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity

- In the dark, no photosynthesis takes place

- Initially, the rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing

light intensities. This is because more energy is supplied to the
photochemical reactions

- The rate of photosynthesis levels off when it reaches a

saturation point. Further increase in the light intensity no
longer increases rate of photosynthesis. This is because some
other factors (e.g. CO2 concentration or temperature)
becomes limiting factors. The light intensity at saturation
point is the optimum light intensity.

Carbon dioxide concentration

-
- The percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
around 0.03% to 0.04%

- Under normal conditions, CO2 concentration is a major

limiting factor of rate of photosynthesis

- If CO2 concentration increases, the rate of

photosynthesis will level off at a higher rate

Temperature
-
- In general, a higher temperature leads to a higher metabolic
rate, hence a higher rate of photosynthesis

- However, if temperature exceeds a certain level, enzymes

involved in photosynthesis may be denatured and the rate of
photosynthesis will decrease
-
Ch 23 Respiration

Basic concept of respiration

- Respiration (or cellular respiration) is the process of controlled oxidative breakdown of food substances by
living cells to release energy
- Energy is needed for metabolism

Burning of food
- A one-step process that release all the energy at once
- If this occurs in living cells, the cells would be killed by the high temperature

- When a piece of food is burned, it reacts with oxygen (i.e. being oxidised)
- Food is broken down, forming carbon dioxide and water
- Chemical energy stored in food is released in the form of heat and light

Respiration of food
- A gradual process with a series of enzyme-controlled reactions
- Glucose and other organic food substances are broken down to release energy, some of which are used to
make a compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- The rest of the energy is lost as heat

Word equation:
enzymes
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
(ATP and heat)

Burning of food Respiration of food

Similarities
- Both are oxidative processes
- Oxygen is needed for burning and aerobic respiration
- Carbon dioxide and water are usually produced

Differences
- A one-step process
- Takes place anywhere, with the
presence of fuel (food), oxygen and a
high temperature
- Does not involve enzymes
- All the energy is released rapidly
- Energy is released in forms of light
and heat
- A series of reactions
- Takes place in living cells
- Controlled by enzymes
- Energy is released gradually
- Some of the energy released is
used to make ATP, while rest is lost
as heat

Role of ATP
- ATP is a small organic molecule made up of ○1 the nitrogenous base adenine, ○
2 ribose, and ○3 three
phosphate groups (P)
- Energy released during respiration can be used to form ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) i.e. phosphorylation
- Phosphorylation is the process of adding phosphate to a compound
 Hydrolysis of ATP
- For release of energy, ATP can be converted to ADP and phosphate by hydrolysis
- The reaction is catalyzed by ATPase

Word equation:
ATPase
ATP ADP + P + energy

- Energy released can be used for:

- ○1 Active transport of substances across the cell membrane
- ○2 Synthesis of complex substances from simpler ones
o e.g. synthesis of polypeptides and proteins from amino acids, DNA replication
- ○3 Movement
o e.g. muscle contraction, spindle action in cell division
- ○4 Transmission of nerve impulses
- ○5 Activation of chemicals
o e.g. phosphorylation of glucose at the first stage of respiration

Conversion of ATP and ADP

- The conversion between ATP and ADP is a reversible reaction
- Energy released from energy-yielding reactions (e.g. respiration) is used to make ATP from ADP by
phosphorylation
- ATP acts as an energy carrier
- ATP is broken down to ADP by hydrolysis to release energy for cellular activities that require energy
 Types of Respiration
A. Aerobic respiration
- Aerobic respiration is respiration that uses oxygen
- Most organisms respire aerobically
- Glucose is ○1 completely broken down to ○ 2 release a large amount of energy
- ○ 3 Carbon dioxide and water are formed

B. Anaerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration is respiration that does not need oxygen
- Glucose is only ○1 partially broken down and a ○ 2 relatively small amount of energy is produced
- ○
3 In lactic acid fermentation, lactic acid is formed
- ○
3 In alcoholic fermentation, ethanol and carbon dioxide are formed

Sites of Respiration
- Both aerobic and anaerobic respirations start in cytoplasm where specific enzymes are present
- If oxygen is available, the remaining reactions take pace in mitochondria
- In fact, mitochondrion is the main site of ATP production during aerobic respiration

- Mitochondria are particularly abundant in metabolically active cells such as muscle cells, liver cells and sperm
cells

Structure of Mitochondrion
- The mitochondrion consists of a smooth outer membrane and highly-folded inner membrane

- The outer membrane of mitochondrion is differentially permeable

- It controls the entry and exit of substances

- The highly-folded inner membrane gives rise to a large number of finger-like projections (called cristae)
- They provide a large surface area for attachment of enzymes and carriers involved in aerobic respiration

- The fluid-filled space enclosed by the inner membrane is called matrix

- It contains enzymes that catalyse reactions of aerobic respiration

Structure Adaptation for respiration

Smooth outer membrane
Highly folded inner membrane
- Differentially permeable
- It controls the entry and exit of substances
- Give rise to a large number of finger-like projections
(cristae)
- They provide a large surface area for attachment of
enzymes and carriers involved in aerobic respiration

Matrix - Contains enzymes for aerobic respiration

A. Aerobic Respiration

Net amount of
Site of Requirement
Stage Reactions involved ATP formed per
occurrence of oxygen
glucose molecule
Glycolysis Cytoplasm
• Glucose is broken down into two
triose phosphate molecules; energy
from ATP is used to activate glucose
No 2
• Triose phosphate loses hydrogen and
is oxidised to pyruvate
• NADH and ATP are formed
Link reaction Matrix
• Pyruvate is decarboxylated,
(Conversion of
dehydrogenated and combined with
pyruvate to Yes 0
coenzyme A to give acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA)
• Carbon dioxide and NADH are formed
Krebs cycle Matrix • Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C
compound to give a 6-C compound
• The 6-C compound goes through a
Yes series of reactions to regenerate the 2
4-C compound
• Carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH and ATP
are formed
Oxidative Inner • NADH and FADH lose hydrogen and
phosphorylation membrane of are oxidised to regenerate NAD and
mitochondrion FAD
• Hydrogen atoms from NADH and
FADH split into hydrogen ions and
electrons; electrons pass along the
Yes 34
electron transport chain, releasing
energy to form ATP (oxidative
phosphorylation)
• Electrons and hydrogen ions are
finally accepted by oxygen to form
water
Total 38
1 Glucose = Direct ATP + ATP from NADH & FADH
= 2 + 1x2 + 10 NADH + 2 FADH
= 2 + 2 + 10x3 + 2x2
= 2 + 2 + 30 + 4
= 38 ATP
 ________________________________________________________________________________________
○1 Glycolysis
- 1 Breakdown of Glucose to Triose Phosphate
o Two ATP molecules are used to phosphorylate a glucose molecule → This activates glucose molecule
(This raises energy level of glucose to make subsequent reactions easier)
o Glucose is broken down into two triose phosphate (3-C) molecules

- 2 Oxidation of triose Phosphate to Pyruvate

o Two triose phosphate is oxidized to two pyruvates (3-C) by losing hydrogen
o The hydrogen is accepted by hydrogen acceptor NAD to form NADH
o Two ATP molecules are also formed by the energy released by oxidation of each triose phosphate

o Overall: 2 ATP and 2 NADH is formed by one glucose molecule

▪ Pyruvates are formed

▪ Pyruvate still contain a substantial amount of energy
▪ If oxygen is available, more energy can be released by entering link reaction to undergo
aerobic respiration

○
2 Link reaction (Conversion from pyruvate to acetyl-CoA)
- 1 Active transport
o In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is transported by active transport from cytoplasm, through the
outer and inner membrane of mitochondrion, into matrix of mitochondrion

- 2 Decarboxylation
o Carbon is removed as carbon dioxide

- 3 Dehydrogenation
o The remaining 2-C compound is dehydrogenated and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA
(2-C) → Hydrogen removed is accepted by NAD to form NADH

o Overall (For each pyruvate): 1 NADH 1 CO2

○
3 Krebs cycle
- 1 Combination of Acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound
o Acetyl-CoA transfer its acetyl group to a 4-C compound, forming a 6-C compound
→ Coenzyme A is regenerated and reused in link reaction to carry another acetyl group

- 2 Regeneration of 4-C compound

o 6-C compound undergoes decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
▪ Two carbon atoms are removed and released as carbon dioxide
▪ Hydrogen is accepted by hydrogen acceptors NAD and FAD to form NADH and FADH
▪ One ATP molecule is produced directly
o The 4-C compound is regenerated at the end of the cycle

o Overall (For acetyl-CoA): 1 ATP 3 NADH

1 FADH
2 CO2
 ○
4 Oxidative phosphorylation
- 1 Regeneration of NAD and FAD
o Hydrogen carriers NADH and FADH release their hydrogen and are oxidized to NAD and FAD
(This regenerates NAD and FAD to accept hydrogen in glycolysis and Krebs cycle)
o Hydrogen released split into hydrogen ion (H+) and electron (e-) → Hydrogen ions remain in the
mitochondrial matrix while electrons enter the electron transport chain (made up of a series of
electron carriers) in the inner membrane of mitochondrion
o Finally the hydrogen ion and electrons are accepted by oxygen to form water

- 2 Formation of ATP
o As electrons pass from a carrier at a higher energy level to a lower one, energy is released to form
ATP
→ Three ATP can be produced from each NADH and two ATP can be produced from FADH

o Overall: 1 NADH → 3 ATP

1 FADH → 2 ATP

________________________________________________________________________________________

Investigation into Aerobic Respiration

- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-product of aerobic respiration
- It is a colourless gas
- It can be tested by using lime water (Ca(OH)2) or hydrogencarbonate indicator

Lime water colour colourless milky

Presence/absence of CO2 CO2 is absent CO2 is present

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Experiments

Release of CO2 by a living mouse

Flask A: Potassium hydroxide solution Absorb CO2

Flask B: lime water Test for CO2 → Remains clear: confirm no CO2 in air entering bell jar

Test for CO2 → Turns milky: shows the presence of CO2 and it is
Flask C: lime water
produced by respiration

Release of CO2 by germinating seeds

Disinfectant:
Kills microorganisms in the seeds,
ensures that changes in
concentration is due to respiration
of germinating seeds

Hydrogencarbonate indicator in tube A turns yellow. It shows that germinating seeds release CO2.

Hydrogencarbonate indicator in tube B remains red. It acts as a control of the experiment, showing that colour
change in tube A is due to presence of germinating seeds.
Investigation of heat production in living mouse

- Before the experiment starts, the clips are opened to equalise air pressure on both sides of U-shaped
capillary tube
- Cotton wool around the container acts as insulator to prevent heat loss

- After the experiment, liquid level in arm A rises and liquid level in arm B falls
- This is because the mouse releases heat which warms up the air in test tube above. The air inside the tube
expands, hence the air pressure inside increases, pressing the coloured liquid in arm B downwards.
B. Anaerobic Respiration
- The breakdown of food to release energy without using oxygen
- In human, some cells (e.g. muscles cells) are able to respire anaerobically for a short period when oxygen
supply is not fast enough to sustain high metabolic activities
- Some other organisms (e.g. yeast) can survive on anaerobic respiration when oxygen supply is low

- Without oxygen, glycolysis can still occur, but link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are
stopped
- Pyruvate at the end of glycolysis start anaerobic respiration and all reactions take place in cytoplasm

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (Formation of Lactic Acid in Skeletal Muscles)

- Like usual, 2 NADH are produced in glycolysis but in lactic acid fermentation, due to the lack of oxygen, there
is no oxygen to accept hydrogen ion and electron in oxidative phosphorylation, causing a shortage of NAD
and FAD
- Thus pyruvate cannot enter link reaction

- Process:
- After glycolysis, NADH reduces pyruvate to lactic acid (3-C)
- NAD is regenerated and allows glycolysis to continue under anaerobic condition (No O2)

glucose 2 lactic acid + energy (2ATP)

- It produces 2 ATP (net) (for each glucose)

o Much of the energy remains locked in lactic acid
o The benefit is that lactic acid fermentation supply energy quickly because it is simple and do not
depend on oxygen

During exercise
- Most of the time, muscle can obtain required energy for contraction by aerobic respiration
- However, during vigorous exercise, oxygen may not be supplied fast enough for aerobic respiration to meet
energy demand
- Muscle cells can use aerobic and anaerobic respiration [lactic acid fermentation] at the same time
- This provides additional energy in a very short time for fast and powerful muscle contraction

After exercise
- Lactic acid is toxic and must be removed
- It is transported in blood to the liver and converted back to pyruvate

- When oxygen is available again, some pyruvate enters Krebs cycle and is oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) to release more energy
- The remaining pyruvate are converted to glycogen and stored in liver
- The extra amount of oxygen required to remove all lactic acid from anaerobic respiration is called oxygen
debt
2. Alcoholic Fermentation (Formation of Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide in Yeast)
- Like muscle cell, yeast can undergo aerobic respiration when oxygen is present
- Certain plant tissues (e.g. root) and germinating seeds may temporarily do alcoholic fermentation when
oxygen is absent

- Process:
- Without oxygen, after glycolysis, pyruvate is decarboxylated (carbon dioxide is removed) and reduced to
ethanol (2-C)
- NAD is regenerated

glucose 2 ethanol + 2 carbon dioxide + energy (2ATP)

- Alcoholic fermentation produces only 2 ATP molecules for each glucose

- Ethanol is a waste product and still contains a lot of energy
 Applications of Anaerobic Respiration

1. Brewing beer and wine [Alcoholic fermentation]

- Beer: Beer is made by fermenting the sugars extracted from malted barley [maltose]
- The yeast undergoes anaerobic respiration, breaking down sugars into ethanol

- Wine: Wine is made by fermenting sugars in grape juice by yeast

2. Bread-making [Alcoholic Fermentation]

- Yeast is mixed into the dough 麵團, it ferments the sugars and produce carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide helps to raise the dough
- The dough is then baked in oven and forms light spongy bread
- Alcohol produced during alcoholic fermentation evaporates during baking

3. Production of yoghurt and cheese [Lactic Acid Fermentation]

- Yoghurt: Lactic acid bacteria ferment sugars in milk [lactose] and produce lactic acid which gives the sour
taste of yoghurt
- Cheese: Lactic acid formed helps coagulate milk to form cheese

Type of anaerobic
Occurrence in organisms Reactions involved
respiration
Lactic acid Skeletal muscle and certain bacteria
• Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidised to
fermentation
pyruvate; NADH and ATP are formed
• Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by NADH
Alcoholic fermentation Yeast and germinating seeds • Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidised to
pyruvate; NADH and ATP are formed
• Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol by NADH; carbon
dioxide is released

Similarities between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respirations

- Both are oxidative process of breaking down organic substances to release energy
- Some of the energy released is used to form ATP, while some is lost as heat
- Some processes involve a number of enzymatic reactions
- Both processes begin with glycolysis

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Occurrence • In cytoplasm and mitochondria of • Only in cytoplasm
most living cells • In micro-organisms (e.g. yeast and
certain bacteria), some plants
tissue (e.g. root) and skeletal
muscle cells
Oxygen supply • Required • Not required
Breakdown of organic food substances • Complete • Incomplete
End products • Carbon dioxide and water • Lactic acid in lactic acid
fermentation; ethanol and carbon
dioxide in alcoholic fermentation
Energy yield
• Larger (38 ATP per glucose • Smaller (2 ATP per glucose
molecule oxidised) molecule oxidised)
 Relationship between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis

- Raw materials: &

- Products: &

Respiration (Aerobic)

- Raw materials: &

- Products: &

- The products of photosynthesis are raw materials for respiration and the products of respiration are raw
materials for photosynthesis
- The exchange of molecules between photosynthesis and respiration allows recycling of materials and energy
flow in ecosystem

Ecosystem
- Energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight
- During photosynthesis, light energy is
converted to chemical energy stored in glucose
and other organic compounds
- These organic compounds are in turn broken
down in respiration to release energy
- Some of the energy is used to form ATP for
cellular activities while some is lost as heat
Ch 24 Personal Health & Infectious Diseases

Infect (v.) - 感染
Infectious (adj.) – 傳染性的
[Infectious disease] (n.) – 傳染病

24.1 Meaning of Health

Health ≠ Absence of disease

According to WHO, health has three dimensions of health

- Physical well-being:
o Body functions properly and is free from disease and injury
- Mental well-being
o The person feels positive about himself/herself
o He/she can cope well with stress and perform daily activities effectively
- Social well-being
o The person has good inter-personal relationships
o He/she respects others, gets along well with others and gives a helping hand to people in need

Health is affected by many factors

- E.g. heredity
- environmental factors (E.g. air and water quality)
- Lifestyle
- aging
- access to health care services and social support networks

24.2 Types of Diseases

Disease is an abnormal condition of an organism in which one or more of its body fail to function properly.
- Associated with signs and symptoms

Symptoms VS signs
- symptoms = subjective evidence perceived by patient
o E.g. Headache, muscle pain, abdominal pain
- signs = objective evidence noticed by other people
o E.g. Runny nose, rash, vomiting

Examples of signs and symptoms

- Nasal congestion
- Sneezing
- Sore throat
- Cough (with or without sputum)
- Loss of appetite
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Chills
- Shivering
- Red eyes
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Diarrhoea
- Pain
o Headache, muscle pain, abdominal pain, joint pain
Pathogens (Disease-causing agents)
- Infectious diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from one person to another
- Non-infectious diseases are diseases that cannot be transmitted from person to person.

24.3 Causes of Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases
- caused by pathogens that invade our body and cause harm

Types of pathogens
A. Virus
1. When virus invade a cell (the host), they modify the DNA of the host cell
2. They disrupt the synthesis of the host cell’s nucleic acids and protein
3. Then take command of the host cell to produce new viruses
4. When new viruses leave the host cell, they destroy the cell membranes of host cell and causes cell death
- Characteristics
o Can only multiply within living cells
- Examples
o Common cold
o Influenza 流感 (= Flu)
o AIDS 愛滋病 (caused by HIV)
o SARS
o Dengue fever
o Measles
o Chickenpox

*AIDS = Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

*HIV = Human immunodeficiency virus
*SARS = Severe acute respiratory syndrome

B. Bacteria
- *Produce enzymes and toxins → Damage tissues of the host or disrupt normal functioning of cell
- For example, the bacterium that causes cholera produces toxins that irritate the intestines. It causes signs
and symptoms such as diarrhoea
- Examples
o Cholera 霍亂
o Bacterial pneumonia
o Tuberculosis
o Typhoid

C. Protists 原生生物
- Live inside a host
- Examples
o Malaria 瘧疾
▪ The protozoan Plasmodium invade and reproduce in the liver, then in red blood cells
▪ The infected cells finally burst and the parasites escape to infect other cells
▪ Also Plasmodium release toxins to cause symptoms such as shivering & sweating
o Amoebic dysentery
▪ Entamoeba histolytica invade intestines and cause diarrhoea, abdominal pain
 D. Fungi 真菌
- Grow outside of the human body, such as on or in the skin, nails, hair
- Produce enzymes or toxins that damage tissues of host
- Examples
o Athlete’s foot

24.4 Ways of Transmission of Infectious Diseases

A. By Air & Droplets

- Air-borne and carried by dust particles
- The small particles can 1) suspend in the air for a long time and 2) dispersed over a long distance
- When an infected person speaks, sneezes or coughs, tiny droplets of saliva and mucus and expelled through
the mouth and nose
- When breathed in, these pathogens invade our mucous membranes of eyes, mouth or respiratory tract (e.g.
nose), to enter our body
- For example
o Common cold, influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles

- To control spread of air-borne diseases,

o Cover our months and nose with tissues paper or a handkerchief when we sneeze or cough
o Cleans our hands with liquid soap or disinfectants after sneezing and coughing
o Maintain good ventilation indoors
o Wear a surgical mask if infected or when in close contact with infected people
o Avoid crowded and poorly ventilated public spaces

B. By Water & Food

- If water and food are not handled properly, they will be contaminated by pathogens
o Water and food can be contaminated if:
o Faeces containing pathogen are discharged directly into drinking water sources without proper
sewage treatment
o People handle food with unclean hands, especially after going to the toilet
o Pests, e.g. houseflies and cockroaches, may carry pathogens and contaminate water or food
- When we ingest the contaminated water/food, diseases are caused

- Examples
o Cholera, gastroenteritis, food poisoning, amoebic dysentery, hepatitis A

- Precautions
o Proper disposal of faeces
o Treat sewage properly
o Avoid drinking untreated water (e.g. water from rivers, streams)
o Wash hands after going to toilet and before handling food
o Cook food and boil drinking water before consumption
o Refrigerate food at the right temperature (below 4oC)

C. By Direct Contact
- Infected by:
o Touching an infected person
o Share personal items (e.g. towels and combs) with an infected person
o Touch surfaces on which pathogen exist
o Touch our eyes or nose with contaminated hand
- For example
o Chickenpox, athlete’s foot, herpes & hand, foot and mouth disease
 - To avoid these diseases
o Avoid direct physical contact with infected people
o Frequently clean and disinfect surfaces in public areas, such as door handles, handrail
o Be aware of hygiene of our hands
o Wash hands after visiting infected people

D. By Body Fluid
- Body fluid, e.g. blood, semen, vaginal secretion

1. By Blood: Blood of an infected person may get into another person by

o Wounds
o Sharing of syringes, needle, toothbrushes, razor
o Blood transfusion
o From mother to infant during birth
- Blood-borne disease examples
o Hepatitis B
o HIV infection

2. By semen, vaginal secretion

o During sexual intercourse (when semen and vaginal secretions are exchanged between an infected
person and a non-infected person)
- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
o Gonorrhoea, genital herpes, syphilis, HIV infection (or AIDS)

- Preventive measures
o Wear gloves when handling wounds and body fluid
o Avoid sharing syringe, needles, toothbrushes, razors and other objects that may be contaminated
with blood
o Screen blood before transfusion
o Practise safe sex and wear a condom during sexual contact

3. By Vectors
- Vector = an organism that carries pathogens from one host to another
- E.g. Houseflies, mosquitoes, fleas
o Houseflies → pick up bacteria from contaminated food/water to uncontaminated ones → cause
cholera
o Flea → pick up bacteria of plague → bite human
o Mosquitoes → bites and sucks blood from an infected person → bites another person → malaria,
dengue fever, Japanese Encephalitis

- Precautions
o Store food properly in covered containers (do not leave food unattended)
o Eliminate nesting places for rats and other pests
o Spray pesticides around mosquito’s habitats to kill adult mosquitoes and their larvae
o Clear stagnant water to eliminate breeding places for mosquitoes
o Wear long-sleeved clothing and apply insect repellent to exposed parts of the skin
o Do not travel places where vector-borne diseases are common

24.5 Treatments for Infectious Diseases

A. Antibiotics 抗生素
- Antibiotics are chemicals naturally produced by microorganisms to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
- Used to treat infectious disease caused by bacteria
- First known antibiotics is penicillin
- Actions of antibiotics
o Inhibit cell wall synthesis
▪ Without a cell wall, water enters the bacterial cell by osmosis, making the cell swell and
eventually burst
o Inhibit replication of nucleic acids or protein synthesis
▪ The bacteria cannot grow and reproduce
o Destroy bacterial cell membrane
▪ The cell contents leak out and the cell dies

- Indiscriminate use of antibiotics

o Antibiotics have been renowned as ‘wonder drug’ and used extensively in past decades
o Speeds up the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
o Disease caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria may become incurable

o Consequences
▪ Multidrug-resistant bacteria (‘superbugs’) may emerge. Diseases caused by ‘superbug’ may
be incurable and pose serious threats human health
▪ New antibiotics or other drugs are needed to replace antibiotics that are no longer effective.
More money and efforts are needed to develop new drug.
▪ Antibiotics kill both beneficial and pathogenic bacteria in human body. When beneficial
bacteria are killed, pathogenic bacteria face less competition for resources, which encourage
their growth

o Precaution when using antibiotics

▪ Doctor should prescribe antibiotics only when necessary to reduce the exposure of bacteria
to antibiotics
▪ Patient must finish the whole course of antibiotic prescription, in order to kill all pathogenic
bacteria in the body
▪ Doctor should use narrow-spectrum antibiotics that only act on the pathogenic bacteria. This
avoids killing the beneficial bacteria and cause the development of antibiotic resistance
bacteria
▪ Farmers should minimize the use of antibiotics in livestock farming.

B. Sulpha drugs
- Also called sulphonamide
- First antibacterial drugs used to treat bacterial infections in human
- Can cause allergy in some people → replaced by antibiotics
- Enzyme inhibitor
o They are structurally similar to the substrate for making folic acid
o Occupy the active sites of enzymes involved in synthesis of folic acid
o Slows down or stops production of folic acid
o As a result, bacteria cannot grow and eventually die
Ch 24 Revision Exercise

14.
Method How it works Comment
(Advantage or disadvantage)
Spraying of pesticides or larvicidal To kill adult mosquito and their One of the following (1):
oil around mosquito’s habitat larvae (1)
- Advantage: Very fast
- Disadvantage: Strong and toxic
smell. It can affect the neighbours
- Disadvantage: The mosquitoes
may develop resistances against the
pesticides

Clearance of accumulated water in a
neighbourhood
To eliminate breeding places of
mosquitoes (1)
One of the following (1):
- Advantage: Reproduction rate of
mosquito will decrease
- Disadvantage: Takes a longer time
relatively

15.
(a)
To prevent bacteria being brought by visitors into the hospital wards, so the chance of patients getting infected is
decreased (1)
To prevent visitors from bringing bacteria away from the wards into the community (1)

(b)
MRSA is resistant to multiple antibiotics (1)
After getting infected, MRSA bacteria reproduce to a huge amount (1)
They will cause damage to body tissues and interfere with metabolism (1)
Ch 25 Non-infectious Diseases and Disease Prevention

25.1 Non-infectious Diseases

Non-infectious disease = Diseases that cannot be transmitted from person to person

Risk factors
- Inborn, e.g. heredity, gender, age
- Related to behaviour & lifestyle, e.g. unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol abuse
- Related to environment, e.g. exposure to sunlight and pollution

A. Cancer

Formation of Cancer
- DNA undergoes mutations
- Results in uncontrolled and excessive cell division
- Form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumour

Male Female
1. Lung cancer 1. Lung cancer
2. Liver cancer 2. Colorectal cancer
3. Colorectal cancer 3. Breast cancer
4. Stomach cancer 4. Liver cancer
5. Prostate cancer 5. Stomach cancer

Types of Tumour 腫瘤
1. Benign tumour
- Surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue
- Remain at the site of formation
- Do NOT invade or spread to other parts of body

2. Malignant tumour
- Can spread to other parts of body (metastasis), through bloodstream or lymphatic system
- Invade other tissues to form new malignant tumours

Benign tumour Malignant tumour

Mutation of DNA causes cells to divide uncontrollably and excessively
Similarity
(Cause of tumour)

Localized or Surrounded by a capsule of Do not have a surrounding capsule

not connective tissue
Difference Metastasis Do not invade or spread to other Invade and spread to other parts of
parts of the body the body, by bloodstream or
lymphatic system

Risk factors of Cancer

- Exposure of carcinogen (agents that induce chances in DNA and make cells cancerous)
- Include radiation, certain chemicals and pathogens
1. Unhealthy diet
- Diet high in fats and low in dietary fibre increases chance of developing colorectal cancer
- Consuming foods containing carcinogens increases the risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer, stomach
cancer, and colon cancer
o These foods include
o salted fish
o foods preserved with nitrites, e.g. bacon, sausages, ham
o charred or burned meats
o deep-fried food, e.g. fried potatoes

2. Tobacco and Alcohol use

- Smoking is the main cause of lung cancer, as cigarette smoke contains many carcinogens
- Risk of lung cancer is proportional to the number of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking
- Smokers are advised to give up smoking
- Smoking also increases risk of oesophageal cancer, stomach cancer and bladder cancer

- Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, stomach, liver,
colon and rectum
o A carcinogen (acetaldehyde) is produced when breaking down alcohol
o Alcohol can also damage liver cells, causing cirrhosis (hardening) of liver

3. Viral or Bacterial Infection

- Certain viral and bacterial infections are linked to onset of cancer
o Infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (幽門螺旋菌) increases the chance of developing
stomach cancer
o Infection with hepatitis B virus increases the risk of developing liver cancer
o Infection with human papilloma virus (HPV) may cause cervical cancer. HPV is transmitted by sexual
intercourse, therefore having sex at an early age and having several sexual partners can increase the
risk of HPV infection.

4. Exposure in Ionising Radiation and Ultraviolet Light

Ionising radiation
- Ionising radiation, e.g. gamma rays & X-rays, is high-frequency radiation that contains high energy
- When passed through cells, ionising radiation damages the DNA in cells, leading to cancer formation or cell
death

- Cells of the thyroid gland and bone marrow cancer are particularly sensitive to radiation
- Leukemia (leukaemia), a type of cancer that arises in the bone marrow, is the commonest radiation-induced
cancer
o Large amount of abnormal white blood cells is produced → Loss of immunity against pathogens
(Easy infection)
o Reduced production of red blood cells → Anemia and fatigue

Ultraviolet light
- Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light is a major risk factor for skin cancer
o Excessive exposure to strong sunlight
o People living in regions with year-round, bright sunlight
- People with lighter skin colour are also easier to have skin cancer
- People are advised to put on sunscreen to protect against UV light and sunburn

- UV light contains lower energy than ionising radiation but can still damage the DNA of skin cells
5. Exposure to Carcinogenic chemicals
- Exposure to carcinogenic chemicals, e.g. asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde, diesel exhaust, can cause cancer

6. Heredity
- Certain cancers tend to develop more often in some families than others (Linked to heredity)
- Including cancers of the breast, ovary, prostate and colon

- Mutated genes called oncogenes have the potential to cause cancer

- Offspring who have inherited these oncogenes have a higher risk of developing cancer

7. Old Age
- Single mutation in DNA rarely cause cancer
- Cancer develops when mutation accumulate to a certain level
- As we grow old, we may be exposed repeatedly to carcinogens. Therefore, the risk of cancer gradually
increases with age

Treatments of cancer
1. Surgery
- If a tumour is localised and not yet spread, surgical removal of the whole tumour is an effective method

2. Chemotherapy
- Anti-cancer drugs are used to slow down the rapid division of cancer cells/ to kill cancer cells
- The drugs also kill normal cells, such as hair cells, blood cells, cells lining the mouth → severe side effects:
hair loss, mouth infection
- Giving the anti-cancer drugs in cycle can help relieve the side effects
o Each cycle is followed by a rest period (drug-free period) to allow normal tissues to recover

3. Radiotherapy
- High-energy radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays, is used to kill cancer cells
B. Cardiovascular Diseases 心血管疾病

Formation of cardiovascular diseases

- Atherosclerosis
o ○ 1 Cholesterol in blood deposits on the inner wall of an artery
o ○ 2 Plaque slowly builds up. Lumen of artery becomes narrower and arterial wall becomes harder
o ○ 3 blood clot is formed on the surface of plaque, further reducing the blood flow through the artery

- In serious cases, the artery may be completely blocked

Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Coronary heart disease 冠心病

- When atherosclerosis develops in one or more of the coronary arteries, coronary heart disease occurs
- Coronary arteries are narrowed or blocked, reducing blood flow to cardiac muscles

- As coronary arteries supply oxygen and nutrients to cardiac muscles, oxygen and nutrients supply to cardiac
muscles becomes inadequate

- Cardiac muscles around the blocked artery may die

(A severe case is called heart attack 心臟病發) Heart attack causes:
o Severe chest pain
o Irregular heartbeat or the heart may stop completely
o Death

2. Stroke 中風
- If an artery is brain is blocked or it bursts, it is a stroke
- Then the blood supply to that part of the brain is reduced and brain cells may die due to insufficient oxygen
supply
- It damages the brain
- Symptoms: Paralysis, difficulty in speech and death (in serious cases)

Risk Factor of Cardiovascular Diseases

1. Unhealthy diet
- A diet high in saturated fats and cholesterol raises the blood cholesterol level
- It leads to a higher risk of plaque formation in arteries and promotes atherosclerosis
2. Physical Inactivity
- Exercise is an effective means to control body weight and prevent obesity

- Being overweight or obese increases the burden of the heart

- Being overweight or obese also increases the risk of hypertension, high blood cholesterol level and high blood
glucose level (→ These factors can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases)

3. Smoking
- Nicotine in cigarette smoke causes blood vessels to constrict and stimulates heart rate to increase
- This leads to an increase in blood pressure
- It also increases the stickiness of blood platelets and the chance of forming blood clots in blood vessels

- Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and thus reduces the
amount of oxygen supplied to cardiac muscles
- This increases the workload of the heart
- Leading to a higher risk of heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases

4. Heredity
- People with family members who have suffered from cardiovascular diseases have a higher risk of
developing cardiovascular diseases

5. Ageing
- The build-up of plaques in arteries is a continuous process
- As we get older, the sizes of plaques in the arteries gets larger

- It is estimated that over 80% of people who die of coronary heart disease are older than 60 years old
- The risk of stroke doubles every decade after age 55.

6. Gender
- Men have greater risk of heart diseases than pre-menopausal women
- Before menopause, ovaries produce the female sex hormone oestrogen.
- It helps prevent cholesterol from building up on the arterial wall, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

- However, once after menopause, a woman’s risk is similar to a man’s.

 Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Balloon angioplasty 通波仔
- ○ 1 A small inflatable balloon device is inserted into the blocked region of the artery
- ○ 2 It is inflated to re-open the lumen of the blocked area. The balloon crushes the plaque deposited on the
artery wall, clearing the blockage for improved blood flow
- ○ 3 The balloon is deflated and withdrawn. A wire mesh tube called a stent may be inserted to ensure the
vessel stays open

2. Coronary bypass surgery 搭橋

- ○1 A piece of a vein or an artery from another part of the body (usually the leg) is grafted to connect the
aorta around a blocked coronary artery
o The graft bypasses the blocked section of the coronary artery. It creates a new path (‘the bypass’) for
blood to flow to cardiac muscle

C. Diabetes Mellitus
- Diabetes mellitus (or diabetes) is a chronic disease characterised by abnormally high blood glucose level
- Other symptoms: Frequent urination, excessive thirst and feelings of fatigue and hunger
- Over time, high blood glucose levels may damage nerves and blood vessels, resulting in complications that
affect the kidneys, heart, brain, eyes, hands and feet

Forms of diabetes
1. Insulin-dependent diabetes (Type I Diabetes)
- Pancreas produces little or no insulin because the insulin-producing cells (β cells) in the pancreas are
destroyed
- Due to insulin deficiency, the liver cells cannot take up enough glucose from the blood
2. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes (Type II Diabetes)
- Pancreas can produce sufficient amount of insulin, but the target cells (e.g. liver cells and muscle cells) do
not respond to insulin
- Due to insulin resistance, the blood glucose level remains high even though the body has increased the
release of insulin into blood

Risk factors
For insulin-dependent diabetes:
- Insulin-dependent diabetes is usually related to hereditary factors or disorders of the immune system
- The immune system mistakes the body’s own cells as foreign substance and destroys the insulin-producing
cells in the pancreas
- This form of diabetes usually occurs in childhood or adolescence

For non-insulin-dependent diabetes:

- Obesity and unhealthy lifestyles such as over-eating and lack of exercise are the major risk factors for non-
insulin-dependent diabetes
- This form of diabetes usually occurs later in life

Control of Diabetes
- There is still no cure for diabetes. We can only control diabetes and prevent it from becoming worse
- ○1 Diabetic patients must monitor their blood glucose level regularly
- As the causes for the two forms of diabetes are different, they are controlled by different methods

- For insulin-dependent diabetes:

- The blood glucose level is controlled by ○
2 regular injection of insulin or ○
3 regular inhalation of insulin
through the nasal cavity

- From non-insulin-dependent diabetes:

- The blood glucose level is controlled by ○
2 restricting the dietary carbohydrate intake, ○
3 weight
management and ○ 4 regular exercise

Insulin-dependent diabetes Non-insulin-dependent diabetes

Causes Insulin-producing cells in the pancreas Target cells (e.g. liver cells and
are destroyed by the immune system muscle cells) do not respond to
insulin
Production of insulin Little or no insulin is produced Sufficient amount of insulin can be
produced
Risk factors - Hereditary factors - Obesity
- Unhealthy lifestyle, such as over-
eating and lack of exercise
Occurrence Unusually childhood or adolescence Usually later in life
Control methods ○
1 Monitor blood glucose level regularly
○
2 Regular insulin injection, or ○
2 Restricting carbohydrates intake
○
3 Regular insulin inhalation through ○
3 Weight management
nasal cavity ○
4 Regular exercise
25.2 Prevention of Diseases

- With scientific advances, scientists understand the mechanisms of disease better and can develop more
effective ways to prevent diseases

- However, prevention of disease is becoming more and more difficult

- Globalisation allows people to travel across the world frequently and hence increases the speed and
geographic scale of the transmission of infectious disease, e.g. Ebola virus disease and Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome
- People may catch an infectious disease during travel and do not show any symptoms after they returned
home

In developed countries
- Stressful lifestyle and unhealthy eating habits are linked to the incidence of cancers, cardiovascular diseases
and diabetes

In developing countries
- Poverty and poor hygiene are the major causes for many nutrient-deficiency diseases and infectious diseases

A. Vaccination and Immunisation Programme

- Vaccination is the process of introducing a vaccine into the body
- A vaccine is a dose of a weakened pathogen, killed pathogen or its components
- It can induce immunity against the pathogen so that the person is protected from catching the disease

- The first vaccine was made to prevent smallpox 天花

In Hong Kong
- The Department of Health implements a comprehensive immunisation programme provided for all children
from birth to primary 6

Vaccines include:

B.C.G. Vaccine → Prevent tuberculosis

Hepatitis B Vaccine
MMR vaccine (Measles, Mumps & Rubella)
DTaP-IPV vaccine (Diphtheria, tetanus, acellular Pertussis and poliomyelitis)

Remarks:
MMR = Measles 麻疹, Mumps 腮腺炎 and Rubella 德國麻疹
DTaP-IPV = Diphtheria 白喉, tetanus 破傷風, acellular Pertussis 百日咳 and poliomyelitis 小兒麻痺)

B. Healthy Lifestyle

Dos Don’ts

✓ Have a balanced diet  Smoke, abuse alcohol or drugs

✓ Exercise regularly
✓ Have enough sleep and rest
✓ maintain good personal hygiene
✓ Have regular body check-ups
✓ Use condoms during sexual intercourse
 have over-exposure to direct sunlight
 Have exposure to ionising radiations
 Have multiple sexual partners
 Share personal items such as
toothbrushes
 Slimming drugs
- Inhibit central nervous system to inhibit their appetite
- Once they stop having the slimming drugs, their appetite will come back and gain
weight back quickly again

C. Community Health
- Community health awareness by the general public has increased since the outbreaks of various infectious
diseases (e.g. SARS, avian flu 禽流感, swine flu 豬流感)

1. Provision of medical services

- Provides various medical services, such as out-patient clinics, specialist clinics and hospitals

2. Promoting health education

- Promotes health education in schools and through the mass media to educate the public about the
prevention and control methods against diseases

3. Infectious diseases surveillance

- Monitors the local prevalence of diseases
- Carries out timely intervention measures to control the spread of diseases
- Warns the public of any possible health risks

4. Promoting screening programmes

- Encourage the public to take screening tests regularly for the early detection of diseases
- Many diseases are curable if they are detected at an early stage

5. Monitoring water and food safety

- The Water Supplies Department provides clean drinking water
- The Food and Environmental Hygiene Department monitors food safety

6. Maintaining environmental hygiene

- Provides cleansing services to keep the city clean, e.g. street sweeping, street washing and waste collection
Ch 26 Body Defence Mechanism

The Importance of Body Defence

- Body defence prevent pathogens from entering our body and destroy pathogens that have entered our body

- Defence mechanisms of the human body can be grouped into two types according to their specificity of
action
- Non-specific defence mechanisms
- Specific defence mechanisms
-