Ch.

1- light: Reflection and refraction

Important terms with light:
1. Source:
A source of the light is an object, from which light is given out. Some sources of the light are
natural and many other are manmade sources.
(i) Self-luminous. A self-luminous source is that which possesses light of its own. For
example, the sun, the star, electric lamps, candle etc. are self-luminous sources.
(ii) Non-luminous. Non-luminous sources are that which does not possess light of its
own. It receives light from external sources and scatters it to the surroundings. For
example, the moon, a book, a table, a chair, etc. non-luminous sources.
2. Medium.
A medium is a substance through which light propagates or tries to do so. There are three types
of the light.
(i) Transparent. It is the medium through which light propagates easily. For example:
Air, Water, glass are the transparent media.
(ii) Translucent. It is the medium through which light propagates partially. For example:
paper, ground glass etc. are translucent media.
(iii) Opaque. It is the medium through which light cannot propagate. For example Wood,
Metals etc. are Opaque media.
3. Ray.
A ray of light is the straight line path along which light travels. A number of rays combined
together form a beam of light. A narrow beam of light is called a pencil of light.
A pencil of light may be of three kinds:
(i) Convergent Pencil
(ii) Divergent Pencil
(iii) Parallel Pencil

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium on striking
the surface of any object.
Reflection is of two types:
1. Regular Reflection
2. Irregular Reflection of Diffuse Reflection
 1. Regular Reflection.
When the reflecting surface is smooth and well-polished, the parallel rays falling on it
are reflected parallel to one another i.e. the reflected light goes in one particular
direction. This is regular reflection. The smooth and well-polished surface from
which light suffers regular reflection is called a mirror. Silver metal is one of the best
reflectors of light. So, ordinary mirrors are made by depositing a thin layer of silver
metal on one side of a plane glass sheet. The silver layer is protected by a coat of red
paint on the backside of the mirror. The reflection of light in a mirror takes place at
the silver surface. A plane mirror is represented by a straight line.

2. Irregular reflection.
When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected in
different directions. Such a reflection is known as diffuse reflection or irregular
reflection or even scatting of light.

LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT:

1st law: According to the law, the incident ray, the rejected ray and the normal ray (at the point
of incidence), all lie in the same plane.
2nd law: According to the law, the angle of reflection (r) is always equal to the angle of incident
(i).
NOTE: These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surface including
spherical surfaces.
NOTE:
1. When rays of light starting from a point A, after reflection from a mirror, meet actually at
another point B, then the point B is called real image of the point A.
2. When rays of light starting from a point A, after reflection from the mirror, appear to
come from another point B, then the point B is called virtual image of the point A.
3. A real image can be taken on a screen, but a virtual image cannot be taken on the screen.
For example, image formed in a looking glass/plane mirror is virtual as we cannot obtain
image of our face on a screen held behind the mirror.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

Following are the important characteristics of images formed by plane mirrors:
1. The image of a real object is always virtual. Such an image cannot be taken on a screen.
2. The image formed in a plane mirror is always erect i.e. upside of the image is upside of the
object and vice-versa.
3. The size of image in a plane mirror is always the same as the size of the object.
4. The image formed in a plane mirror is as far behind the minor, as the object is in front of the
mirror.
5. The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted i.e. the left side of the object becomes
the right side of the image and vice-versa.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is a part of a hollow sphere of glass.
Spherical mirrors are of two types:
1. Concave mirrors
2. Convex mirrors

CENTRE of CURVATURE, POLE, RADIUS 0F CURVATURE,

PRINCIPAL AXIS AND APERTURE OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR
1. Centre Of curvature (C)
The Centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the Centre of the hollow up sphere of
glass, of which the spherical mirror is a part. The Centre of curvature is usually
represented by the letter C. C is the Centre of curvature of a concave mirror and C is the
Centre of curvature of a convex mirror. Thus, we observe that reflecting surface of a
concave mirror is towards C and the reflecting surface of a convex mirror is on opposite
side of C. In other words, Centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of the
mirror. And Centre of curvature of a convex mirror lies at the back of the mirror.
2. Pole (P)
The pole of a spherical mirror is the Centre of the mirror (and not the Centre of the
Sphere). The pole is usually represented by the letter P. P is the pole of a concave mirror
and P is the pole of a convex mirror. Note that pole of a spherical mirror is also called
vertex the mirror.
3. Radius of curvature (R)
The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the hollow sphere of glass, of
which the spherical mirror is a part. The radius of curvature is usually represented by the
letter R. The distance PC = R represents the radius of curvature of a concave mirror and
the distance PC = R represents the radius of curvature of a convex mirror.
4. Principal axis
The principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line passing through the Centre of
curvature C and pole P of the spherical mirror, produced on both sides. The line XX’ is
the principal axis of a concave mirror. The line XX’ is the principal axis of a convex
mirror. Note that the principal axis is normal to the mirror at its pole.
 5. Aperture.
The aperture of a spherical mirror is the diameter of the reflecting surface of mirror. It is
also called linear aperture of the mirror. It is the portion of the mirror from which the
reflection of light actually takes place. MM’ represents aperture of concave mirror and
MM’ represents the aperture of convex mirror.

PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCUAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR

The principal focus of a concave minor is a point on the principal axis of the mirror, at which
rays of light incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis, actually meet after
reflection from the mirror.

PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCUAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR

The principal focus of a convex minor is a point on the principal axis of the mirror, from which
rays of light incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis, appear to diverge,
after reflection from the mirror.

NOTE:
1. As a convex mirror diverges the parallel beam of light falling on it, therefore, it is called a
diverging mirror.
2. We can show that focal length (f) of a spherical mirror is half the radius of curvature (R) of the
mirror i.e., f = R/2. This formula is valid for both concave and convex mirrors. In both the
mirrors, principal focus F lies at the center of line joining the pole P and center of curvature C of
the mirror. The only condition is that aperture of the spherical mirror must be much smaller than
its radius of curvature.

SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

 The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive.
 The distances measured in a direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken
as negative.
 The heights measured upwards (i.e., above the X-axis) and perpendicular to the principal
axis of the mirror are taken as positive.
 The heights measured downwards (i.e., the below the X-axis) and perpendicular to the
principal axis of the mirror are taken as negative.

NOTE.
In a spherical mirror, focal length (f) of the mirror is half the radius of curvature (R) of the
mirror, i. e., f= R/2.
RULES FOR TRACING IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE MIRRORS
RULE 1. A ray of light falling on a concave mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis of
the mirror passes actually through the principal focus of the mirror, on reflection from the mirror.
RULE 2. A ray of light incident on a concave mirror on passing through Centre of curvature of
the mirror is reflected back along the same path, i.e., such a ray retraces its path in opposite
direction.
Rule 3.A ray of light incident on a concave mirror on passing through focus of the mirror
become parallel to principal axis of the mirror, on reflection.
Rule 4. A ray of light incident obliquely towards the pole P of concave mirror is reflected
obliquely as per the laws of reflection.

SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY

A CONAVE MIRROR
Position of object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
1. At infinity  At focus F  Highly reduced  Real and inverted
2. Beyond C  Between C and F  Diminished  Real and inverted
3. At C  At C  Equal to size of  Real and inverted
4. Between C and F  Beyond C object  Real and inverted
5. At focus F  At infinity  Enlarged  Real and inverted
6. Between focus and  Behind the mirror  Highly enlarged  Virtual and erect
pole of mirror  Enlarged

MIRROR FORMULA
Mirror formula is a relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f)
of a spherical mirror. It can be written as
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = i.e. + =
object distance image distance focal length u v f

Note that object distance (u) is distance of the object from the pole of the mirror; image distance
(u) is the distance of the image from the pole of the mirror and focal length (f) is the distance of
principal focus of the mirror from the pole. If R is radius of curvature of the spherical mirror,
then
f=R/2
 1 1 1 2
The mirror formula can be rewritten as + = =
u v f R
This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION PRODUCED BY A CONCAVE MIRROR

The linear magnification produced by a concave mirror is defined as the ratio of height of
the image (h2) to the height of the object (h1) It is represented by m. i.e.,

height of image (h2 ) h2

Linear magnification ( m )= Or m=
height of image (h1 ) h1

(i) When image is magnified or enlarged, size of image is greater than the size of the
object, i.e. h2>h1.

h2
As m= , therefore m > 1
h1

i.e., linear magnification is greater than one.

(ii) When image is of the same size as that of the object, h2 = h1.

h2
As m= ,m=1
h1

i.e., linear magnification is equal to one.

(iii) When image is smaller than the object, h2 < h1.

h2
As m= ,m<1
h1

i.e., linear magnification is less than one. ++++++++++++++++++++++++100

 Further, in all the ray diagrams we have studied, the object is held above the principal
axis. Therefore, according to New Cartesian Sign Conventions, the height (h1) of the object is
always positive.
The image formed may be real or virtual, depending on the position of the object. Therefore, two
cases arise:
(i) When the image is real, it is inverted, i.e., the image lies below the principal axis.
Therefore, height (h2) of the image is negative. As height of object (h1) is always positive,
therefore,

h2
m= =negative
h1

i.e., linear magnification is negative, when the image is real. Conversely, when linear
magnification is negative, the image formed by concave mirror must be real and inverted.
(ii) When the image is virtual, it is erect, i.e., the image lies above the principal axis.
Therefore. Height (h2) of the image is positive. As height of object (h1) is always positive,
therefore, 3 m = f: = positive, therefore,
h2
m= = positive
h1

i.e., linear magnification is positive, when the image is virtual. Conversely, when linear
magnification is positive, the image formed by concave mirror must be virtual and erect.
The linear magnification (m) of a spherical mirror is also related to the object distance (u)
and the image distance (v). It can be expressed as
h2 −v
m= =
h1 u

Remember that sign of m win be determined always by signs of h2 and h1.

RULES FOR TRACING IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX MIRRORS :

Rule 1. A ray of light falling on the mirror in a direction parallel to principal axis of a convex
mirror appears to be coming from its focus, on reflection from the minor.
Rule 2. A ray of light falling on a convex mirror on passing through Centre of curvature of the
minor is reflected back along the same path i.e. such a ray retraces its path on reflection.
Rule 3. A ray of light falling on a convex mirror on passing through focus of the mirror, becomes
parallel to the principal axis of the mirror, on reflection. This rule is just the reverse of Rule 1
stated above.
Rule 4. A ray of light incident obliquely towards the pole P of a convex mirror is reflected
obliquely such that the incident and reflected rays make equal angles with the principal axis.

Characteristics of Image formed by convex Mirror

Sr. No. Position Of Position Of Size Of Image Nature Of
Object Image Image
1. At Infinity At Focus F Highly Virtual And erect
(Behind The Diminished, Point
Mirror) Sized
2. Anywhere Between P And F; Diminished Virtual And erect
Between Infinity (Behind The
And Pole Of Mirror)
Mirror

REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
This phenomenon of change in the path of light in going from one medium to another is called
refraction of light. Thus reflection of light is the phenomenon of bending of light from its
original path on entering another medium. The reflection occurs right at the boundary of the two
media.

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AN OPTICAL MEDIUM:

The (absolute) refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the
speed of light in the medium.

It is represented by n.
(Absolute) refractive index of a medium

speed of light ∈vaccum

n=
speed of light ∈medium

As the speed of light in air is almost equal to the speed of light in vacuum, therefore, (absolute) refractive
index of a medium

speed of light ∈air(c)

n=
speed of light ∈medium(v )
 c
Or n=
v

For example, refractive index of glass

speed of light ∈air

n glass=
speed of light ∈ glass

3 x 108 3
n glass= = =1.5
2 x 108 2

Similarly, refractive index of water,

speed of light ∈air

n water=
speed of light ∈ water

3 x 108 4
n water= 8
=
2.25 x 10 3

As in vacuum or air (i.e. free space) speed of light (for all wavelengths) is maximum, and equal to c,
therefore, refractive index of free space (air or vacuum) is minimum.
c c
n free space= = =1
v c

As refractive index is a ratio of two velocities, it has no units. It is a pure number.

A medium with higher value of refractive index is said to be optically denser compared to a
medium with the lower value of refractive index.

Note that refractive index is a characteristic property of the medium, whose value depends only on
nature of material of the medium and the color or wavelength of light.
RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX

When light passes from one medium 1 to another medium 2, the refractive index of medium 2
with respect to medium 1 is written as (1n2) and is called relative refractive index:

n2 c /v 2 v 1
1n = = =
2
n1 c /v 1 v 2

n1 c /v 1 v 2
2n = = =
1
n2 c /v 2 v 1

v1 v2
1n × 2n = × =1
2 1
v2 v1

1
1n = 2
2n 1

CAUSE OF REFRACTION

The basic cause of refraction is the change in the speed of light in going from one medium to the
other.

THE LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

1. Whenever light from one medium to another, the frequency of light does not change. However, the
velocity of light and the wavelength of light (i.e. colour of light) change.
2. The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the interface of two media at the point of incidence, all lie
in the same plane. The incident ray AO, the refracted ray OB and normal NON’ to the interface XY, lie in
the same plane, i.e., in the plane of the paper.
3. The product refractive index and sine of angle of incidence at a point in a medium is constant.

i.e., n sin i=constant

n1 sin i1 =n2 sini 2

i 1=i and i 2=r

n1 sin i=n2 sin r

sin i n2
= =1
sin r n1 n 2

i.e. the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the pair of media
in contact. This constant is written as 1n and it represents refractive index of medium 2 (in which
2

refracted ray lies) with respect to medium 1 (in which incident ray lies).

THE DIRECTION OF BENDING OF LIGHT

When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends towards normal at the interface of
two media.
When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, it bends away from normal at the interface
of two media.
A ray of light travelling from a rarer to a denser medium slows down and bends towards the
normal. When the ray travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium, its speed up and bends
away from the normal.

CONDITION FOR NO REFRACTION

 No refraction occurs when the light is incident normally on a boundary of two media.
 No refraction occurs at the boundary that separate two media of equal refractive indices.

TWO REFRACTIONS THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

 A ray of light travelling in air along AB, falls on the face KL of glass slab at B, at angle
of incidence. As the ray is going from rarer medium (air) into denser medium (glass), it bends
towards normal and goes along BC at angle of refraction.
According to Snell’s law,
sin i1 n 8
=
sin r 1 n a

At point C on the boundary MN of glass slab, light is leaving glass slab and entering into
air i.e. it is moving from denser medium (glass) into rarer medium (air).
Therefore, second refraction occurs at C the ray emerges along CD. CD is the emergent
ray after suffering two refractions on the passing through a rectangle glass slab.
For second refraction at C, BC serves as the incident ray, angle of incidence in glass,
angle of emergence, which is angle of refraction in air.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at C, we get
sin r 2 n a
=
sin e n 8

Or

sin e n 8
=
sin r 2 n a

A;-

sin e sin i 1
=
sin r 2 sin r 1

√ r 1= √ r 2

sin r 1=sin r 2

sin e=sin i 1

e=i 1

i.e. angle of emergence (e) at second boundary MN of glass slab is equal to angle of incidence
(i1) at the boundary KL of glass slab. Hence, CD is parallel to AB. Thus,
Light emerges from rectangular glass slab in a direction parallel to that in which it entered the
glass slab.

SPHERICAL LENSES

Some of us use spectacles for reading. We often find watch makers and jewelers using
magnifying glasses to see tiny parts. The glasses used in spectacles and in magnifying tiny parts
are some of the examples of lenses. Lenses are used in photographic camera, microscopes,
telescopes and so many other appliances. In this section, we shall study some details about these
lenses.

A spherical lens is a piece of a transparent refracting material (usually glass), which is

bound by two surfaces. Often, both the surface of a lens are spherical.

Spherical lenses are of two types:

1. Convex lens or converging lens,
2. Concave lens or Diverging lens.

1. Convex lens or converging lens

Such a lens is thick at the Centre and thin at the edges. The two surfaces P and Q binding
the lens are convex (i.e., bulging out) having their own centers of curvature and radii of
curvature. The radii of curvature of the two surfaces may be equal or unequal.
A convex lens is called a converging lens, because it converges the rays of light falling
on it.

2. Concave lens or Diverging lens.

Such a lens is thick at the edges and thin at the Centre. The two surfaces P' and Q'
binding the lens are concave (i.e., curved inwards) having their own Centre of curvature and radii
of curvature. The radii of curvature of the two surfaces may be equal or unequal.
A concave lens is called a diverging lens, because it diverges the rays of light falling on
it.
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS
A convex lens forms the image of an object placed in front of it. Any point on the object acts as a
point source, from which an infinite number of rays start. These rays suffer refraction on passing through
the lens. We can locate the position of the image, the size and nature of the image by considering any two
of the following three special rays. The paths of these rays on refraction through the lens are known as
detailed below:
1. Ray incident on the lens in a direction parallel to the principal axis of convex lens. On refraction,
this my passes through (second) principal focus of the lens located on the other side of the lens.
2. Ray passing through optical Centre C of convex lens passes straight (undeviated) after refraction
through the lens,
3. Ray passing through (first) principal focus F, of convex lens, incident on the lens, becomes parallel
to the principal axis of the lens, after refraction through the lens.

The image is formed at a point where any two of the refracted rays actually meet (for real image) or
appear to meet (for virtual image).

SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY

A CONVEX LENS
Position of object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
1. At infinity  At focus F2  Highly reduced  Real and inverted
2. Beyond 2F1  Between F2 and  Diminished  Real and inverted
3. At 2F1 2F2  Equal to size  Real and inverted
4. Between F1 and  At 2F2  Enlarged  Real and inverted
2F1  Beyond 2F2  Highly magnified  Real and inverted
5. At F1  At infinity  Enlarged  Virtual and erect
6. Between F1 and C  Behind the F1 on
the same side as
the object
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS

1. A ray incident on the concave lens in a direction parallel to the principal axis. On
refraction, this ray appears to come from (second) principal focus of concave lens.
2. A ray passing through optical Centre of concave lens, passes straight (undeviated) after
refraction through the lens,
3. A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens, after refraction,
will emerge parallel to the principal axis of the lens.

Characteristics of Image formed by convex Mirror

Sr. No. Position Of Position Of Size Of Image Nature Of
Object Image Image
1. Between optical Between optical Smaller than Virtual And erect
Centre and infinity Centre C and object
second principal
focus F2
2. At infinity At second Much smaller than Virtual And erect
principal focus F2 object

DISTINCITON BETWEEN CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE LENS

We can distinguish between a convex lens and concave lens without touching them. Keep
the two lenses side by side on any page of a book and look for the image of writing on the page
through the lens. If the writing appears enlarged, the lens is convex. If the writing appears shrunk
(i.e. smaller), the lens is concave. This is because convex lens produces an enlarged image of an
object held between optical Centre and principal focus. And a concave lens produce a diminished
image of an object held object held between optical Centre and principal focus of the lens.

THE NEW CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTIONAL FOR LENSES

The new Cartesian Sign Conventions for measuring various distances/Heights in case of
lenses are similar to the one used for spherical mirrors. However, all distances in lenses are
measured from the optical centre of the lens (instead of pole in case of spherical mirrors).

According to the New Cartesian Sign Conventions:

1. The principal axis of the lens is taken along the X-axis of the rectangular co-ordinate system,
and optical centre C of the lens is taken as the origin.
2 The object is taken on the left side of the lens, i.e., light is incident on the lens from left hand
side.
3. All the distances parallel to the principal axis of the lens are measured from the optical centre
of the lens.
4. The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive.
5. The distances measured in a direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.
6. The heights measured upwards (i.e., above the X-axis) and perpendicular to the principal axis
of the lens are taken as positive.
7. The heights measured downwards (i.e., below the X-axis) and perpendicular to the principal
axis of the lens are taken as negative.

LENS FORMULA
An equation which represent the relation between focal length (f) of a lens, object
distance (u) and image distance (v) is called lens formula.
1 1 1
− =
v u f

LINEAR MAGNIFICATION PRODUCED BY LENS

The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image (I) as
formed by refraction through the lens to the size of the object (O).
¿ image
It is represented by m. Thus linear magnification=
¿ object

A concave lens forms an image which is always smaller than the object. Therefore, Linear
magnification of a concave lens than one.

A concave lens may form an image:

(i) Equal in size to the object (i.e., m=1)
(ii) Less than size of object (i.e., m<1)
 (iii) More than size of object (i.e., m>1)

Therefore, linear magnification of a convex lens can be one or less than one or more than one.
h2 v
m= =
h1 u

Remember that sign (±) of magnification (m) is determined by sign of h1 and h2. For concave
lens, both h1 and h2 are positive. Therefore m is positive. For the convex lens, m is positive when
the image is virtual is real.

POWER OF LENS
Power of a lens id defined as the ability of the lens to converges the rays of light falling on it.
As a convex lens converges the ray of light falling on it, power of a convex lens is said to
be positive. On the other hand, a concave lens diverge the ray of light falling on it. Therefore,
power of concave lens is said to be negative.

Power of a lens is given by reciprocal of focal length of the lens, i.e.,

1
power of lens , P=
focal lenth of thelens ( f )

Clearly, smaller the focal length of the lens, grater is its power and vice-versa.
For a convex lens, f is positive. Therefore P is positive i.e. power of convex lens is positive.
For a concave lens, f is negative. Therefore P is negative i.e. power of convex lens is negative.

S.I unit of power of lens is dioptre represented by D.

1
P(dioptre)=
f (metre)

1 1
When f = 1 m, P= = =1 dioptre.
f 1
Thus, one diopter is the power of a lens of focal length one metre.
POWER OF COMBINATION OF LENS
When a number of thin lens are placed in contact with one another, the power of the
combination is equal to algebraic sum of the power of individual lenses.
If P1 P2 P3…….are the power of individual lens placed in contact with one another, the power P of
the combination is P=P1 + P2 + P3 +. …

For example, when a convex lens of power + 5D is placed with contact with convex lens of
power – 2D, the power of the combination is P=P1 + P2=5 D−2 D=3 D

Thus the combination would behave as a convex lens of power +3D.