EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES OF REINTEGRATED CHILD

OFFENDERS IN OTHAYA REHABILITATION SCHOOL,

NYERI COUNTY– KENYA

BY

NDIRANGU JOSEPH MUCEMI

E55/11194/2004

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF EDUCATION IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF EDUCATION (SPECIAL
EDUCATION) DEGREE OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

September, 2010
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DECLARATION

This research thesis is my original work and has not been presented for any award in any
other university or organization.

Signature __________________ date _________________

NDIRANGU JOSEPH MUCEMI

REG. NO: E55/11194/04

Supervisor’s Approval

We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under
our supervision

1. Signature ___________________ date ________________

DR. JOHN MUGO

Department of Special Needs Education
Kenyatta University.

2. Signature_____________________ date________________

DR. IBRAHIM OANDA

Department of Educational Foundations
Kenyatta University.
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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my beloved parents Mr. Samuel Ndirangu and Mrs. Martha

Wacuka who devoted much of their resources to take me to school. Further I dedicate it

to my wife Jacinta and my children Samuel Ndirangu, Maryann Wacuka and Mark

Maina.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researcher wishes first and foremost to express his gratitude to his supervisors Dr.

John Mugo of the Department of Special Needs Education and Dr. Ibrahim Oanda of the

Department of Educational Foundations for their frank and positive criticisms, guidance,

suggestions and encouragement during the process of writing the proposal and this thesis.

He is greatly appreciative of the lecturers and support staff of the Special Education

Department of Kenyatta University and in particular Dr. Michael Njoroge and Dr.

Geoffrey Karugu for introducing him to Special Needs Education.

The researcher further wishes to appreciate cooperation and support given to him by the

management and the staff of Othaya Rehabilitation School who were very instrumental in

helping him trace and organize face to face interviews with former child offenders of

Othaya Rehabilitation School. He also wishes to thank the management and staff of the

various institutions that allowed and facilitated data collection exercise in their premises.

Finally, the researcher would like to acknowledge and thank all the persons who gave

moral and material support in course of his studies, notably his dear wife Jacinta Wanjiru,

his brother in law Mr. David Kamau and fellow classmates and great friends Mr. Daniel

Kimani, Mrs. Jane Wanyinyi and Mrs. Virginia Wambui. To them all, thank you and God

bless you now and forever.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES.................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... x
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1

1.1 Background to the Study............................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 6
1.3 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Objectives of the Study .......................................................................................... 8
1.4 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Significance of the study............................................................................................... 9
1.6 Delimitations and limitations ...................................................................................... 10
1.6.1 Delimitations…………………………………………………………………….10
1.6.2 Limitations………………………………………………………………………10
1.7 Assumptions of the Study ........................................................................................... 11
1.8 Theoretical and conceptual framework ....................................................................... 11
1.8.1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................ 11
1.8.2 Conceptual framework ......................................................................................... 13
1.9 Operational definitions of terms ................................................................................. 14

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 16

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Juvenile Delinquency and Crime in Modern Times ................................................... 16
2.3 Juvenile Justice Education: Global Perspective .......................................................... 18
2.4 The Juvenile Justice System in Kenya ........................................................................ 21
2.5 Institutions receiving delinquent children in Kenya. .................................................. 23
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2.6 Correctional and rehabilitation programs for children in rehabilitation schools ........ 23
2.6.1 Educational Training Program for children in rehabilitation schools. ................. 25
2.6.2 Vocational training programs. ............................................................................. 26
2.6.3 Guidance and counseling/ therapy programs ....................................................... 27
2.7 Exit, After care and Re-integration of children from rehabilitation schools .............. 28
2.8 Summary of literature review ..................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.................................................................... 34

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 34
3.2 Study design ................................................................................................................ 34
3.2.1 Study variables. .................................................................................................... 34
3.3 The Study Locale ........................................................................................................ 35
3.4 Study Population ......................................................................................................... 36
3.5 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size ........................................................................ 36
3.5.1 Sampling Procedure ............................................................................................. 36
3.5.2 Sample Size.......................................................................................................... 37
3.6 Data Collection Instrument ......................................................................................... 37
3.7 Pilot study ................................................................................................................... 38
3.7.1 Validity ................................................................................................................ 38
3.7.2 Reliability............................................................................................................. 38
3.8 Data Collection Techniques ........................................................................................ 39
3.9 Ethical and logistical considerations ........................................................................... 39
3.9.1 Ethical considerations. ......................................................................................... 39
3.9.2 Logistical considerations. .................................................................................... 40
3.10 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 400

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

........................................................................................................................................... 42
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 42
4.2 Respondents background ............................................................................................ 43
4.3 Experiences of children prior to, during and after rehabilitation. ............................... 47
 vii

4.3.1 Experiences prior to rehabilitation. ...................................................................... 47

4.3.2 Experiences during rehabilitation. ....................................................................... 51
4.4 Skills taught for socio economic empowerment of children in rehabilitation schools 53
4.4.1 Vocational skills training. .................................................................................... 53
4.4.2 Guidance and counseling services ....................................................................... 54
4.5 Educational training in Rehabilitation Schools........................................................... 56
4.5.1 Educational experiences before admission to rehabilitation school .................... 57
4.5.2 Placement upon admission to rehabilitation schools ........................................... 58
4.5.3 Educational curriculum in rehabilitation schools ................................................ 59
4.5.4 Teaching and learning atmosphere in rehabilitation schools. .............................. 60
4.5.5 Teaching and learning facilities in rehabilitation schools.................................... 62
4.5.6 Interference with educational training in rehabilitation schools. ......................... 63
4.6 Exit options utilized by Rehabilitation Schools and their impact on the children‟s
educational path. ............................................................................................................... 64
4.6.1 Preparations for exit from Rehabilitation School ................................................ 65
4.6.2 Exit options utilized by the rehabilitation school ................................................ 66
4.6.3 Post-institutional support ..................................................................................... 68
4.6.4 Reception by the community ............................................................................... 70
4.7 Outcomes of rehabilitation of child offenders ............................................................ 70
4.7.1 Factors that facilitated smooth re-integration into the community. ..................... 73
4.7.2 Factors that hindered smooth re-integration into the community. ....................... 74
4.7.3 How the former rehabilitees were overcoming the challenges ............................ 75
4.7.4 Impact of rehabilitation on the lives of the former students ................................ 75
4.7.5 Comments on the weaknesses of rehabilitation school........................................ 76
4.7.6 Suggestions on how the rehabilitation schools can be improved ........................ 78

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .. 80

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 80
5.2 Summary of Research Findings. ................................................................................. 80
5.2.1 Rehabilitees‟ experiences prior to, during and after rehabilitation ...................... 81
5.2.2 Programs offered to children in rehabilitation schools ........................................ 82
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5.2.3 Opportunity for education and level of interference in rehabilitation schools .... 83
5.2.4 Exit options and their impact on children‟s‟ educational path ............................ 84
5.2.5 Outcomes of rehabilitation and quality of post institutional life ......................... 84
5.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 85
5.4 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 86
5.4.1 Recommendations to the government…………………………………………...86
5.4.2 Recommendations to Othaya rehabilitation school……………………………..89
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research ............................................................................... 90

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 91

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 97
APPENDIX A: Narrative Interview Guide For Rehabilitation School Graduates. .......... 97
APPENDIX: B.Narrative Interview Guide For Rehabilitation School Manager. .......... 101
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure/Table ............................................................................................................. Page

Figure 1.1 Re-integrative versus disintegrative aspects of juvenile

Rehabilitation ..........................................................................................13

Table 4.1 Educational experiences of children before joining

Rehabilitation school .............................................................................57

Table 4.2 Exit options for children at ORS.............................................................66

Table 4.3 Former student rehabilitees current engagement ...................................70

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ANPPCAN African Network for the Prevention and Protection Against Child

Abuse and Neglect

C&P Care and Protection

DCO District Children‟s Officer

DCS Department of Children Services

DPO District Probation Officer

FPE Free Primary Education

GK Government of Kenya

KAACR Kenya Alliance for Advancement of Children

KCPE Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

MOE Ministry of Education

MOEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

ORS Othaya Rehabilitation School

P&D Protection and Discipline

UNICEF United Nations Children‟s Fund

 xi

ABSTRACT

This study sought to document educational life experiences of persons released from
Othaya Rehabilitation School, with an intention of creating information on the
educational path of children who go through rehabilitation schools in Kenya. The
objectives were to: document the educational experiences of children before, during and
after rehabilitation, establish the extent to which rehabilitation school provided
opportunity for continued learning and the level of interference, and determine their
educational outcomes and their impact on the quality of post institutional life. Descriptive
study design was adopted based on life stories of persons who had received rehabilitation
services at the school between the year 2003 and 2007. Eleven former Students of Othaya
rehabilitation school and the Manager of the institution at the time of the study were
sampled through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Data was collected by
narrative interviews administered by the researcher in person. The data collection
instruments were interview schedules that were piloted on two rehabilitation school
graduates who did not take part in the final study. Data was recorded by use of a tape
recorder supported by field notes. It was transcribed into text and analyzed using thematic
analysis approach. The findings revealed that children admitted to Othaya Rehabilitation
School are mainly for Care and Protection (C&P), Protection and Discipline (P&D) and
also some with criminal records. Majority (80%) of the children largely come from
poverty stricken functional families and dysfunctional families in rural areas and urban
slums. Further, the study established that the school offers educational opportunities to all
children committed to that institution regardless of their background so as to ensure that
their committal does not adversely affect their education. The study also found that
majority of the former rehabilitees had successfully reintegrated back in the community,
were satisfied with their lives and that most of them attributed their success to the
rehabilitation school. It was also found out, however, that time allocated to teaching and
learning in rehabilitation schools was inadequate due to interference by other correctional
programs, inadequate teaching staff, lack of clearly formulated exit and aftercare services
leading to exposure of the rehabilitated youth to the very conditions that led them to
delinquency and crime in the first place. Among the recommendations made were that
there should be collaboration between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Home Affairs in providing funds, resources and personnel to rehabilitation schools.
Further, the Government should come up with an after care kit for rehabilitated youth,
involve the parents, guardians, relatives and the community in general in order to help the
youth reintegrate back to the society smoothly. Finally, the researcher is of the opinion
that the government should come up with a diversion program aimed at preventing the
children from coming into contact with the formal justice system and of importance come
up with non-custodial rehabilitative measures for children in need of care, protection and
discipline.
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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Children are greatly treasured in every society. They represent continuity of a generation

and symbol of a society‟s future. They are the greatest national resource and if they fail to

contribute to the general welfare, they become wasteful or destructive, are damaged and

our society is weakened (Shoemaker, 1984). According to Shoemaker (1996), no day

passes without the appearance of some news item carrying a story of crime committed by

youth. This delinquent behavior involves all types of activities committed by the youth

from all backgrounds. Further, Shoemaker (1996) indicates that the problem of juvenile

delinquency and crime has existed for hundreds of years and that numerous commissions,

editorials, reports and government statistics reveal that juvenile delinquency and crime in

children and that of young gangs not only existed but also was a source of concern to

many citizens of Europe and America in the 18th and 19th Centuries.

The African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect

[ANPPCAN] (2001) postulates that in Kenya, Children in Need of Care and Protection

(CNCP) who include child offenders‟ account for over 40% of total children population

in Kenya. KAACR (2003) estimates the number of children in need of care and

protection in Kenya to be about 600,000.

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The streets of many urban centers are full of children of varying ages that engage in all

sorts of ill behaviors ranging from drug abuse, crime to commercial sex. The female

children are giving birth at tender ages bringing forth a new generation of disadvantaged

children. According to The Sunday Nation 4th December 2005, youngsters barely out of

primary school in Nairobi‟s Eastland‟s estates are dying in horrific shootings with police.

According to this department of education Public Law 107-110 „the No Child Left

Behind Act‟ of 2002, juvenile offenders constitute a major portion of the US crime

problem. Consequently the US government has been vigorously pursuing methods of

crime reduction such as quality education services that increase the academic

achievement of and likelihood of successful community reintegration of incarcerated

youths.

In Argentina, after years of advocacy, a national law for the integral protection of

children and adolescents has been enacted, laying groundwork for a juvenile justice

system and calls for institutionalized children to be integrated back into society

(UNICEF, 2010).

In Kenya Children‟s affairs are handled by the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social

Development under the Office of the Vice President. The Ministry has set up the

Department of Children Services (herein after referred to as the DCS), which is the

institutional mechanism responsible for promoting the advancement of children. The

Kenya Government, through the DCS, contribute to the sustainability of children‟s

institutions by helping to maintain the acceptable standards of treatment, service

provided, health status, hygiene and discipline, and by advising their management in the
 3

best interests of the child.

The work of rehabilitating juvenile delinquents in Kenya is undertaken by the

rehabilitation schools as stipulated by the Children‟s Act (Cap 586), Laws of Kenya

(GOK, 2002). When established, the institutions were based on the British borstal system

admitting children who for one reason or another were in conflict with the law (circular

to the magistrates No.1 of 1909).The institutions were expected to re-socialize young

offenders, build their self-esteem and fit them back to the society, but this turned to be

punitive oriented prison for young offenders (Ndunda, 1978).

The functions of rehabilitation schools include among others, provision of social training

by way of disciplining the child, provision of spiritual directions to the child through

religious institutions, provision of academic training to the child to ensure that committal

to the school does not adversely affect schooling, equipping the child with useful skills

which would enable the child to be economically reliant, assisting children obtain

admission to regular schools upon completion of committal period as well as

arrangement for after care services (GOK, 2002).

The quality of juvenile justice schools throughout the world historically has been uneven

and inferior to that of public schools (Bromberg & Thomas, 2006). In America for

instance each state‟s juvenile justice system grew in relation to the states needs and

priorities rather than from a uniform policy and plan thereby resulting in disparate state

systems of juvenile justice systems and practices. For juvenile justice schools, this

fragmentation has contributed to the disparate and inferior quality of educational

 4

programs with juvenile offenders educational needs often ignored and neglected

(Bromberg & Thomas, 2006). However, in a report by Linton (June 2009), detailed

information on the proposed 2010 federal budget reflecting priorities of the new

administration reveal second chance act funding in the department of justice office a

proposed increase from $25 million to $100 million in 2010. These dollars would support

the juvenile offender education and juvenile offender resource centers.

In Kenya, the government addresses the provision of education and training for all

Kenyans as a fundamental to the governments overall development strategy (Ministry of

Education Science and Technology [MOEST], 2005). Government views education as

a long-term objective to provide basic quality education to enhance Kenyans ability to

preserve and utilize the environment for productive and sustainable livelihoods, to

realize the universal access to education for all including disadvantaged and vulnerable

and as a necessary tool for development and protection of democratic institutions of

human rights (MOEST, 2005). In line with this, good progress has been made since the

removal of primary school fees in January 2003 (Dfid, 2009). However this growth has

been disproportionate across different sectors of primary, secondary and tertiary

education (Andango & Mugo, 2007) and although primary education has received most

focus in terms of policymaking, education of children in rehabilitation schools and those

serving prison sentences has not been explicitly addressed. Today, persons of school

going age in prison are being tutored by fellow prisoners because there‟s no government

policy providing for such needs (Wanini, 2009).

According to UNICEF (1999), most of the rehabilitation schools in Kenya were set up
 5

during the colonial era and were intended for a small population, but today, there are

thousands of children. These children are emotionally disturbed and education has low

priority making their path towards academic success difficult and uncertain (Ngundo,

2005). They have limited understanding of what the school is trying to do; based on their

own social and personal problems that distract them from academic work (Galloway,

Bloomfield & Ball, 1982)

According to G.O.K (2002) Cap 586 of the Laws of Kenya, statutory rehabilitation

schools cater for two categories of children. The first category, Protection and Care

(P&C) handles children who are non-offenders but lack responsible parenthood, are

homeless and destitute. The other category, Protection and Discipline (P&D) cater for

juvenile delinquents and those beyond parental control. Human rights watch/ Africa

(1997), says that sometimes children from all categories are mixed together. Peer

influence interferes with learning and even after exiting the program; such children drop

out of school and continue with deviance and criminality eventually ending up in adult

penal institutions (Ngundo, 2005; Wakanyua, 1995). Further, according to the same act,

children are committed to rehabilitation schools for three years or a shorter period as the

court may decide. This duration of committal is not adequate enough to benefit these

children educationally since the courts can revoke them any time.

Ngundo (2005) further states that juvenile delinquents have emotional and behavioral

disorders that need to be given the right professional assistance for them to excel in

academic work. All this depends largely on the expertise of the teacher. While training
 6

the basic courses, teachers ought to cover areas such as special education, child

psychology, sociology, guidance and counseling and practicum (Molly, 1972). However,

provision of quality instructions and related services for children under special

circumstances like in rehabilitation schools has not been adequately emphasized

(MOEST, 2001). Many children now identified with behavioral and emotional disorders

are children who require intensive sustained help from well trained and continuously

available personnel (Kirk & Gallagher, 1983).

Although institutional rehabilitation program for child offenders in Kenya has been in

place since 1910 with thousands of children going through it, and though Kenya is

signatory to most of the international declarations on human rights and education such as

the Jomtein Conference (1990), Dakar conference (2000) and the Millennium

Development Goals (MOEST, 2003; United Nations,1990; World Bank, 2002), such

commitments cannot be achieved without inclusion of children in special segregated

settings as those in rehabilitation schools (Lynch, 1994). At the current rate, millions of

children will not be getting quality education and Education For All (EFA) goals by 2015

may not be achieved. There is therefore need for studies to generate knowledge on the

impact that alternative education institutions such as the rehabilitation schools are making

towards EFA and how the educational path for children in these categories could be

improved.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

It is not enough to simply ensure that child offenders are in school. The quality of

rehabilitation services and especially their education is of paramount concern (Eparis,

 7

2005). The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child is very clear in article 28; “Every

child has a right to quality education that is relevant to his/ her individual development

and life” (UNICEF, 1999). Rehabilitation Schools must therefore consciously promote

acceptance and understanding of children who are different to enable them acquire

intellectual and social tools needed to enable them settle back into the community upon

release from these institutions.

In spite of numerous reforms that have been affected in rehabilitation schools in Kenya

such as enactment of the Children‟s Act and change of name from Approved to

Rehabilitation schools (Kinyua, 2004; Mugo, Musembi & Kang‟ethe, 2006), educational

outcomes of children who have received rehabilitation services have not been satisfactory

(Ndunda, 1978). While some children on release from the institutions come back to the

society reformed, many others on release drop out of school continue with deviance and

criminality and eventually end up in adult penal institutions (Ayora, 2003; Wakanyua,

1995). Since many children sent to rehabilitation schools are emotionally disturbed and

education has low priority, their path towards academic success is difficult and uncertain

(Ngundo, 2005). Further, the program predominantly addresses behavior disorders to an

extent that academic needs are neglected (Cobert, 2001).This raises pertinent questions

on the educational outcomes of children who receive rehabilitation services in statutory

rehabilitation schools. According to Laudman (1993), better educated and vocationally

skilled children are less delinquent.

Though extensive research has been carried out in the area of child rehabilitation in

Kenya, most of the studies (Kinyua, 2004; Mureithi, 1984; Wakanyua, 1995) focused
 8

their attention on institutional phase of rehabilitation, shedding little light on the post

institutional life experiences and especially in the opinion of persons who consumed the

services. This study therefore sought to fill the gap by conducting a biographical research

based on life stories of persons who received rehabilitation services at Othaya

rehabilitation school between 2003 and 2007 with a view to informing the ongoing

reforms in the department of children services.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to determine educational outcomes of persons who were

rehabilitated at Othaya rehabilitation school between 2003 and 2007, document their

educational experiences before, during and after rehabilitation with a view to drawing

lessons that could be of information to the ongoing reforms in the department of children

services.

1.3.1 Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following objectives;

i. To determine educational experiences of children who received rehabilitation

services at Othaya rehabilitation school between the year 2003 and 2007.

ii. To find out whether the rehabilitation schools equipped the children with skills for

social and economic empowerment and self-reliance.

iii. To find out whether the rehabilitation schools provided opportunities for

continued academic training to children to ensure that committal did not affect

their schooling.
 9

iv. To establish exit options utilized by rehabilitation schools and their impact on the

children‟s educational path.

v. To determine educational outcomes and the quality of post-institutional life for

children after rehabilitation

1.4 Research Questions

The study answered the following research questions.

i. What were the educational experiences of persons who received rehabilitation

services at Othaya rehabilitation school between the year 2003 and 2007?

ii. What useful skills for social economic empowerment were the children equipped

with?

iii. What opportunities for continued academic training did the rehabilitation school

provide to the children to ensure that their committal did not affect their

schooling?

iv. Which exit options did the rehabilitation schools utilize and how did they impact

on the children‟s educational path?

v. What were the educational outcomes of the rehabilitation program for children

and how did it affect the quality of their post-institutional life?

1.5 Significance of the study

In September 2006, the department of children services established a reform secretariat

whose mandate is to streamline the provision of children services in Kenya. Among the
 10

major tasks of this secretariat is to draw guidelines for the rehabilitation of children

offenders in Kenya. This process has collected views mainly from staff members of the

rehabilitation institutions and from children undergoing rehabilitation to a smaller extent.

This study had the potential of enriching the process with a new dimension, that is, the

voices of those who have consumed the services and are now established in the

community. In a similar vein, the members of staff and administrators of rehabilitation

schools too could utilize the findings of this study in choosing possible course of action,

that would enable them achieve effective rehabilitation of child offenders under their

jurisdiction. Finally it was expected that this study would also form a basis upon which

other scholars would develop similar studies.

1.6 Limitations and delimitations

1.6.1 Delimitations

This study delimited itself to boys who were rehabilitated at Othaya rehabilitation school

between 2003 and 2007. For more conclusive results, persons rehabilitated in other

rehabilitation schools should have been included. Consequently, findings of the study

may not be generalized to girl‟s rehabilitation schools in the country as each institution

might be experiencing unique circumstances.

1.6.2 Limitations

The study was limited by the fact that since it was a tracer study, the researcher was

uncertain of how many graduates of Othaya rehabilitation school he would be able to

trace and how many among those would be willing to volunteer the required information.

Finally the study was limited by the fact that, there was dearth of literature on post-

institutional life functions of graduates of rehabilitation schools.

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1.7 Assumptions of the Study

The study was based on the assumption that, information to be obtained from the school

administration with details of their former rehabilitee‟s last places of business and/or

residential locations would enable the researcher trace the required number of

respondents. The researcher also assumed that graduates of Othaya rehabilitation school

in spite of the experiences that could have led to their incarceration would be co-

operative and voluntarily share their true life experiences with the researcher.

1.8 Theoretical and conceptual framework

1.8.1 Theoretical Framework

This study was based on the re-integrative shaming theory advanced by John Braithwaite

(1989) and a conceptual framework based on the same theory. Braithwaite (1989)

explores the process of social control known as shaming. According to him, there are two

types of shaming: re-integrative (bringing the offender back into the fold of society) and

disintegrative (shunning the offender for good from society). Consistent with the claims

of labeling theory, he argues that disintegrative shaming does indeed create a class of

outcasts. Offenders are prevented from bonding back into society, and can only become

more entrenched in crime as a result of being branded a criminal.

Re-integrative shaming, however, can be accomplished if there were societal rituals or

gestures of forgiveness, or better yet, ceremonies to decertify the offender as deviant. He

correctly points out that in the United States, because of its high urbanization,

heterogeneity, residential mobility, and ideology of individualism has a surplus of

 12

ceremonies to confer deviant status on people, but few to no ceremonies allowing people

the opportunity to exit the deviant role. Similarly, Garfinkel (1965) has referred to

criminal trials as “status degradation ceremonies”.

In relation to this study, children placed in rehabilitation schools identified by the society

as “crime schools” may make them come out with hardened attitudes and resolve to go

forth and commit more crimes. Further, some of the institutions involve the children in

experiences which stigmatize them as “bad guys” which foreclose upon their possibilities

to extricate themselves from long term careers in deviance. In cases of this nature,

correctional experiences have harmful socio-psychological effects (disintegrative

shaming) upon the persons who are subject to them and therefore deny them

opportunities to exit deviant role.

On the other hand however, re-integrative shaming is accomplished by society‟s rituals

and gestures of forgiveness that seek to decertify offenders as deviant. These include

equipping children with skills of economic empowerment, providing them with quality

and relevant academic training, and providing them with aftercare services that would

help them be reintegrated to regular schools and into the society. These help children fit

themselves back in the society and thus are shielded from recidivism. It is in this context

that the researcher seeks to provide insight on the true life experiences of persons who

have graduated from Othaya rehabilitation school.

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1.8.2 Conceptual framework

Fig. 1.1 Re-integrative versus disintegrative aspects of juvenile rehabilitation

Re-integrative
shaming
Continued schooling
Conformity to
standards
Reduced crime &
delinquency
Low recidivism
Well-adjusted
society

Child offender Rehabilitation school

Truancy Categorization and
Aggression Placement of children
Learning difficulties Rehabilitation programs
Adjustment and services
difficulties Teaching and learning Outcomes of
Social inequalities strategies Rehabilitation
Broken traditional Teaching & learning
values facilities
Broken family Exit strategies/options
networks
Source: Researcher (2010) Aftercare/follow up
programs

Disintegrative
shaming
School dropout
High recidivism
Unemployment
Social misfits
High crime rate
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1.9 Operational definitions of terms

Approved school refers to a term formerly used to refer to rehabilitation schools

Arrest refers to a person being held by police against their wish and which is a pre-

requisite to one being committed to a rehabilitation school

Child Offenders refers to boys between ten to eighteen years of age who commit

repeated acts of a kind, which when carried out by persons beyond the statutory

children court age of eighteen years, is punishable as crime.

Correction refers to the rehabilitation process of changing child offenders to become

responsible citizens.

Educational experiences refers to social economic and educational background of

juvenile delinquent children

Educational outcomes refer to social, economic and academic levels attained by

children as a result of rehabilitation.

Graduates refer to persons who have successfully served committal period in a children

rehabilitation school and are now established in the community.

Juvenile delinquency refers to a special category of offence created for persons under 18

years old as defined by the Children Act (CAP 586) Laws of Kenya

Juvenile remand home refers to a temporary holding center, under the administration of

children‟s department, to which children are committed by the court pending

adjudication of their cases

Manager refers to a member of staff heading a rehabilitation school.

Post institutional life refers to social economic and educational pursuits of children in

rehabilitation schools after rehabilitation

 15

Programs refer to components that make up the rehabilitation process in rehabilitation

schools.

Rehabilitation refers to the attempt to correct the behavior of juvenile offenders through

educational, vocational or therapeutic treatment and reintegrate them to society as

law abiding citizens.

Rehabilitation school refers to an institution established under section five of the

children‟s act to admit child offenders with a view of reforming their behavior.

They were previously known as approved school

Reintegrate refers to the process by which a rehabilitated youth is accepted back into the

society and leads normal life like others of his age

Treatment refers to a rehabilitation sanction that focuses on the child offenders with the

goal of changing their behavior and perhaps their personality.

 16

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

As earlier stated this study intended to document educational life experiences of persons

who have gone through the rehabilitation systems with a view to drawing lessons that

may help in the improvement of the children‟s rehabilitation program in Kenya. Related

literature was reviewed under various themes.

a) Juvenile delinquency and crime in modern times

b) Juvenile justice education: global perspective

c) Juvenile justice system in Kenya

d) Institutions receiving delinquent children in Kenya

e) Correctional and rehabilitation programs for children in rehabilitation schools

f) Exit, aftercare and re-integration of children from rehabilitation schools

2.2 Juvenile Delinquency and Crime in Modern Times

A multitude of factors exist that contribute to the understanding of what leads one to

engage in delinquent behavior. Youth Alive Kenya (2006) postulates that while

biological and psychological factors hold their own merit when explaining crime and

delinquency, social factors can best explain juvenile delinquency. The social causes are

set out in a wide array of theories by criminologists and sociologists ranging from social

learning to rational choice making, functionalism, society conflicts, labeling, social

control, strain and cultural deviance.

 17

Le Roux (1993) observed that majority of the children result to crime and delinquency

due to social-economic and other factors within the family or immediate environment.

Such include addiction to alcohol and drugs, financial problems and poverty, family

relationship, parental and sexual abuse, parental absence from home and collapse of

family structure, collapse of extended family and emergence of vulnerable modern

families in urban areas.

Tutt (1974), conducted studies on factors leading to delinquency and found that poverty

creates a constellation of factors which contribute greatly to delinquency i.e. poor homes

characterized with quarrels and violence and the fathers not taking up their roles of

bringing up the children. These children then become emotionally anxious and feel

insecure and express these feelings by engaging in reckless and delinquent acts, they

establish identity with peer group through gangs.

In traditional African societies, juvenile delinquency was virtually unknown (Wakanyua

1995). This was mainly because there was a stable and integrated way of living with

social, moral and legal laws supporting each other. Today, rapid social change has

brought about new social economic values that have led to the disintegration of the

traditional cultural values. Within this scenario, the problem of child delinquency crime

as a social problem and the mechanisms to cope with it has emerged.

According to Section 119(1) of the Children‟s Act (GOK 2002), a child in need of care

and protection is a child who;

g) Has no parent or guardian, orphaned or destitute,

 18

h) Is found begging or receiving alms

i) Has no parent or parents in prison

j) Parents find it difficult in parenting him/her

k) Is a truant or falling into bad association

l) Is prevented from receiving education or

m) Is engaged in the use of or trafficking of drugs or any other substance that may be

harmful

How the above is put into consideration in the placement of children in rehabilitation was

of interest to this study.

2.3 Juvenile Justice Education: Global Perspective

According to Corwin (2005), throughout the history, correctional education has served a

variety of purposes such as controlling behavior, improving the quality of life inside the

institution, providing a way for inmates to broaden their understanding and knowledge

base and to acquire basic academic and vocational skills via a positive academic

experience; training inmates in moral and civic responsibility; providing them with the

opportunity to change their personal behavior and values; reducing recidivism, and

providing a more educated workforce to support the overall operation of the institution.

In many respects these functional purposes continue today and correctional educators

are now deeply involved in the larger social, political and educational movement for

educational improvement through relevant standards.

In USA, juvenile correctional education has been evolving over the last 360 years

(Keeley, 2004). From inclusion in an indentured servant/foster care type of placement

 19

legislated in the Massachusetts Colony in 1642, it has become manifest today as an

entitlement regardless of juvenile justice disposition. The education for juveniles was

wrapped in the cocoon of the dominant justice system throughout the history of the

United States. Its emergence was initially indistinguishable because education was

incidental to other incarceration management and treatment modalities. Keeley further

explains that, to the delinquent youth who were known by many names, educational

opportunities were not to be found in public school system. They presented problems and

challenges to the public and school officials who were alarmed because of the conflicts

that arose. "In the interest of order and school harmony, educators largely ignored these

children, preferring to expel or suspend them from school and leave their fates to the

courts".

Corwin (2005) says today, educational programming in juvenile correctional facilities in

USA closely reflects the education provided in public schools. Education is mandatory

for all juvenile offenders and educational programs and juvenile correctional facilities are

required to follow the same laws and practices as their public school counterparts. For

instance, if a student must be in a restricted status either for behavior or medical issues,

he or she must still continue to receive educational programming. In addition, teachers of

juvenile delinquents are required to maintain current certification in the subject that they

teach and finally, most juvenile correctional education programs grant school credits,

which are accepted by the home school as long as the programs follow the school

district‟s guidelines for length of time in classes.

In Europe, German model of juvenile rehabilitation, or restorative justice, is an example

 20

of a juvenile justice system focused on rehabilitation (OMCT, 2007). Here, German

criminal justice system predominately aims at educating the juvenile and providing for

special sanctions. The current juvenile justice administration of Germany emphasizes

release and discharge of child offenders when the severity of the offence is balanced

with “social and/or educational interventions that have taken place. Included in

Germany‟s innovative system of juvenile justice and rehabilitation is the equal value

given to efforts of reparation to the victim, participation in victim-offender

reconciliation (mediation), and education programs. OMCT (2007) says that, between

1982 and 1990, incarceration of juveniles in Germany decreased more than 50%.

In the Far East, New Zealand Family Group Conference Model of Juvenile Rehabilitation

perhaps represent a good option available to states in improving their juvenile justice

practices (OMCT, 2007). The purpose of the Family Group Conference in New Zealand

is to establish a safe environment in which the young person, who has committed the

offense, is dealt with by the community. It consists of three integral components. First,

the participants seek to ascertain whether or not the young person admits to the offense.

Next, information is shared among all the parties at the Conference about the nature of

the offense, the effects of the offense on the victims, the reasons for the offense any prior

offending by the young person, and other information relevant to the dialogue. Third, the

participants decide on an outcome or recommendation.

In South Africa, Gast (2001) says education in the juvenile justice system entails much

more than just the formal classes and curriculum offered to young offenders. Many
 21

institutions do not offer the regular curriculum but runs an NSS and NIC course, which is

equivalent to the regular high school course load but is focused on business and

entrepreneurial skills. Besides a strictly academic curriculum the Youth Centers offers

extensive training courses in their workshop classrooms. There is a metal shop, glass

shop, woodworking class, leather works class, and basket-making and pottery. The Labor

Department also runs courses, which include welding and panel-beating. Finally, sports

are played twice a week in the afternoon, the President‟s Award Program is offered, and

there is a basic Radio Program.

On the staffing side of things Gast says that, the new protocol calls for a residential

education staff with professionals in various specialties such as psychology and social

work emphasizing the individual treatment and development of the young men and

women under their care.

2.4 The Juvenile Justice System in Kenya

According to Save the Children Kenya Program (2000), there is no clear differentiation

between juvenile justice and welfare issues within the current national policies,

legislation and practices. As a result, there exists some confusion regarding definition of

justice, crime and welfare issues. Current practices seem to emphasize the social control

of children in need of special protection through the juvenile justice system. Further, save

the children Kenya says that in some cases, institutions within the juvenile justice system

seem to provide a welfare response for children categorized as being in need of care and
 22

protection. The most common example as given by Save the Children Kenya (2000), is

when children living and working on the streets are apprehended and detained by law

enforcement officials and in absence of any crime having been committed are often taken

to court as being in need of protection and discipline for such status offences as being

beyond parental control, truancy and begging. Accordingly, such children, the paper says

are either repatriated or as often the case, are committed to rehabilitation schools which

are essentially correctional facilities.

In other cases, children categorized as being in need of Care and Protection who for

whatever reason cannot receive care within their families or communities are also

committed to rehabilitation schools which because they provide education and care are

seen as being beneficial to those children (Human Rights Watch, 2005).

A major issue of concern is that though Section 119(2) of the Children Act requires that

children in need of Care and Protection (C&P) be placed in separate facilities from child

offenders, institutions where these children are held do not do enough to ensure there

separation of children by age or separation of offenders from non-offenders. This raises

the risk of abuse and contamination of non-offenders by those more prone to offending

behavior.

According to Organization Mondiale Contre la Torture (OMCT) (2007), many children in

Kenya are treated as child offenders for the sole reason that they are in a poor social

situation and thus many of them are committed to same settings as children in conflict

with the law. This study was interested in finding out the extent to which categorization
 23

of children is actually done in our rehabilitation school s in Kenya.

2.5 Institutions receiving delinquent children in Kenya.

According to OMCT (2007), there exits different kind of institutions in Kenya, receiving

two categories of children, that is those in need of Protection and Care (P& C ) and those

Children in Need of Protection and Discipline (P&D). Sections 47 to 58 of the children‟s

act provide for rehabilitation schools, remand homes and charitable institutions. Borstal

institutions are only mentioned in section 55(1) which describes them as settings where

children over 16 years are committed when they display difficult character, inappropriate

influence or being persistent absconder.

According to United Nations Children‟s Fund (UNICEF), 1999, there are eleven

rehabilitation schools in Kenya ten for boys and one for girls. Most of them were set up

during the colonial period and intended to cater for a small population but today, they

cater for over seven thousand. This made it necessary for the researcher to find out the

extent to which congestion of children in rehabilitation schools affected teaching and

learning especially in terms of provision of resources and consequently, their educational

outcomes.

2.6 Correctional and rehabilitation programs for children in rehabilitation schools

According to UNICEF (1986), the objectives of rehabilitation schools are:

a) Provide social rehabilitation and training of children by way of discipline and

counseling.

b) Provide spiritual direction for the children by introducing religious instructions

 24

by different denominations through chaplaincy work.

c) Ensure continuous good health of the children through balanced diet and

hygienic living conditions and also regular physical exercise.

d) Equip children with useful skills which will help them be economically

independent or self-reliant on their return to society.

e) Provide academic training to the children and to ensure that their committal to

rehabilitation school does not affect their schooling.

f) Assist them obtain admission to normal secondary schools, those who pass the

necessary trade test certificates upon attaining 18 years.

While the above objectives are generally good and acceptable, the extent to which

rehabilitation schools apply them is questionable. Mbugua (1987) postulates that,

rehabilitation schools should ideally replace the home atmosphere which the children

have not had and will not probably experience due to their committal. Mere exposure of

children to school routine and discipline is not certain to be helpful. How the institution

tries to fulfill this role, and especially in the opinion of persons who have consumed these

services is of central concern to this study.

According to Bohm (1997), many of the human services and programs found in the free

society are duplicated within the institutions of rehabilitation in America. At minimum,

the rehabilitees are fed, clothed and provided with such basic necessities as shelter and

health care needs. Those hoping to better themselves during their incarceration normally

have the opportunity to participate in a number of rehabilitation programs such as work

 25

programs, educational and vocational programs and counseling and/or therapy programs.

According to the Children‟ Act (GOK, 2002) rehabilitation schools in Kenya offer

academic training programs, vocational training programs, and also guidance and

counseling/ therapy programs

2.6.1 Educational Training Program for children in rehabilitation schools.

In Kenya, primary education is the first cycle of the national 8-4-4 education system

under which rehabilitation schools fall (Kamunge, 1988). The entry for this level is 6

years so that children complete the cycle at 14 years.

According to the Ministry of Education (MOE) (1996), the objectives of primary

education include among others;

i. Acquisition of literacy, numeric and manipulative skills

ii. Develop self-expression, self-discipline, self-reliance and full utilization of

child‟s senses

iii. Acquisition of a suitable basic foundation for the world of work

iv. Enable children develop a sense of awareness and understanding of the

immediate environment and foster positive attitude towards others and

v. Enable children grow towards maturity and self-fulfillment as useful and well-

adjusted members of the society

At the end of the 8th year of education, pupils sit for a national terminal examination

whose objective is to rank candidates according to attainment of knowledge, skills and

 26

attitudes and also to provide performance criteria for selecting pupils to secondary

schools and post primary technical training institutions.

A major criticism of education in rehabilitation schools is that the duration of committal

is not adequate enough to benefit those children fully since their stay in the program

depends on court orders that can be revoked any time (Ngundo 2005). Hence the main

problem of the study was that, the critical factor in the teaching and learning of children

in rehabilitation schools has not been well conceptualized.

2.6.2 Vocational training programs.

According to Bohm (1997), vocational training has long been assumed that it can be

rehabilitative by improving rehabilitees‟ skills and providing them with skills that will

help them improve their marketability upon release. In America, Bohm says that many

vocational programs operate as part of the job assignment. Further they are geared

towards traditional blue-collar employment such as welding and auto mechanics.

In Kenya, vocational training skills offered in rehabilitation schools include among

others, carpentry, sign writing, masonry, electrical wiring, tailoring, tin smiting, basketry

and agriculture (Ngundo, 2005). This study wanted to establish their relevance to

economic demands today and whether indeed the rehabilitated persons use them to meet

their daily needs.

 27

2.6.3 Guidance and counseling/ therapy programs

As for counseling and therapy Bohm (1997) says that a wide range of counseling

techniques and therapy modalities are used in correctional facilities across America.

Suffice to say that the techniques and modalities used at given institutions ordinarily

reflect the training and professional orientation of the treatment staff, case workers,

religious counselors, social workers, psychologists and psychiatrists. Further, he says that

a distinction is usually drawn between individual counseling which involves one to one

interaction between the counselor and the rehabilitee and group counseling, which

involves interaction between the counselor and a small group of rehabilitees. Those

categories however, Bohm says may overlap because those who are involved in

individual counseling may also be in group counseling and many techniques and

principles used in individual counseling are also applied in group settings. Still the

distinction has merit because individual counseling is more appropriate for some

rehabilitees such as those with deep rooted problems who require long term help and

group counseling is more appropriate for those who are defensive, manipulative and

prone to denying their problems. This study wanted to find out whether individual and

group counseling is done to children in rehabilitation schools and the extent to which it

helps modify their behaviors and improve inter personal relationships upon release.

Bohm on the other hand observes that though institutional programs are good, they are

also plagued with a variety of problems that hinder their ability to affect rehabilitation.

He says that counseling and therapy programs operate against the harsh realities of prison

environment where custody and security ordinarily take priority over rehabilitation. Also,
 28

many counseling programs place near exclusive emphasis on persons past and future with

insufficient attention given to present coping patterns. This study was therefore interested

in analyzing the opinions of persons who have gone through the system, establish how

the programs emphasized in our rehabilitation schools are administered in such an

environment and if indeed they help the person‟s reform upon release.

2.7 Exit, After care and Re-integration of children from rehabilitation schools

According to Kakihara (2004), persistent environmental factors are present in juvenile

delinquency. Therefore Environmental adjustment services play an essential role in the

rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents. As widely known, there is a strong possibility that

rehabilitees might repeat offences after returning to the community, unless environmental

factors have been improved. In order to make juvenile rehabilitation successful, it is vital

to correct or adjust the environment for juveniles while they are in custody.

According to Kakihara (2004), in environmental adjustment, the following factors are

examined and adjusted when necessary.

a) Family conditions of the victim

b) Conditions of the neighborhood

c) Feelings of the community about the misconduct of the rehabilitee

d) Compensation made by the rehabilitees family and the feelings of the victims

e) The rehabilitees living conditions and relationships with friends and

acquaintances before custody of training school.

 29

f) Prospects for school work, occupation and living after release from training

school

g) Motives for and causes of misconduct and other relevant information

It was therefore important to establish whether similar programs exist in Kenya and to

extent environmental adjustment is done before rehabilitees are released to the

community by our rehabilitation schools in Kenya.

Kakihara (2004) further says that, environmental adjustment activities include

consultation with concerned parties, interviews and communication with rehabilitees and

cooperation with training schools and other agencies involved. Probation officers visit the

prospective homes to determine the feasibility of a rehabilitees return there. If any

negative factors are found during the adjustment process, efforts are made to remove

them in cooperation with family members. It was therefore necessary to find out whether

probation officers carry out similar investigations before releasing children to the society.

Kakihara (2004) goes on to say that, when no family is willing to accept the rehabilitee

after his/ her release, efforts are made towards finding appropriate employer, friend,

halfway house or a person who will offer comparable assistance to him in re-integrating

into the community. Further she explains that, because support and understanding from

the family is crucially important for juveniles to rehabilitate themselves and not commit

another offence, some probation officers hold group work meetings of voluntary basis for

the family of special category rehabilitees such as drug abusers and gang members. In the
 30

meetings the officers provide with information about the particular mental mechanism of

the misconduct and the problems faced by the juveniles. Moreover they educate the

family to be good supporters of the juvenile rehabilitation.

In Kenya, Wakanyua (1995) found that recidivism results among rehabilitated juveniles

mostly from ineffective behavior modification processes and unstructured exit

procedures. Their inability to cope emanates from feelings of inadequacy aggravated by

stigma and lack of acceptance from the community. As a result the child either rebels

from the system or retreats to a perceived cheaper life option. It was crucial therefore, to

examine the way we carry out exit, take stock of the quantity and quality of the services

offered in preparation for exit, especially in the opinion of those who have gone through

the system and consolidate the lessons that we have accumulated over the years that

might suggest on how these services can further be improved

Concerning aftercare, and re-integration, the Government of Kenya (G.O.K, 2005) says

that the ultimate aim of aftercare services is to reduce recidivism (re-offending behavior).

A reduction in offending behavior by released offenders should therefore be an indication

of a successful rehabilitation and re-integration. The main concern of the aftercare there

fore should be towards improving the quality of life of the released and their families.

This could be by helping them in finding accommodation, employment training,

education and acquiring appropriate social skills. Of importance to note is that the

situation to which an offender returns upon release from penal institutions and the

environments he continues to live in have great impact on his/her immediate subsequent

behavior.
 31

Successful aftercare should have a direct effect of improving the social welfare of a

particular individual his immediate family as well as the community which in turn helps

creating and maintaining a good environment for social, economic development.

According to Bohm (1997), aftercare involves the provision of services to assist youth in

successfully making the transition from institutions of rehabilitation to life back in the

community. The services are the same as those provided by other types of community

based programs and may include foster care, shelter, home placement or efforts to help

the youth live on their own.

Altschuler (1998) in Howell (2003) found that, the few well designed evaluations of

aftercare programs that have been completed have shown mixed results. According to

Howell (2003), one correctional aftercare program that has produced very positive short

term effects is the Life skills 95‟ program in California‟s San Bernadino and Riverside

counties after care program for youthful offenders released from California Youth

Authority. The reintegration approach of this program is based on „lifestyles‟ awareness

program which is grounded on William Glaser‟s widely acclaimed „reality therapy‟

approach. A main objective of the interactive life skills 95‟ program is to “reinforce the

small steps” of progress while addressing fears of the real world confronted by the newly

released parolee.

In Japan, Kakihara (2004), says the government has opened halfway houses which are

places established to provide rehabilitees with opportunity to deal with sudden changes.
 32

There, they are provided with aftercare services such as accommodation and counseling.

They also help them secure employment within the community and also provide them

with treatment for drugs, social skills training and special vocational guidance. This study

wanted to find out whether the rehabilitation schools make any follow up of children

once they release to enable them fit back into the community.

2.8 Summary of literature review

Literature review for this research has been gathered from America, Europe, Far East and

Africa. Literature from America reviewed treatment effectiveness for juvenile programs

and found that for most, part, “nothing works” and that in fact; many juvenile programs

make the problem worse and exacerbate recidivism. Similarly, literature from Africa

showed that rehabilitation services and aftercare services were inadequate and that those

released from the institutions found it difficult to fit back in society due to the stigma of

“inmates” or “young rascals” and lack of opportunities for the children‟s self-

advancement after committal. However, one study pointed out that, though rehabilitees

had cynical attitude towards committal to rehabilitation school, which they considered

unfair, he found that at least 65% of those children sent to rehabilitation schools returned

to the society reformed while only about 30% recidivated suggesting that rehabilitation

schools are the most effective correctional facilities in Kenya.

On the other hand, review from Far East cite successful aftercare and reintegration

institutions in Japan known as half way houses which facilitate smooth transition of

juveniles from custody to the community

 33

It is worthy to note that these studies focused their attention largely on views of persons

under rehabilitation giving little attention to those who had been released and already in

the in the community. The studies also strongly expressed need for further research on

the ways persons who graduate from rehabilitation schools adapt themselves in the

community upon release and as such reinforced the need for the current study.

It is on the basis of the above stated recommendation that this current study went further

to conduct a biographical research based on experiences of persons who graduated from

Othaya rehabilitation school in central province between 2003 and 2007, in order to

establish how the services impacted on their lives and how in their opinion they would

have liked to see things done.

 34

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section presents the methodological approaches to be employed in this study.

Specifically it details the study design, the study area, population, sample and sampling

procedure, data collection instruments and procedures, development of the research

instruments and data management and analysis, ethical and logistical considerations.

3.2 Study design

This was a qualitative tracer study employing descriptive design. According to Robson

and Thomas (2002), this design is appropriate in studying new phenomena which have

not been extensively studied and where participants are located in different uncertain

locations. This method is useful in situations where the sample size is small and

therefore, was essential for this study because it allowed soliciting of data from each

individual as the study progressed, opening up new domains of information area.

3.2.1 Study variables

According to Gay (1961), independent variables are the ones which make a difference

while the dependent variables are the „effect‟ which is determined to occur or not to

occur. In this study, the process of rehabilitation and the rehabilitation programs offered

to children in rehabilitation schools were the independent variables which were either re-

integrative or disintegrative. The dependent variables were the social, economic and
 35

educational outcomes of rehabilitation such as admission to and continued schooling in

regular primary, secondary and tertiary institutions/schools, career pursuits, conformity

to social standards, social reintegration, low recidivism rates, and reduced crime and

delinquency on one hand as re-integrative shaming, and school dropout, high recidivism

rates, unemployment, socioeconomic dependence and increased crime and delinquency

on the other hand as disintegrative shaming.

3.3 The Study Locale

The study was conducted among graduates of Othaya Rehabilitation School, one of the

eleven rehabilitation schools in Kenya. Othaya is located in Nyeri County approximately

150 kilometers north east of Nairobi. Scantly available records showed that the school

was originally a detention camp in the early 1950‟s for those arrested as a result of their

involvement in Mau Mau activities (Mugo et al, 2006). After the Mau Mau, many

children were orphaned or displaced hence need for care and protection. On the basis of

this, Othaya was gazetted as an Approved school on March 1959 to cater for boys below

16years of age (Mugo et al, 2006).

File records at Othaya Rehabilitation School showed that the school had been receiving

children from all over the country categorized as in need of Protection and Care (P & C),

children in need of Protection and Discipline (P & D) and also children convicted of

delinquent offences. Persons who graduated from Othaya rehabilitation school were

found to be ideal for this study because they come from different parts of Kenya. Further,

past studies were largely based on institutions near Nairobi and thus the need to get

alternative views from the rural based, Othaya rehabilitation school.

 36

3.4 Study Population

The population of the study comprised of 130 persons who were rehabilitated at Othaya

Rehabilitation School between 2003 and 2007 (File records ORS, 2007). Those Persons

were found suitable for the study because they received rehabilitation services following

enactment of the Children Act in 2001 and its subsequent entry to force in March 2002

and their recollections about rehabilitation were fresh in their minds. Those who were

rehabilitated before 2003 have been found to be unsuitable because considering the time

that had elapsed, there was uncertainty over how objective their responses would be and

further, it would have been difficult to trace their whereabouts.

3.5 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size

3.5.1 Sampling Procedure

This study used a combination of purposive sampling and snowball sampling techniques.

According to Creswell (2005), in purposive sampling, researchers intentionally select

individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon. It allows the

researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to objectives of the

study.

The researcher purposively sampled the rehabilitation school manager on the basis that

being the person in charge of the institution, she was the only person who participated

directly and actively in admission, correction and release of children from rehabilitation

school and therefore the only person who could give first hand, accurate and reliable

information about ORS and thus enable the researcher have deeper insight of the
 37

phenomena under study. Using the information obtained from the school administration

on the respondent‟s last place of residence, the researcher purposively sampled eleven

former student rehabilitees from Nyeri County. Initially the researcher successfully traced

and interviewed six out of the eleven former student rehabilitees. At this level snowball

sampling technique (Creswell, 2005) was used to complement the list of the purposively

sampled respondents. The six identified subjects named and helped trace others that they

knew had the required characteristics until the researcher got the desired number. The

techniques were suitable for the study because target respondents were located in

different uncertain locations and the researcher solely relied on their availability and

willingness to participate.

3.5.2 Sample Size

The sample comprised of eleven (11) former student rehabilitees and the rehabilitation

school Manager who was in charge of the school at the time of the study. According to

Creswell (2005), in qualitative inquiry, the intent is not to generalize to a population but

to develop an in-depth exploration of a central phenomenon which diminishes with the

addition of each new individual.

3.6 Data Collection Instrument

A narrative interview was used to solicit information from respondents. Narrative

interview is a form of biographical interview in which the researcher writes and records

the experiences of another person‟s life in which the respondent‟s stories constitute data

which the researcher gathers through interview or informal conversation (Creswell,

 38

2005). The interview dwelt on the respondent‟s social, economic and educational

experiences before, during and after rehabilitation, outcomes of rehabilitation and the

quality of former students post institutional life. This instrument was found to be

appropriate since it gave the respondents more opportunity to participate in the study and

thus opened up more knowledge domains for a clear understanding of the phenomenon

under consideration.

3.7 Pilot study

3.7.1 Validity

Validity tells us whether an item measures what it is supposed to measure or describe

(Bell, 1993). To enhance validity, a pilot study was conducted on two rehabilitation

school graduates, one from Othaya and another from Kabete both of whom did not

participate in the main study. Convenience sampling technique was employed for the

exercise. The objective was to assess the clarity of the instrument such that items found to

be inadequate were discarded or modified in order to improve on validity. In addition,

presentation was done at the special education department of Kenyatta University to help

fine tune the study tool and strategy before field work.

3.7.2 Reliability

Doing qualitative research is a tricky exercise that requires greater involvement of the

researcher in the entire process. In order to reduce levels of biases and increase the levels

of reliability, the research instruments were extensively discussed with experts in

research and in the subject area in order to sharpen and improve its appropriateness.
 39

3.8 Data Collection Techniques

The researcher employed interview type of data collection. Using information that was

provided by the school administration, the researcher traced and organized for one-to-one

interviews with the graduate respondents. One-to-one interview is a data collection

process in which the researcher asks questions to and records answers from only one

participant in the study at a time (Creswell, 2005). During the interview and with the

consent of the respondent, questions and responses were tape recorded to give an accurate

record of the conversation. Brief notes and verbatim statements where necessary were

jotted in a notebook in the event the tape recorder malfunctioned. Most of the

respondents initially hesitated to have the interviews audio-recorded but with assurances

by the researcher they agreed and opened up new knowledge domains that added flavor

to this study. The management of GK King‟ong‟o prisons however declined to have one

respondent serving jail term audio recorded citing security concerns.

3.9 Ethical and logistical considerations

3.9.1 Ethical considerations

Ethical issues need to be anticipated in qualitative data collection because one spends

considerable time with participants (Creswell, 2005). According to the draft bill of the

constitution of Kenya review commission (Republic of Kenya, 2003), every citizen has a

right to privacy, which includes the privacy of their communications. For these reasons,

the researcher sought direct consent from the participants to use a tape recorder. In

addition, participants used anonymous names and were also assured that the information
 40

would be kept confidential, used for the stated purpose only and that no undesirable

persons would have access to it. For a respondent serving jail term at GK Kingo‟ng‟o

prison, responses were jotted down in the notebook

3.9.2 Logistical considerations

Before proceeding for fieldwork, the researcher obtained a data collection permit from

the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) for the exercise. In addition,

consent letters were sought from the Director, Department of Children Services and the

Commissioner of Prisons in the office of the Vice President and Ministry of Home

Affairs to allow access to rehabilitation schools and prisons.

3.10 Data Analysis

The data obtained from the study were largely qualitative. The answers and responses

from the narrative interviews were transcribed and recorded on notebooks. Verbatim

statements were also recorded. These notes were then analyzed using content analysis to

classify the ideas into themes that were identified through generation of meanings from

text according to various target themes, namely;

a) Experiences before, during and after rehabilitation

b) Rehabilitation programs offered to children in rehabilitation schools

c) Opportunity for continued learning in rehabilitation schools and the level of

interference.

d) Exit options utilized by rehabilitation schools and their impact on the children‟s‟

educational path
 41

e) Outcomes of the rehabilitation program and the quality of post institutional life.

This allowed for the trends established to be interpreted according to the themes that in

turn helped answer research questions posed in chapter one.

 42

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter contains data presentation and discussions from narrative interviews of

eleven former students of ORS and one Manager who was in charge of the institution at

the time of the study. The data collected using tape recorder and field notes was analyzed

using content analysis, classified into themes that were identified through generation of

meanings from the text according to various target themes and presented as follows;

i. Respondents background,

ii. Life experiences of children prior to, during and after committal to rehabilitation

school,

iii. Skills taught for socio economic empowerment to children in rehabilitation

schools,

iv. Opportunities for educational training in rehabilitation schools and the level of

interference,

v. Exit options utilized by the rehabilitation schools and their impact to the

children‟s educational path

vi. Educational outcomes of the rehabilitation program and the quality of post-

institutional life.
 43

4.2 Respondents background

This section gives brief narratives of the Eleven respondents (former ORS students)

citing their background, rehabilitation period and the socio economic activities they were

involved in at the time of the interview. This enabled the reader get insight on the

background of the respondents. The names of the persons who participated in this study

were withheld in order to maintain confidentiality.

Respondent 1:
Age: 15 years
Rehabilitation period: January to December 2007
Place of interview: Thunguma children‟s home, Nyeri.
Interview date: 6/5/2009
He was born in Kinoru area in Meru in 1994. He was left as an infant by the parents
under unexplained circumstances and thus brought up by grandparents who afforded him
education up to standard 5. His grandfather subjected him to manual labor at home
leading to him escaping from home and consequently dropped out of school. He was on
the streets for two years colleting and selling scrap metal up to 2006 when he was
apprehended and committed to ORS for protection and discipline (P&D). He escaped in
2007 and went back to the streets of Nyeri town, where he was re-arrested and taken to
Thunguma children‟s home. At the time of interview, he was preparing to sit for KCPE at
the end of the year.

Respondent 2:
Age: 25 years
Rehabilitation period: 2005 to 2007
Place of interview: Thunguma children‟s home, Nyeri.
Interview date: 6/5/2009
Samuel (not his real name), was born in Kayole slums in Nairobi, brought up as an
orphan after he was abandoned by parents at birth. He lived with well-wishers mainly
engaged in begging, scavenging, collection of scrap metal and snatching items from the
public. He was arrested and committed to rehabilitation school for care and
protection(C&P). He had been to Kericho, Machakos and Othaya rehabilitation schools.
At the time of the interview he was under the guardianship of ORS who had taken him to
 44

Thunguma children‟s home to pursue a vocational training course under a Japanese

sponsor.

Respondent 3:
Age: 18 years
Rehabilitation period: 2000 to 2005
Place of interview: Kenyatta High School, Othaya
Interview date: 15/4/2009
He was born in 1991 and brought up in Kiandutu slums in Thika. His parents separated
when he was 7 years and consequently dropped out of school at standard 3 due to poverty
and being labeled as a street boy in school by teachers and peers. He lived on the streets
of Thika town where he was arrested on request by his mother and committed to ORS.
There he excelled in education and scored 335 marks in KCPE 2005 and proceeded to
Kenyatta high school in Othaya. At the time of the interview he was a KCSE candidate
who had hopes of pursuing his university education. He was also a talented footballer, a
talent realized and nurtured at ORS.

Respondent 4:
Age: 17 years
Rehabilitation period: 2004 to 2007
Place of interview: Othaya Boy‟s High School,
Interview date: 7/5/2009
Albert (not real name) was born of a father from Marsabit and mother from Nyeri. Soon
after birth, parents separated and the mother remarried in Karatina. Later the mother died
and he was left with a foster father who was cruel to him and thus escaped to the streets
of Karatina town. He was arrested on request by his aunt, committed to rehabilitation for
Protection and Care (P&C). He posted good results in KCPE 2007 and was admitted at
Othaya Boy‟s Secondary School where at the time of the interview he was in Form
Three.
 45

Respondent 5
Age: 26 years
Rehabilitation period: 1996 to 2004
Place of interview: Kingongo Maximum Prison,
Interview date: 22/5/2009
He was the last born in a family of seven, brought up in Gatitu village on the outskirts of
Nyeri town. The father was a prominent businessman and the family was economically
stable. He accidentally pierced a fellow pupil with a pencil in the eye and this landed him
to a rehabilitation school for C&P. He was in rehabilitation schools for 8 years that is
Kericho, Machakos and Othaya. He trained as Radio /TV technician enabling him to
open a repair shop in Nyeri. It‟s in this shop that he handled stolen goods that landed him
in jail for 5 years.

Respondent 6:
Age: 17 years
Rehabilitation period: 1998 to 2007
Place of interview: Thunguma Children‟s Home, Nyeri
Interview date: 6/5/2009
He was the first born in a family of three brought up on the outskirts of Kerugoya town.
The family later moved to Kayole slums in Nairobi, where for unknown reasons he
dropped out of school and assisted parents to earn daily living by begging, scavenging
and collecting scrap metal. He was arrested and committed to Rehabilitation School for
care, protection and discipline, at Dagoretti and later transferred to Kericho, Machakos
and finally, Othaya. He was expelled from ORS for indiscipline, wandered on the streets
in Nyeri and finally sought refuge in Thunguma Children‟s Home where he had
registered to sit for KCPE.

Respondent 7:
Age: 17 years
Rehabilitation period: 2000 to 2007
Place of interview: Gikondi Secondary School
Interview date: 3/6/2009
He was born of a family of two in Kisumu rural but later migrated to Kibera slums in
Nairobi. The family had serious marital conflicts that led to separation and later death of
both parents. He lived in the slum as a street boy until he was arrested for loitering and
taken to Othaya after the court process. He did KCPE in 2007 and was admitted to
Gikondi Secondary School where at the time of interview he was in Form Two. He has
remained under the guardianship of ORS.
 46

Respondent 8:
Age: 19 years
Rehabilitation period: 2003 to 2005
Place of interview: Blue Valley Slums Nyeri
Interview date: 16/5/2009.
He was an orphan brought up by Grandparents in a rural village in Embu. He dropped out
of school in standard 2 and ran away from home citing mistreatment by his grandfather
who occasionally took alcohol. He was initially committed to Dagoretti and Kericho
rehabilitation school for P&C. He recidivated on being released and was re-arrested and
committed to Othaya up to 2005. At the time of interview, he was employed as a hotel
attendant in blue valley slums in Nyeri

Respondent 9:
Age: 18 years
Rehabilitation period: 2000 to 2006
Place of interview: Othaya Boy‟s High School,
Interview date: 7/5/2009
He was born in a single parent family whose main occupation was brewing and selling of
alcohol in Korogocho slums in Nairobi. The family was very poor to afford even basic
necessities such as food clothing and shelter. He was taken to rehabilitation school by the
Catholic Church where he scored 296 marks in KCPE 2006 and proceeded to Othaya
Secondary School. At the time of the interview, he was in Form Two.

Respondent 10:
Age: 16 years
Rehabilitation period: 2006 to 2007
Place of interview: Nanyuki
Interview date: 20/4/2009
Koome (not real name) was a second born in family of three who became orphans after
both parents died in road accident when he was 6 years. He became a truant at age 10 and
was involved in petty theft in school home and neighborhood. He was taken to
rehabilitation school by relatives where he scored 310 marks. He was selected to join
Tigithi secondary school but the school declined admission due to the stigma of having
been to a rehabilitation school. At the time of the interview he was living with an uncle in
Nanyuki not engaged in any economic activity
 47

Respondent 11:
Age: 26 years
Rehabilitation period: 1999 to 2004
Place of interview: Nairobi
Interview date: 19/5/2009
He was born in Kiambu of parents whose main occupation was hawking in Nairobi.
Dropped from school in standards 4 mainly due to peer influence. He was committed to
rehabilitation school by his father where he took courses in motor mechanic and driving.
He was married and had two children. At the time of interview he was working as a
Motor mechanic on Kirinyaga road, Nairobi. Though he was a trained motor vehicle
driver, the CID Department denied him a certificate of good conduct on the basis of his
juvenile criminal records, effectively shutting him out from proper reintegration in the
community.

From the information presented above it is evident that majority of the respondents came

from a poor background where either one or both parents were not there. This effectively

confirms Tutt (1974) findings that, poverty creates a constellation of factors which

contribute greatly to delinquency.

4.3 Experiences of children prior to, and during rehabilitation.

4.3.1 Experiences prior to rehabilitation

The study sought to determine the respondents‟ experiences before they joined Othaya

Rehabilitation School. Questions were asked regarding the general description of their

homes, the persons they were living with before admission and economic status of their

families. This was expected to shed light on the circumstances that could have

contributed to delinquency and subsequent committal of the children to rehabilitation

schools.
 48

From the responses given, five respondents lived in rural areas while five lived in slums

in urban areas. Only one came from a well up family background and none had come

from affluent families and neighborhoods. From these results, it can be said that majority

of those who are taken to rehabilitation schools were from slums in major urban centers

in the country.

The study also established that children in rehabilitation school came from diverse

backgrounds. Some had come from functioning families with both parents while others

many came from dysfunctional families such as broken, separated, single parent families.

The study also found that at least 40% of the children were orphans whose parents had

died when they were below five years. These findings seemed to concur with Le Roux

(1993) who observed that majority of the children resort to crime and delinquency due to

socio-economic and other factors within the family and/ or the immediate environment.

According to Le Roux (1993), financial problems and poverty, poor family relationships,

parental absence from home and collapse of extended family and the emergence of

vulnerable modern families in urban areas contribute significantly to delinquency and

crime. This position was clearly illustrated by one respondent who had the following to

say:

„You know even before my parents died,

there were serious problems at home.
My parents would fight almost every
day and there was hardly any food and
other things at home‟.
(Respondent No. 7, 3/6/2009).
 49

The study also revealed that majority of the former student rehabilitees came from

average size families with children ranging from four to seven possibly meaning that the

size of the family is not a factor leading to delinquency.

Concerning the persons with whom the respondents lived with before admission to

Othaya Rehabilitation School, it was evident from the responses that majority of the

respondents (5) lived with both their parents. The study established that three (27%)

respondents lived with uncles and aunts while two (18%) lived with their grandparents

and only one lived with the father only. On probing further, the researcher established

that though majority of these children lived with their parents initially, later many of

them moved away from homes after parents died or separated, meaning that at the time of

becoming delinquent, many were either orphans or not under their parents care. This

suggests that social environment plays a significant factor to delinquency.

The respondents were further asked to give the economic status of their families. The

findings revealed that eight (73%) respondents came from low income families. The

findings of the study further revealed that two (18%) respondents came from average

income families while only one respondent came from a wealthy family. From these

results, it can be deduced that poverty was a contributing factor to delinquency as

majority of those who join the rehabilitation school come from low income families

mainly living in slums. Poor families especially those living in slums in urban areas and

those with low incomes mainly from informal sectors were found to be prone to child

delinquency. Only one respondent came from a relatively wealthy family background.
 50

These findings suggested that though delinquent children come from diverse

backgrounds, poor families were more prone than rich and affluent families. In addition

to the above, the researcher established that some children went to the streets not only

because of poverty but also due to neglect and abuse by relatives following death of

parents. A Case at hand was respondent number 8 who said;

„Because I was staying with my grandparents,

sometimes grandfather would be very harsh and
brutal. He overworked me in the farm, beat me
and called me names. The worst came when he
burnt my school uniform. I had to escape‟
(Respondent No. 8, 16/5/2009)

Another area of experience was where the respondents were asked to explain the

circumstances under which they joined Othaya Rehabilitation School. All the eleven

respondents explained that they were apprehended by the police in conjunction with

parents/guardians, taken to the children court and committed to rehabilitation schools.

The offences mentioned by majority as spelt out for them by the children‟s court clearly

indicated that majority; seven (64%) respondents were in the rehabilitation school mainly

for Care and Protection (C&P) while the rest were there for Protection and Discipline

(P&D). The offences for which majority were arrested included among others, loitering

on the streets, escaping from home, taking and trafficking of drugs and snatching

valuables from the public. Among other reasons that led to their admission in

rehabilitation schools were court order for jail term, request by their parents to be arrested

due to indiscipline and involvement in theft cases. Some, it was revealed were taken to

rehabilitation schools following requests by their parents and/or relatives to the law

enforcement agencies as one respondent explained;

 51

“My mother requested the police to arrest me.

I was taken to court, where I was committed
to rehabilitation school for five years”
(Respondent No 3, 15/4/2009)

Further enquiry on why other school mates were admitted showed that they were also

admitted for the same reasons. An interview with the school manager further revealed

that most of the children were admitted after committing minor offences and escaping

from home. Some went to the streets because of fear of being punished by the authorities

after committing offences.

4.3.2 Experiences during rehabilitation

The study sought to establish the respondents‟ feeling and expectations upon admission

into a rehabilitation school. According to seven (64%) respondents it was inappropriate

for them to be admitted into such schools while four (36%) felt that it was appropriate for

them to be admitted into such schools. From the result of the analysis, it is evident that

majority of the respondents were admitted into rehabilitation school against their wish.

One of the respondents had the following to say:

“…. I was very bitter because initially the judge

had set me free, only for my sister to talk with
the prosecutor and the decision was changed
to committal for three years”
(Respondent No 3, 15/4/2009)

Further inquiry with the respondents the researcher noted the changing nature of various

aspects of their lives. For instance, committal was a life characterized by sudden

transition from a life full of freedom to a life full of specified routine and strict

instructions and in most cases unquestionable. It was a way of life away from idling and
 52

drug taking to a life of attending classes and vigorous drills. Most of the respondents did

not find this transition any smooth and consequently faced a number of challenges. One

respondent made the following comment;

„You see life on the streets is not as bad. There

you have a lot of freedom to do as you wish.
Your friends will cater for you as they teach you
tricks of getting money. In rehabilitation school,
teachers do not give children breathing space.
They will come to teach one after the other until
one cannot get anything anymore.‟
(Respondent No 8, 16/5/09)

However with time most of the respondents confirmed having achieved some adjustment

and subsequently beginning to find value in the programs offered by the school. This

affirmed by the manager who had the following to say;

„We only provide the children with conducive

environment for normal growth and development,
assuming that their behaviors are as a result of
poor environment. Whenever we receive them
from the children‟s courts, they are full of fear,
trauma. Some have home sickness especially
when relatives do not visit. Others are unable to
cope with the daily routine. Temptations to escape
are very high in the first six months after which
majority adjust and start to appreciate the school‟
(Manager ORS, 7th may 09).

The above was confirmed as the interviews progressed as majority (9) remembered the

rehabilitation schools with pride and fondness referring to them as „Boma‟. Some (2) held

a lot of attachment to Othaya rehabilitation school as they regularly visited and talked to

children rehabilitees.
 53

4.4 Skills taught for socio economic empowerment of children in rehabilitation

schools

The main objective of the rehabilitation was to make the former delinquent youth change

their behavior so that they could fit into the society (Khaemba, 2008). This would enable

them contribute to their own well-being as well as that of the society at large. At

individual level, the program was meant to equip the children with skills of self-reliance

in order to make him/ her more productive.

Interviews held with the respondents and the school manager revealed that children are

trained on a number of skills in the rehabilitation school. These included among others,

Educational/academic training, Vocational training, Life skills training, Games and

sports, Guidance and Counseling/therapy services and Pastoral services.

4.4.1 Vocational skills training

In this section, the researcher sought to know the vocational skills offered to children in

rehabilitation schools and how they felt about them. Further the researcher was interested

in establishing their relevance to the children needs and whether they equipped children

with skills for social and economic empowerment and self-reliance, especially in the

opinion of the persons who had consumed the services.

Interviews with respondents revealed that the children were being taught skills such as

shoe making and repair, carpentry, upholstery, barber, detergent making, tomato sauce

making and electronic engineering.

 54

The respondents were asked to express their feelings towards the skills training offered

by the rehabilitation school. Majority (7) of the respondents indicated that they did not

like most of the skills being trained because they mostly comprised of excessive manual

work, were not their choices, not addressing their needs and not „relevant‟ to their needs.

Two respondents according to the study were undecided about how they felt about the

training while two other respondents liked them.

For the few who liked the skills training, it was because of a variety of reasons. Such

reasons included the belief that they would get jobs, the cooperation with the teacher/

instructor or that they liked the way the teacher/ instructor trained them. The researcher

also established that one skill being taught; electronic repair and maintenance was very

popular with all the respondents. Here, they were being trained on how to repair

electronic equipment such as mobile phones, radios and televisions, Computers and

repair of other electronic gadgets. One respondent made the following comment about the

course;

„…There was „Rodi‟ club where

we were trained how to make and
repair radios, television, mobile
phones etc. It was our favorite
course.‟
(Respondent No.7, 3/6/09)

Concerning vocational training facilities, all the respondents explained that the school

lacked most amenities and the few available were dilapidated and not operational. The

school manager confirmed these findings and went further to explain that besides

inadequate vocational training facilities, they lacked trainers due to financial constraints.
 55

These findings seemed to suggest that the school lacked the capacity to equip the children

with relevant skills to compete in the market.

4.4.2 Guidance and counseling services

The researcher established from the respondents that there were both group and

individual counseling sessions at ORS. Group counseling was conducted at least once per

month by either priests and/or pastors from churches in the neighborhood or by personnel

from hospitals, while individual counseling would be done according to individual needs.

All the respondents confirmed receiving at least one individual counseling session

immediately after reporting to ORS, but majority (10) could not recall having any other

session thereafter. None of them had sought the services from the teachers or the welfare

officers though many disclosed that they had problems that they would have liked to

share with the teachers or the welfare officers.

The manager gave further insight on the matter by explaining that individual counseling

was supposed to be done on every child at least once per month by the welfare officers.

According to her, they were supposed to find time to meet children allocated to them

during their free time. However, this was not the case at ORS because at the time of the

interview for instance there were three welfare officers against 104 children. This

according to her made it very difficult for the officers to meet their obligations thus

compromising the quantity and quality of their work. In addition to this the manager also

revealed that the school did not have a residential trained counselor though children

always required psychological counseling.

 56

Concerning the atmosphere under which counseling took place, many (8) of the

respondents expressed the discomfort under which such sessions were conducted. The

welfare officers approached them with suspicion and often labeled them as untrustworthy

and undisciplined. This kind of environment was likely to hamper personal development

of the rehabilitees that would improve social skills development. A communication

barrier reinforced this since most of the children as will be shown later, owing to their

weak educational background had problems with language.

From the conversations, the researcher also established that the institution did not have

adequate facilities for counseling. For instance the manager confirmed that indeed they

did not have a designated room for counseling purposes. Individual counseling was being

conducted in the staffroom, matron‟s office or the manager‟s office. According to

Macharia and Ngunjiri (2002), a suitable guidance and counseling office is necessary for

individual Counseling therapy. There should be very few physical barriers between the

counselor and the client in order to maintain an informal atmosphere of counseling. This

could probably explain why the respondents had not voluntarily sought the services from

the teachers and the officers.

4.5 Educational training in Rehabilitation Schools

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child states in article 28 that „every child has a

right to quality education that is relevant to his/her individual development and life‟

(UNICEF, 1999). In light of this statement, the researcher wanted to find out whether

children in rehabilitation schools are afforded an opportunity to continue with education

 57

while serving the committal period. The researcher also sought to establish the type of

education offered at the rehabilitation school, the quality of teaching and learning,

rehabilitees‟ feelings about the relevance of education to their needs and the teaching and

learning facilities. It further wanted to establish the extent to which academic training is

interfered with by other programs and services in the institutions. The results of the study

are presented in the subsequent sections.

4.5.1 Educational experiences before admission to rehabilitation school

The study wanted to find out whether children admitted to rehabilitation schools had ever

been enrolled in school before their committal. Further the researcher wanted to know the

level they reached. This was important for the researcher to enable him determine their

entry behavior and thus establish whether they were placed appropriately in the

rehabilitation schools. The results of the findings were as shown on Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Educational experiences of children before joining rehabilitation school

Level of Education Number Percentage

No school 2 18%

Standard 1 to 3 6 55%

Standard 4 and above 3 27%

Total 11 100%

From Table 4.1, majority (82 %) of the respondents had educational experience prior to

committal to rehabilitation school. Six dropped out between standard one and standard
 58

three while three reached standard four onwards. Only two (18%) of the respondents had

not attended any school at all prior to committal to rehabilitation schools. The above

finding showed that majority of the children under rehabilitation had schooling

experiences that could be relied upon as basis of their placement for education and

training in rehabilitation schools.

Further inquiry on reasons that led the children fail to attend and/or drop out of school

revealed that some the orphans were orphaned and therefore abandoned school and went

to the streets because they could not afford school fees. Others explained that their

families were very poor and could not afford school fee and other educational related

resources.

However the findings further revealed that most of them dropped out of school very early

and only three went beyond standard 3. This meant that though majority had earlier

enrolled in school, their educational experience was very limited and thus could not be

relied upon as foundation for the rehabilitees‟ education and training in rehabilitation

schools.

4.5.2 Placement upon admission to rehabilitation schools

The respondents were asked to give their views on whether they were placed

appropriately when they joined the rehabilitation school. Majority of the respondents

agreed that indeed they were admitted to the right level where they had dropped. This

shows that the rehabilitation schools place the children on the basis of their previous
 59

educational levels. This showed that the rehabilitation schools offers opportunity to all

rehabilitees who are willing to continue with their education regardless of when and

under what circumstances they left school.

Further insights by the manager revealed that once committed to rehabilitation, the

children are taken for three months to Getathuru rehabilitation center for assessment and

placement using standardized tests. In addition, further assessment is done at the school

level by the teachers for educational purposes.

4.5.3 Educational curriculum in rehabilitation schools

From the information gathered from the former rehabilitation students, the researcher

established that the schools followed the regular school curriculum whose fundamental

goal is to prepare the youth to be useful and independent members of the society.

Subjects taught according to majority of the respondents include English, Mathematics,

Science, Kiswahili and Social Studies. At the end of the primary school cycle it was

established that children would sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

(KCPE) Examinations like other pupils in regular public primary schools.

Further inquiry from the manager revealed that though the schools followed the regular

school curriculum, the institutions focus did not appear to be tailored towards academic

excellence, rather their focus is on behavior modification other than academic excellence.

Those findings are similar to those of Cobert (2001), who found that rehabilitation school

programs predominantly address behavior disorders to an extent that the children‟s

academic needs are neglected.

 60

4.5.4 Teaching and learning atmosphere in rehabilitation schools

Concerning the learning atmosphere, the former student respondents intimated that their

teachers approached them with contempt and suspicion, and often called them names. A

communication barrier as stated earlier made things worse since most of them owing to

their weak educational background had problems with English as the language of

instruction. From the discussions with the manager, it was apparent that inappropriate

behaviors exhibited by the children were a problem to the teachers a factor that made the

learning atmosphere poor. Some children acted out, yelled and sneaked out among others.

For the teachers who did not have any form of special training they encountered problems

such as lack of classroom control.

The researcher also sought to establish the subjects in which the students performed

better in school. The results showed that six (55%) respondents performed better in

Kiswahili. The results further show that five (45%) respondents mentioned that they

performed better in mathematics, science and social studies while, four (36%) mentioned

that they performed better in English. Only one respondent performed well in religious

studies. This demonstrated that the rehabilitation schools gave the children opportunity to

improve their educational skills and thus not disadvantaged by committal to the schools.

Further enquiry on the reasons behind better performance in different subjects revealed

that according to the respondents the subjects were taught well. The other reason was that

they liked the teachers teaching them the subjects, and yet others said that the subjects

were their favorites. On the other hand some respondents intimated that a substantial

number of teachers in the rehabilitation schools failed to attend to lessons regularly

 61

leading to their poor performance in the national examinations. One respondent lamented;

„We only sat in class and no teachers

were coming to teach. This was very
boring until children would think of
escaping‟.
(Respondent No. 1, 6/5/09)

From the above comment, it appeared that the quantity and quality of education in

rehabilitation schools lack proper supervision on the part of the teachers. Since the

schools fall under the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development whose main

focus is correction and rehabilitation, it is possible that Managers of those schools are not

bothered by quality educational instructions like other regular public schools.

Despite the sentiments expressed by the former student rehabilitees, an interview with the

rehabilitation school Manager revealed that Othaya rehabilitation school generally used

to perform well in K.C.P.E until the year 2007. The school had taken position one in the

location between 2003 and 2007. The school however declined from 2008 due to

inadequacy of the teachers after the Teachers Service Commission (T.S.C.) withdrew all

the teachers in the rehabilitation schools.

When the respondents were asked to give their views on whether the education given in

rehabilitation schools was relevant to their needs at the time, the responses given by

majority (82%) showed that education was irrelevant to their needs at the time and that it

only came to make sense to them much later. Two (18%) respondents felt that the

training was relevant while one respondent was undecided on the issue.
 62

Despite the dissenting voices however, there appeared to be some consensus on the

former rehabilitees thinking about the ways they thought education would help them in

the future. Majority confirmed that it was helpful to them.

4.5.5 Teaching and learning facilities in rehabilitation schools

The study sought to establish the adequacy of personnel resources, time resources,

physical facilities and other resources such as textbooks, desks and stationery. The

findings revealed that there was adequate time allocation as mentioned by seven (64%)

respondents, though four (36%) felt that there was inadequate time allocation for

curriculum instruction. The study established that teachers were inadequate as was

indicated by eight (73%) respondents. Only three (27%) respondents indicated that there

were enough teachers. In terms of classes, it was found out that the classes were adequate

as indicated by nine (82%) respondents though two respondents indicated that classrooms

were inadequate. Regarding textbooks, the study established that there were enough text

books according to eight (73%) respondents. There were only three respondents who felt

that the text books in the school were inadequate. The study also found out that desks

were adequate according to eight (73%) respondents. Finally, the study established that

stationary was adequate as was indicated by seven (63%) respondents as only four (36%)

respondents indicated that the stationary in the school was not enough. To a larger extent

therefore, other than for teachers, the rehabilitation schools have adequate teaching and

learning facilities. Information from the manager added weight to this observation when

she revealed that the rehabilitation schools benefit from the government sponsored Free

Primary Education (FPE) like other regular primary schools in Kenya.

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4.5.6 Interference with educational training in rehabilitation schools

In this section the researcher wanted to find out how well academic training was being

carried out in rehabilitation schools given that the institutions main focus is behavior

modification other than educational pursuits.

Respondents were asked to mention activities that in their opinion of the respondents

interfered with normal teaching and learning in the rehabilitation school and that could

have contributed to their educational outcomes. From the findings it was apparent that

frequent visits by Government officers or other stake holders to the correctional and

rehabilitation schools was a factor that interfered with smooth teaching and learning of

children in the rehabilitation schools. Whenever such officers were expected, the

respondents intimated that elaborate preparations to receive and entertain such visitors

would be done sometimes taking a lot of time sometimes as much as a week. This

negatively affected the schools‟ academic programs.

Another form of interference identified was frequent transfers of the rehabilitees from

one Rehabilitation School to another. This was especially evident with those who were in

rehabilitation for more than three years. For instance seven of the respondents had come

to Othaya School following transfers from Dagoretti, Kericho or Machakos rehabilitation

schools. Further, two of the respondents did not complete their committal periods at

Othaya because they were transferred to Wamumu rehabilitation school in Embu. This

was confirmed by the manager who explained that this happened from time to time due

changes among children in terms of behavior, age, and sometimes congestion. According

to the manager, Othaya rehabilitation school is meant for „low risk‟ children placed there
 64

for purely Protection and Care (P&C). Whenever a rehabilitee exhibits behaviors contrary

to the diagnosis then he is transferred to the appropriate institution. Other transfers

according to the manager are necessitated by congestion or need for a change for those

who have overstayed. Such transfers the respondents intimated meant fresh assessment

and placement in the new school which in most cases is detrimental to the children

educational pursuits. This was confirmed by one respondent who shared his own

experience in the following words;

„Every time I was transferred from one rehabilitation

school to another, I was forced to repeat the class. In
Kericho for instance, I was I standard five but on
coming to Othaya I was taken to standard four. That is
why after all those years; I could not reach class 8 to sit
for KCPE‟ (Respondent No.6, May 6th 09)

Transfer of teachers was mentioned as the third form of interference. For example all (6)

the respondents who were in the rehabilitation school in 2007, confirmed that many

teachers left the school for public schools under unexplained reasons. This in the opinion

of the respondents interrupted and interfered with their education as they remained

without teachers for the rest of the year and consequently negatively affected those who

did KCPE at the end of the year.

4.6 Exit options utilized by Rehabilitation Schools and their impact on the children’s

educational path

In this section the researcher wanted to know whether there were any preparations made

before the rehabilitees were released, the exit options utilized, and whether there were

any follow up/aftercare programs by the institution on the rehabilitated youth. This was

important in that it is the most crucial moment of the rehabilitation process. If it is not
 65

handled carefully, the rehabilitated youth can revert back to their old habits in the

environment where it all began. Most of the children look forward to it, but when the day

comes, their hearts are stormed with feelings of uncertainty and insecurity because of the

many things that can go wrong. The responses are presented in the subsequent sections.

4.6.1 Preparations for exit from Rehabilitation School

The respondents were asked to mention the preparations that were made before being

released from the rehabilitation school. One form of preparation mentioned by majority

of the respondents was that those who had parents/guardians would have them invited to

school before they were released. The school administration held counseling sessions in

which the parents/guardians would be advised on the preparations to make in order to

receive their children back. The parents were required to scout for public schools to admit

their children upon release for those who would want to continue with education. Others

were advised to look for ways to help their children adjust to their new life; to finance

and give moral support to the socio economic activities their children would start. The

rehabilitees on the other hand were also given permission to go to their homes and inform

their parents, relatives and the society on their pending release. Some (36%) said that

they were also given advice by the teachers on how they were to carry themselves and

relate with the public while out of school.

Discussions with the manager revealed that normally the schools welfare department

worked in conjunction with the Department of Probation Services (DPS) to carry out an

Environmental Adjustment Survey. According to her, during environment adjustment

 66

survey, Probation officers visited the prospective homes to determine the feasibility of a

rehabilitated youth returning there. If any negative factors were found during the

adjustment process, efforts are made to remove them in cooperation with family

members. Such factors as mentioned by the manager included family conditions of the

victim, conditions of the neighborhood and feelings of the community about the

misconduct of the rehabilitee among others. These findings seemed to agree with

Kakihara (2004), on the factors put into consideration during environmental adjustment

survey in Japan.

While this should be the ideal situation on the ground, the manager explained that it

rarely happened because of lack of personnel. In practice many children are repatriated

back to their presumed points of origin ignoring the psychological preparation of the

child and that of the receiving agent

4.6.2 Exit options utilized by the rehabilitation school

When the respondents were asked to mention circumstances under which they left the

rehabilitation school, four exit options were identified as summarized on the Table 4.2.
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Table 4.2 Exit options in ORS

Exit Option Frequency Percentage

Completed STD 8 5 46

Elapse of committal period 2 18

Escape/expulsion 2 18

Transfer 2 18

Total 11 100

From the above information (Table 4.2), majority of the respondents exited the school

after completion of the primary school cycle and sitting for KCPE in standard eight.

Completion of committal period, transfer to other rehabilitation schools and sometimes

expulsion or escape from the school were also mentioned by the respondents. As

explained earlier, transfers to other rehabilitation school were occasioned by rehabilitees

attaining certain age, change of the rehabilitees behavior or sometimes due to congestion.

The manager further intimated that besides the above mentioned exit options, a

substantial number of children escaped whenever they were involved in serious offences

for fear of the consequences. Further, she explained that the institution is faced with

difficulties releasing rehabilitated youth who do not have parents or relatives willing to

receive them. These findings pointed out at a missing link that is crucial for successful

reintegration of rehabilitated youth to the community which had initially rejected them.
 68

This is in agreement with Wakanyua (1995) who found that recidivism among

rehabilitated juveniles in Kenya, results mostly from ineffective behavior modification

processes and unstructured exit procedures. Their inability to cope emanates from

feelings of inadequacy aggravated by stigma and lack of acceptance from the community.

As a result the child either rebels from the system or retreats to a perceived cheaper life

option.

According to Kakihara (2004), when no family is willing to accept the rehabilitee after

his/ her release, efforts are made towards finding appropriate employer, friend, halfway

house or a person who will offer comparable assistance to him in re-integrating into the

community.

4.6.3 Post-institutional support

Concerning assistance and support to the rehabilitees upon release, the Manager disclosed

that the responsibility of the institution is simply to receive, rehabilitate and hand back

the youth to the community. According to her the institution normally issued certificates

of merit and letters of introduction to the children on release. The letter and certificates

are meant to describe the youth‟s behavior, skills acquired and potentiality for

employment which were aimed at enabling them fit into the society.

Those with good academic records were issued with academic report forms and other

supportive documents to enable them transit to regular schools. Where need be the school

administration introduces them to Educational Officer‟s and Constituency Development

 69

officers for further assistance. This position was however discounted by majority (8) of

the interviewed respondents who said that the school did not assist them in any way upon

release. In fact one respondent retorted;

„When I was given release, they only gave

me two hundred shillings that was not
enough for my fare home. The release
letter was hand written on a simple piece
of paper and people would think I had
forged. I therefore alighted at Nyeri and
joined my former colleagues on the
streets‟
(Respondent No 8. 16/5/09)

Further discussions with some (2) respondents revealed that even after release some

could not exit because they were orphans and the only place they knew was the

rehabilitation school. The feeling was that the government should have afforded them

some form of support to enable them start off. It was therefore evident that the exit

aspect was neither supporting nor enhancing reintegration of children back into the

society. This left them to search for educational opportunities themselves exposing them

to all manner of ills including mistrust, suspicion and feelings of rejection and low

esteem before the supposed receiving institutions due to „stigma‟ of rehabilitation school.

The manager was of the opinion that the rehabilitated youth should be given after care kit

or funds to help them start off so that they are sheltered from temptations to go back to

delinquency.
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4.6.4 Reception by the community

The study sought to find out how the respondents were received back into the community

from the rehabilitation school. It was mainly focused on the reception by parents,

siblings, relatives, neighbors and law enforcement agents. The findings showed that the

respondents were received very well by their parents/guardians, siblings relatives and

neighbors as indicated by seven (63%) respondents.

Regarding the reception given by law enforcement agents, six (55%) respondents

indicated received well. Some (2) however expressed misgivings over how the authorities

altitude towards them. Some of the law enforcement agents had labeled them as „former

street children‟ a term that made many uncomfortable as it created suspicion among their

peers.

From this result, it can be observed that to a large extent, after the release from the

rehabilitation schools, the respondents were welcomed back into the community. This

denotes that the community has accepted the change in behavior of the respondents and

the impact of the training they underwent.

4.7 Outcomes of rehabilitation of child offenders

Before the researcher sought to know the factors that influenced the outcomes of the

former student rehabilitees, he enquired on the respondent‟s current socio economic

engagement. The findings are summarized on Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3 Former student rehabilitee’s current engagement

Current engagement Number Percentage

Continued schooling 4 37

Vocational training 3 27

Employment 2 18

Jobless 1 9

Imprisonment 1 9

Total 11 100

From the table above, majority (64%) of the respondents were in schools pursuing either

education or vocational training courses. Two (18%) were employed in the „jua kali‟ (non

formal) sector while one confessed that he was jobless and not engaged in any economic

activity at all. Only one person was found to have recidivated and was serving a five year

jail term in Kingongo prison.

In view of the above results, the researcher sought to know whether their engagement s

were attributable to skills acquired from the rehabilitation school. The responses given

showed that majority of the respondents (7) agreed that indeed their engagement were

attributed to the programs while four disagreed. For instance one respondent had the

following to say;

„…today I feel proud of having gone to

Othaya rehabilitation school for its there
that I realized what education is about. I
have hope of a better life in future.‟
(Respondent No, 7/5/09)
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Further enquiry on the reasons why they thought so, showed that the rehabilitation

programs gave them skills which they used earn some money for their daily needs.

Another reason was that the programs enabled them to mature, realize the importance of

education and other courses offered and hence behavior change which helped them to fit

back into the society and earn their living within the society which had earlier rejected

them. It was also found out that the learning programs offered by the rehabilitation

schools improved their education hence communication and socialization skills. This is in

turn replicated in their interaction and job acquisition in the society.

Finally, a few respondents disclosed that through sports and games and other life skills

training opportunities offered at the rehabilitation school, many realized and developed

their talents some of which have become sources of their livelihood. A good example

was respondent number four, who trained as a barber and was now using the skill to raise

his pocket money for his upkeep at Othaya Boys Secondary School. Respondent number

five played „live bands‟ in various entertainment joints and operated an electronic repair

shop before he was arrested and jailed. Those skills, they attributed to the rehabilitation

school.

From the above observations, was evident that skills taught in the rehabilitation school

had impacted on the lives of the rehabilitees and could be attributable to their current

status. These findings seemed to agree with Wakanyua (1995), who found that at least

65% of the children sent to rehabilitation schools returned to the society reformed

suggesting that rehabilitation schools were the most effective correctional facilities in

Kenya.
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4.7.1 Factors that facilitated smooth re-integration into the community

The researcher wanted to know the factors that could have made it easy for the

rehabilitated youth to get admission to regular schools, secure opportunities for

employment and thus enable them fit back in the community. Majority of those who were

pursuing education in secondary schools attributed admission to their performance in the

national examinations that earned them an automatic admission to public secondary

schools. Besides their own efforts of passing the examinations, they cited assistance

either financial or otherwise given by their relatives and the rehabilitation school for the

orphans as a factor that helped them to secure admission to schools and thus reintegrate.

For instance respondent number 7 said;

„After sitting for the KCPE examination, I remained

at ORS because I had nowhere to go. When the
results came out I had scored good marks that enabled
me get admission to Gikondi Secondary School. The
rehabilitation school helped me get a sponsor to pay
the school fee while the rehabilitation school Manager
did shopping for me and gave pocket money.‟
(Respondent No.7, 3/6/09)

This demonstrates very clearly that besides rehabilitation those children require

assistance to help them start of their lives again. According to Kakihara (2004), when no

family is willing to accept the rehabilitee after his/ her release, efforts are made towards

finding appropriate employer, friend, halfway house or a person who will offer

comparable assistance to him in re-integrating into the community. Probably the

department of children services should think of a similar program in Kenya to shelter the

children from going back to crime and delinquency.

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4.7.2 Factors that hindered smooth re-integration into the community

When the respondents were told to mention the factors they considered to have hindered

their reintegration, majority said limited skills/ poor performance in the examination as

the main reason. This was confirmed by the manager who explained that most of the

former student rehabilitees, owing to their social and educational background, many

performed poorly in KCPE and thus could not compete favorably with other children

from regular schools. Those taught vocational skills could not favorably compete with

other job seekers with stronger educational backgrounds and higher technical skills from

other institutions.

Another factor cited by at least 40% of the respondents was the fact that they were being

discriminated against and being labeled as „former delinquent youth‟ denied them equal

chances of competing favorably other children from regular schools. Potential employers

and school administrators did not fully trust them. The continued use of the term „former

rehabilitee‟ gave them label which not only stigmatized them but also scared off the

prospective employers. This observation was clearly illustrated by the experience of one

respondent;

„I scored 310 marks in KCPE 2006, and I was

selected to join Tigithi Secondary School.
When my uncle presented my leaving
certificate to the school administration on
admission day, the Head Teacher turned us
back citing reasons that the school could not
accept persons from rehabilitation schools‟
(Respondent No.10, 20/4/09)
 75

The above revelations seemed to confirm Braithwaite (1989) shaming theory that some of

these institutions involve the children in experiences which stigmatize as „bad guys‟

which foreclose them upon their possibilities to extricate themselves from long term

careers in deviance, that is disintegrative shaming.

4.7.3 How the former rehabilitees were overcoming the challenges

Asked to comment on how they coped with the challenges they faced, respondents said

that they opted to do jobs which did not require them to reveal their backgrounds or even

remind them of their tainted past. For instance respondent number 11 opted to become a

motor vehicle mechanic where the certificate of good conduct was not a requirement.

The results further revealed that respondents practiced self-control and avoided peer

influence which would lead to breaking of law or abuse of drugs. Respondents indicated

that they did everything to ignore the mistrust and suspicion accorded to them by some

members of the public.

4.7.4 Impact of rehabilitation on the lives of the former students

The study sought to establish the different aspects of life of those who joined

rehabilitation school. They were interviewed on how their admission to rehabilitation

schools impacted on their education, vocations, spirituality, socialization skills and

generally their behaviors. The findings revealed that seven (63%) respondents totally

attributed their current engagement to the skills acquired in the rehabilitation school. This

was especially very significant with respondents who were orphans and those who had

not had a chance to go to school initially. One respondent commented;

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„I will always be very grateful to Othaya

rehabilitation school because it afforded me
the opportunity to get education, something
that I would never have dreamt of‟
(Respondent No.2, 6/5/09)

Regarding socialization skills, it was found that there was an improvement as indicated

by seven (63%) respondents. The respondents were further asked whether there were

some children whom they knew who went back to recidivism after rehabilitation.

Majority conceded that indeed only a small percentage of the rehabilitated persons went

back to their former characters. From the findings, it is clear that rehabilitation schools

changed the lives of many children and made them responsible members of the society.

The study also sought to find out how the respondents‟ felt as far as life was concerned

after their release from the rehabilitation school. The findings revealed that majority of

the respondents (8) were satisfied with their life as it was at the time of the study. Only

three respondents mentioned that they were not satisfied with the life they lived even

after their training in rehabilitation school and were looking forward to improving their

lives further. From the findings, it can be concluded that rehabilitation schools improved

the lives of children and made them live better and satisfying lives. As a result of the

skills acquired, some have regained their self-esteem and self-worth and were seen to

have set very high standards for themselves.

4.7.5 Comments on the weaknesses of the rehabilitation school

The study sought to establish in the opinion of the former rehabilitees what they thought

required improvement. This would help the department of children services look for ways
 77

of transforming those weaknesses into strengths and thus improve the rehabilitation

schools.

One of the weaknesses pointed out was the inadequacy of personnel especially teachers

which compromised efficient teaching and learning in the schools. This placed children

in rehabilitation schools at a disadvantage considering that they competed for the same

vacancies in secondary schools with other children in regular schools. Further, some (2)

respondents pointed out that academic work was occasionally interrupted by other

activities of daily living such as cleaning, vocational training, and elaborate

entertainments for guests most of were not scheduled. This to them contributed to their

poor performance in national examinations, denying them chance of becoming self-

reliant in future.

The second weakness mentioned by 7 respondents was that the rehabilitation schools

required children to put on uniforms. They felt that the uniforms identified them

negatively creating an impression that they were not part of the community. Whenever

they went for outings the community treated them with suspicion and children from other

schools could not mingle with them easily.

Thirdly the respondents cited poor treatment by some officers as a weakness facing the

schools. They cited splitting fire wood, farm work and corporal punishment as treatment

that made students dislike the school. Further many expressed their displeasure on the

fact that they were being locked in the dormitories and lights put out for the whole night
 78

so that they do not escape. To them this was inhuman and a violation of their rights. In

addition to that, the children said that they were fed on low quality food which they

referred to as „weevil-eaten food.‟

An interview with the school manager on the challenges facing rehabilitation schools

revealed that there was inadequate finance. This inadequacy led to scaling down of

certain votes such as catering sometimes leading to inadequacy. It was also revealed that

there were inadequate personnel evidenced by allocation of 104 children to only three

welfare officers. Another challenge was that the manager referred to parents as having a

tendency to dump their children in rehabilitation schools; this in turn created a feeling of

abandonment by the parents. This was evidenced by the fact that some parents never

visited their children in school

4.7.6 Suggestions on how the rehabilitation schools can be improved

Finally the respondents were asked to make suggestions on how the rehabilitation schools

could be improved. Majority (9) of the respondents suggested that the quality of

education should be improved by ensuring that there is adequate teaching staff and

teaching and learning facilities. This would ensure equal opportunities for the children in

rehabilitation schools just like those in regular schools.

Secondly the respondents suggested that the schools should strive to create conducive

environment and atmosphere for learning. They suggested that sporting activities, outings

and participating in communal activities in the society as ways through which the

children would feel as part and parcel of the society and thus be able to focus their

attention to educational related activities.

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The respondents also suggested that the schools should closely monitor the behaviors of

the children admitted in rehabilitation schools to prevent them from influencing others

into bad behavior. The schools were to lay more emphasis on the guidance and

counseling of children in the rehabilitation schools to facilitate their behavior

modification

Further, there was a suggestion by Othaya Rehabilitation School manager that the

department of children services at the national level should maintain a register of those

who have gone through rehabilitation schools and form a network of the graduates to

enable them to measure the impact of the program. She also suggested that the aftercare

kit should be introduced to help the children from rehabilitation schools to start off upon

their release from the rehabilitation schools.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes the findings of this study. The summary is divided into parts

addressing each objective stated in chapter one. The summary is followed by conclusions

based on the findings of the study and similarly following the objectives in chapter one.

Following the findings and the summary are recommendations on how rehabilitation

schools in Kenya can be improved further to make them conducive for children admitted

there. Lastly the chapter makes recommendations of areas for further study.

5.2 Summary of Research Findings

The study intended to trace and determine educational outcomes of the persons who were

rehabilitation at Othaya rehabilitation school between the year 2003 and 2007, document

their life experiences before, during and after rehabilitation with a view to drawing

lessons that could be of information to the ongoing reforms in the department of children

services.

In this section, a summary of the results of the study are presented in accordance with the

objectives of the study which were to;

a) Trace and document educational experiences of children who received

rehabilitation services at Othaya rehabilitation school between the year 2003 and

2007.
 81

b) Find out whether the rehabilitation schools equipped the children with skills for

social and economic empowerment and self-reliance

c) Find out whether the rehabilitation schools provided opportunities for continued

academic training to children to ensure that committal did not affect their

schooling.

d) Identify exit options utilized by rehabilitation schools and their impact on the

children‟s educational path

e) Determine educational outcomes and the quality of post-institutional life for

children after rehabilitation

5.2.1 Rehabilitees’ experiences prior to, during and after rehabilitation

A total of eleven former students of Othaya rehabilitation school were successfully traced

and interviewed by the researcher. Their recollections were supplemented by information

shared with the researcher by the manager of ORS at the time of the study.

The study found that majority of the children found in rehabilitation schools come from

both normal functioning families with both parents while others come from dysfunctional

families such as broken, separated, and single parent families. Further the study

established that majority of the children went to the streets and eventually into

delinquency and crime due to socio economic factors and other factors within the family

and/or the immediate environment, such as poverty, neglect and abuse by close relatives.

Majority of the children taken to Othaya rehabilitation school mainly fall under the

categories of Care and Protection (C&P), Protection and Discipline (P&D) and a few

under juvenile criminal offenders category.

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Majority of children in the rehabilitation schools felt that it was inappropriate for them to

be taken to rehabilitation schools. They initially experienced challenges in coping with

the new restricted life in rehabilitation schools, but with time many came to appreciate

the institution‟s rehabilitation programs.

5.2.2 Programs offered to children in rehabilitation schools

The findings also revealed that children in rehabilitation schools are offered a variety of

programs that range from educational, vocational and life skills training to services such

as guidance and counseling and pastoral services. Those skills though not very popular

with the rehabilitees have been found to empower them economically and thus prepared

them for self-reliance upon returning to the community. Children in rehabilitation school

are offered both individual and group counseling services. However the personnel

entrusted with this very important service in rehabilitation schools is inadequate and have

no professional training in guidance and counseling and therefore unable to successfully

help children develop educationally, vocationally and socially.

Majority of the children committed to rehabilitation schools had some academic

experience before committal which was however limited and considering time and other

experiences on the streets, it cannot be relied upon for placement of children in

rehabilitation schools for educational purposes.

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5.2.3 Opportunity for education in rehabilitation schools

Findings of the study also showed that, generally the rehabilitation schools offer

opportunity for continued educational training to all the children under their jurisdiction

regardless of their background. The schools follow the regular 8-4-4 curriculum which

allows the children to sit for the KCPE examinations upon completion of the primary

school cycle. The rehabilitation schools have adequate teaching and learning facilities

and resources provided by the government through the Free Primary Education (FPE)

program available to all other regular schools. Placement of children is competently done

on the basis of assessments using standardized tools at Getathuru rehabilitation center and

further assessment at the school by the teachers.

The teaching and learning atmosphere in the rehabilitation schools is not satisfactory due

to the behaviors exhibited by some of the children who have little interest in education

and/or other rehabilitation programs. Teachers who do not have any form of special

training encounter problems of class room control; they approach the children with

contempt and suspicion and often call them names.

On the same breath, the study found that teaching and learning in rehabilitation schools

is wanting because it is being interrupted by inadequacy of teaching and welfare staff,

frequent transfers of both the teachers and learners and inadequacy of time for academic

instruction and other correctional and rehabilitation programs. This puts the children in

rehabilitation schools at a disadvantage over their peers in regular schools who have all

the time for academic work.

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5.2.4 Exit options and their impact on children’s’ educational path

The study established that there are no structured exit procedures for children in

rehabilitation schools. The exit options largely utilized include rehabilitee‟s completion

of committal period, completion of primary school cycle, transfer to other rehabilitation

facilities as a result of age, congestion, change of behavior and sometimes expulsion.

Preparations for exit and follow up/aftercare services for the rehabilitated youth were

found to be inadequate. These services are supposed to be offered by children officers

and voluntary children officers under the district children‟s office. The researcher

established that these offices do not keep records or follow up majority of the children

released from rehabilitation schools. Further the offices are under staffed and as such

environmental adjustment services are not done. For that reason the children are literally

„ejected‟ out of the institutions at the end of their committal period and expected to

reintegrate in the society that had earlier rejected them. This situation has consequently

made some rehabilitated youth have go back to the streets rendering the whole exercise

futile.

5.2.5 Outcomes of rehabilitation and quality of post institutional life

In determining the outcomes of rehabilitation and the quality of post institutional life

after rehabilitation, the findings of the study revealed that majority of the rehabilitated

youth successfully reintegrated back into the community and were busy pursuing their

careers either in education, vocational training or are in employment.

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The study established that majority of the respondents upon release were able to engage

in various income generating activities while others continued with education in regular

public schools. This was after their behaviors changed significantly and were able to go

back to the mainstream society and were readily accepted.

Majority of the respondents (8) were satisfied with the lives they lived after the

rehabilitation, did not see themselves any different from the rest of the public and were

hopeful reaching greater heights courtesy of the skills acquired from the rehabilitation

school.

Socially, the study found that rehabilitation schools equip the children with skills for

socialization and economic empowerment leading to self-reliance. These skills have

helped them become responsible members of the community through the application of

the skills learned in their day today activities. Only a few (10%) fell back to crime and

delinquency (recidivism), mainly attributable to lack of proper follow up/aftercare

services, something that exposes the rehabilitated graduates to mistrust and suspicion by

potential employers once they disclose their backgrounds.

5.3 Conclusion

Based on the above findings, the researcher came up with the following conclusions;

 Children in rehabilitation schools encounter both pleasant and unpleasant experiences

before, during and after rehabilitation

 The atmosphere in rehabilitation schools is not good enough for effective teaching

and learning.
 86

 The exit and aftercare programs for rehabilitated youth from rehabilitation schools

falls short of expectation.

 Although all the programs offered to children in rehabilitation schools are good and

well intentioned, their implementation is wanting. As a result, the schools have not

made significant positive impact on the lives of the former students.

5.4 Recommendations

5.4.1 Recommendations to the Government

1) The government should improve its diversion program in order to prevent

children in conflict with the law from coming into contact with formal justice

system. In particular it should come up with non- custodial rehabilitative

measures. This could be done at community level to shelter children from

unpleasant experiences in the hands of police, courts and rehabilitation schools

which label them as social misfits and thus make it difficult for them to come out

of delinquency and crime.

2) The government through the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) should deploy

more trained teachers to the rehabilitation schools so as to ease the problem of

teacher shortage. Teachers already in the schools should be taken for in-service

course programs and seminars on special needs education, which will equip them

with skills on how to handle special needs children under their jurisdiction and

thus improve quality of teaching and learning in the schools.

3) The follow up/aftercare program by the field officers and the Probation
 87

Department in the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development should

be intensified so as to monitor the reintegration of rehabilitated children from

rehabilitation schools and thus prevent recidivism i.e. recurrence of delinquent

behaviors among the rehabilitated youth.

4) The government should provide a guidance and counseling program in

rehabilitation schools. The department of children services should hire qualified

and experienced staff to enable them competently and effectively deal delinquent

children. Such personnel should have professional training with exposure to

various courses like, human development and personality, counseling techniques,

and children‟s record maintenance. This will help the children in rehabilitation

schools to understand and accept themselves and thus make plans to improve

themselves educationally, vocationally and socially.

5) There should be collaboration between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry

of Gender, Children and Social Development in providing funds, resources and

trained teachers among others in order to ensure that education of children

rehabilitation schools is effectively carried on without frequent hiccups like the

withdrawal and transfers of teachers

6) For those who do not proceed on with education after leaving rehabilitation

school, placement officers should make arrangements with the Government and

other Non-Governmental Organizations to help them procure assistance and/or

 88

loans to enable them to start off and thus reintegrate with ease to normal life. For

those who proceed to secondary schools and colleges, a support program should

be formulated to cater for their education.

7) The study also recommends that the quality of education in the rehabilitation

schools should be improved. This can be achieved through ensuring that there is

adequate teaching staff, facilities and learning materials. Further the Quality

Assurance and Standards Department (QASO) in the MOE should intensify

inspection and assessment of teaching and learning in rehabilitation schools in

order to ensure rehabilitees get quality education similar to other regular public

schools. This will ensure that committal to rehabilitation school does not

adversely affect the children‟s schooling.

8) In talking about the welfare of the former rehabilitation school students, it has

been found that the government has not made any efforts to follow on the former

rehabilitees. The government therefore through the institutions and other agencies

needs to make a follow up on those who exit to find out whether they reintegrate

in the society or not, whether they utilize the skills trained or not, with a view to

intervening and deriving lessons that can be used to further improve the

rehabilitation schools in Kenya.

9) The department of children services should provide adequate treatment to children

in need of care within a genuine system of social welfare and stop considering
 89

institutional rehabilitation as the only solution for C&P, P&D and children with

criminal tendencies.

5.4.2 Recommendations to Othaya rehabilitation school

10) Mixing children in need of Care and Protection(C&P), children in need of

Protection and Discipline (P&D) with children committed for criminal activities

will only afford them a chance to undergo further training in crime. Therefore

children with criminal records should be carefully screened and isolated from

others. Some petty offences should be handled by social workers and

parents/guardians of the respective children in order to avoid removing them from

the community and in the process labeling them as social misfits.

11) Courses offered in rehabilitation schools should be increased to give diversified

training both for vocational and educational training. This will give a variety of

options to the children giving them a chance of securing employment in future.

They should be tailored to current realities in the world of work today.

12) Parents, guardians, relatives and all members of the community should be actively

involved in the rehabilitation of children. They should regularly visit children in

the rehabilitation schools to get to know of their progress and to show a sense of

belonging. This is viewed to be one of the strategies to ensuring effective re-

integration of children in to the community upon completion of rehabilitation.

 90

5.5 Suggestions for Further Research

This study was carried out among the rehabilitated former students of Othaya

rehabilitation school in Nyeri South District of Central Province. Due to the limited scope

of the study, the researcher was not able to carry out extensive research on the

educational outcomes of child offenders in Kenya. Therefore the researcher would like to

suggest the following as related areas in which further research can be carried out.

i. Since this study, was carried out in a boys rehabilitation school, there is need for

similar studies focusing on girls rehabilitation schools in Kenya

ii. Similar studies should be carried out in other rehabilitation schools in the other

regions in Kenya mainly to investigate on the effectiveness of rehabilitation schools

on improving children‟s behavior and character.

iii. There is need to find out how the standards of education in rehabilitation schools

are maintained now that these institutions are placed under a different ministry

other than the Ministry of Education which is in charge of monitoring the quality of

education in Kenya

iv. Relevance of vocational training programs offered to children in rehabilitation

schools to job market in Kenya in the 21st century.

v. Effectiveness of probationary and aftercare programs for rehabilitated juvenile

delinquents in Kenya.
 91

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: NARRATIVE INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR REHABILITATION

SCHOOL GRADUATES.

1. Bio-data

Rehabilitation period; from…………. To ……………………

Highest educational level attained…………………………….

Current occupation/engagement ……………………………

2. Please tell me about your childhood experiences before admission to Othaya

rehabilitation school.

Probe notes;

n) General description of home, siblings, parents and extended family.

o) School experience i.e. Courses taken, subjects favored, credentials achieved, peer

relations, teachers

p) Circumstances leading to admission to a rehabilitation school.

3 Please, can you share with me your experiences in Othaya Rehabilitation School?

Probe Notes

 Feelings and expectations in entrance to a Rehabilitation school.

 Rehabilitation programs and services offered

 Inter personal relationships with peers and staff.

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4. Tell me about academic training in Othaya rehabilitation school.

Probe notes.

 Subjects offered

 Teaching and learning facilities available

 Rehabilitees perception and feelings about academic training

 Rehabilitees performance in academic work

5. Please tell me about your exit from Othaya Rehabilitation School.

Probe notes

 Preparations for exit from the school

 Feelings and expectations on release.

 Assistance and support given by the School on release.

6. Tell me how you were received back into the community.

Probe notes

 How were you received by the parents, siblings, relatives and general public

 Assistance given by school to enable one fit back in the society

 Challenges encountered and how they were overcome

 Whether the skills acquired helped one reintegrate in society

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7. Tell me about:

a) Your educational life experiences after rehabilitation

Probe notes

 Assistance given to help you join regular schools

 Educational path

 Educational achievements

 Career pursuits

b) Your Social life experiences after rehabilitation

Probe Notes:

 Relations with members of the family and relatives

 Marriage and family

 Relations with neighbors

 Relations with law enforcement agents

c) Your Economic life experiences after rehabilitation

Probe notes

 Employment history/economic activities engaged in

 Whether they use the economic skills taught in rehabilitation school

8. Please comment about Educational outcomes of children in Rehabilitation schools

Probe Notes

 Admission to regular schools after rehabilitation

 Retention and Completion of Education for children in rehabilitation schools

 Transition to secondary and tertiary institutions

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 Relevance of education to children from rehabilitation schools

 Suggestions on how education for children in rehabilitation schools can be

improved

9. Please comment about the social and economic outcomes of children from

rehabilitation schools

Probe notes

 Relations with members of the society

 Relations with law enforcement agents

 Rates of recidivism

 Their social and economic activities

10. What would you say about rehabilitation schools for child offenders in Kenya?

Probe notes

 Strengths and weaknesses of rehabilitation schools

 Solutions to problems they are facing and /or how they can be made better
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APPENDIX: B

NARRATIVE INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR REHABILITATION SCHOOL

MANAGER.

1. I want you to share with me experiences of children in rehabilitation schools

 before joining rehabilitation schools

 during court trial and committal

 in rehabilitation schools

2. Tell me about the treatment and rehabilitation of the children in rehabilitation

 Treatment and rehabilitation programs

 Resources and facilities for rehabilitation

3. Please tell me about educational training of children in rehabilitation schools

 Educational assessment and Placement of children in various levels of

learning

 Curriculum offered

 Time allocation and syllabus coverage

 Teaching and learning facilities and teaching personnel

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4. Now tell me about exit of children from rehabilitation schools

 When to terminate intervention

 Commonly used exit strategies

 Assistance/ help given to children on exit from the school

 Follow up/ aftercare services to children

5. What are the outcomes of rehabilitation of children?

 Socioeconomic outcomes of rehabilitation

 Educational outcomes of rehabilitation

 How the schools rate success of the program

 Recommendations on how the program can be improved.