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Professional Education: Foundations of Education
Mr. Gerry C. Areta
LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

Refresher Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: Professional Education
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
(Historical, Philosophical, Social and Legal Foundations of Education; The Teaching Profession)
LET Competencies:
• Determine ways and means to ensure the high standards of personal and professional development
• Determine the roles of the teachers as active members of the community and as global citizens responsible for
the outcomes of their actions and for developing other citizens.
• Analyze historical, economic, socio-cultural, geographical, environmental, political and social-psychological
factors that affect the role of the school as an agent of change.
• Interpret educational problems in the light of philosophical and legal foundations of education.
• Apply the four pillars of learning in responding to the aspirations of the community: learning to know; learning
to do; learning to live together; learning to be.
• Apply ethical principles and situations involving teacher’s relationship with various groups of people.
• Reflect on professional teacher’s accountability to the learners’ performance and achievement to the teacher’s
total involvement in the teaching profession.
PREPARED BY: Mr. Gerry C. Areta
PART I: Content Update

EDUCATION – derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to lead forth. It is defined as the
process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities
through training instructions and self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity.
TYPES OF EDUCATION
1. Formal Education – refers to hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learning organized and
provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the learner to progress to
higher levels.
2. Non-formal Education – refers to any school-based educational activities undertaken by agencies aimed at
attaining specific learning objectives for a particular clientele.
3. Informal Education – a type of education which can be acquired anytime and anywhere.
THE NATURE OF A SCHOOL

• A social institution established by society for the basic enculturation of the group
• Next to family, the most popular and effective socializing institution.
• An extension of the home and the home an extension of the school.
• An agency which makes students learn how to value oneself and eventually others.
• A certain building, having a unity of interacting personalities, a field of social forces, a system of formal-
informal control, a special cultural world, a community-secure agency.
• A special place where children of different cultures meet.
• An agency organized by society for the basic function of teaching and learning.
• A formal institution from wearing children from home and introducing them into society.
THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS (Bago, 2008)

1. Educate citizens to fit into society.
2. Educate citizens to change the society
SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF SCHOOLS

1. Cognitive Purposes – teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking
1|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS
2. Political Purposes – inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order.
3. Social Purposes – concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles of society.
4. Economic Purposes – involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work.
FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL
1. Conservation Function. The school conserves and preserves through its libraries and other devices recorded accumulated
experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, inventions, etc. for future generations.
2. Instructional Function. This is the main concern of school, to pass on the accumulated experiences of the past
generations to the incoming generations. This is performed by individuals trained for the purpose – teachers. The recipients of such
instruction are young learners called pupils or students.
3. Research Function. The school conducts research to improve the old ways of doing things or to discover hitherto
unknown facts or systems to improve the quality of life.
4. Social Service Function. This may be done through some kind of outreach programs which could be in a form of literacy,
health, means of livelihood, recreational activities, etc.
A. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
PERIOD INFLUENCES PIONEER/S

Emphasis on informal education to
Preliterate Society transmit skills and values. Education for
conformity, security and survival.
Career-oriented education. Written Confucius
Chinese examinations for civil service and other Mencius
professions. Lao Tsu
Cultural transmission and assimilation,
India
spiritual attachment
Practical and Vocational education.
Restriction of educational controls and
Egyptian
services to priestly elite. Use of
education to prepare bureaucracies.
ATHENS: 1. Socrates – knowledge is virtue.
ATHENS: Liberal education. The Socratic method
concept of well-rounded person. 2. Plato – education should be determined by
Greek
SPARTANS: Democratic education. The the social class.
concept of serving the military state. 3. Aristotle – Virtue is brought by doing not by
knowing
Roman Utilitarian/Pragmatic education.
Emphasis on education for practical
administrative skills relating education to
civic responsibility. Ladderized form of
education
Jewish Religious education Jesus Christ
Scientific education. Reentry of classical
Arabic Al-farabi; Avicenna
materials on science and medicine
MEDIEVAL Establishment of the structure, content
and organization of universities as major
institutions of higher education. The
institutionalization and preservation of
knowledge.
- Monasticism Education as a religious discipline

- Scholasticism Education as an intellectual discipline St. Thomas Aquinas
- Chivalric Education as a Social Discipline
- Guild System Education for the preparation for
commerce and industry
RENAISSANCE Emphasis on literary knowledge,
excellence and style as expressed in
classical literature.
- Individual - Stressed that individual freedom is a - Vittorino de Feltre – administered Casa

Humanism prerequisite to the achievement of a Giacosa (Happy House) whose purpose
rich and fulfilled life. was to educate young boys by using
games
- Social Humanism - Education is an avenue for societal - Desiderius Erasmus – use of games and
regeneration ind.instruction and prohibited corporal
punishment.
- Reformation - Religious moralism - Martin Luther King – Father of

Reformation
- Counter- - Dev’t of unquestioning obedience to - Orders: Jesuit – (Ignatius de Loyola) teach
Reformation Church children to become leaders of both Church
and State; Little School of Port Royale –
aimed to develop moral and religious
character of the child; Institute of the
Brethren of Christian Schools (Jean
Baptiste de la Salle) teach the poor and
underprivileged
REALISM Education should be concerned with the
actualities of life & prepare for its - John Milton – study of formal grammar
concrete duties. and formal education must be
- Literary
emphasized. (Li)
- Aims to complete knowledge and
- Francois Rebelais – education must be
- Social understanding of human society
attractive rather than compulsive. All
- Aims to prepare the aristocratic youth
learning should be gained through books.
for the life of a gentleman in world of
(Li)
affairs
- Michael de Montaigne – emphasized the
- Sense - Aims to prepare the young for the
use of field trips (So)
concrete duties of actual and practical - John Amos Comenius – level of teaching
living in the material universe.
should be suited to learners (Se)
- Francis Bacon – inductive method of
teaching (Se)
- Richard Mulcaster – developed teacher
training colleges (So)
- Wolfgang Ratke – Mastery learning (Se)
The power in any faculty (Aristotle’s - John Locke – “Tabula rasa” mind of learner
faculty psychology: memory, reason, will - J.B. Watson – environment-stimulus
Formal Disciplinism
and judgment)can be developed through
leaning
training and proper discipline
- Jean Jacques Rousseau – man at birth is

Education should be in accordance with
naturally good, societal influences make
the nature of the child. All educ’l
man evil and that the stronger the body,
Naturalism practices should be focused towards the
the more it obeys, the weaker, the more it
natural dev’t of all the innate talents and
abilities of the child commands.
- Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi – use of

sensation in forming clear ideas from
simple to complex, near to far and
This movement calls for the application concrete to abstract. Schooling based on
emotional security and object learning.
of basic psychological principles like
PSYCHOLOGICAL
individual differences, motivation, - Johann Friedrich Herbart – Herbartian
MOVEMENT
transfer of learning and other to the Method of Teaching: Preparation,
educative process.
Presentation, Association, Generalization
and Application.
- Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel – created the
Kindergarten which includes games and

sports in the curricula
- Maria Montessori - assists children’s
sensory, muscular and intellectual
development in a prepared environment.
- Jean Piaget – organizes instruction
according to stages of cognitive
development.
- John Dewey – Developed the pragmatic

Based on the tenets of this movement,
education is looked upon as the process experimentalist. He believed that
SOCIOLOGICAL geared toward the propagation, education must be democratic.The aim of
MOVEMENT perpetuation and amelioration of the education is social efficiency. Postulated
society and total development of an
the famous “Learning by Doing Dictum”
individual.
PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

PERIOD EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
- Education during those times was a result of individual experiences as well as a by-
product of the accumulation of race experiences.
- Tell me/Show me or demonstration method where the students can do
PRE-SPANISH
observation and imitation.
- Study of History and Tradition to preserve and transmit the culture from
generation to generation.
- Education was then considered as a status symbol, a privilege, and not a right.
- Education was purely religious in nature and it aimed at the so-called
Christianization of the natives for the glory of God.
- Religious instructions through the teaching of catechism/doctrine and character
education
SPANISH - The use of vernacular as medium of instruction
- Establishments of Parochial Schools that offer doctrine instruction, arithmetic,
music and various arts and trades.
- Linguistics – Spanish friars produced the first grammars and dictionaries that led to
the development of Filipino languages.
- Rote-memorization as a method in teaching
- Educational aims: training for self-government and provision of English as a

common language.
- They believed that education should be universal and free for all regardless of sex,
age, religion, and social status of the individual.
- The American soldiers taught the Filipinos how to speak English and the first
civilian teachers of English called the “Thomasites” carried out later education.
The philosophy operates on the following:
AMERICAN - The schools would be public and secular.
- They should not give religious instructions.
- They should not depend upon the church for assistance.
- The schools should be open to all.
- The schools were to serve society by developing the intelligence, right attitudes
and habits of the children who were to become citizens of the future.
- The democratic ideal as a philosophy was greatly emphasized.
- Supervision of schools would take the role of guidance and consultancy.
- Re-orientation of educational plans and policies to carry out the educational

mandates of the Constitution;
COMMONWEALTH - Citizenship training to develop an enlightened citizen
- Required the teaching of the Filipino language in the senior year of all high schools
and in all years in the normal schools.

- Educational Aims: eradicate the old idea of reliance upon western nations, and
foster a new Filipino culture based on self-consciousness of the people as
Orientals, elevate the morals of the people, strive for the diffusion of the Japanese
language in the Philippines and terminate the use of English, promote vocational
JAPANESE
education and inspire the people with the spirit of labor.
- Promotion of Vocational Education and establishment of agricultural schools
- Citizenship Education
- Teaching of Physical education
- Service eligibility of teachers was made permanent

- The life, works and writings of Dr. Jose Rizal was included in all levels.
- The Magna Carta for Public School teachers (R.A. 4670) was enacted.
- Rise of barrio schools.
- Non-formal education and vocational training came into existence.
- Educational development were formulated to bridge the gap between manpower
development and the needs of industries.
- Provision for a guidance program in every secondary school
3rd REPUBLIC
- Provision for adult education
- Curricular contents that stressed social orientation as manifested by the
conservation of the Filipino heritage, training for occupation, promotion of
democratic nation building, and a new thrust on community development.
- A daily flag ceremony was made compulsory in all schools including the singing of
national anthem.
- Compulsory enrolment of children in the public school upon reaching seven years
of age and completion elementary grades.
- Educational aims: to foster love for country, teach the duties of citizenship,
develop moral character, self-discipline and scientific, technological and vocational
efficiency.
- Bilingual education program
- The National College Entrance Examination was created.
- Tertiary honor students are granted civil service eligibility
- Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET)
NEW SOCIETY - Curriculum reorientation based on activity program and projects in line with the
pupils’ interests.
- Selected admission
- Improvement of teachers in service
- Accreditation process
- Guidance and counseling program
- Improvement of instruction in Mathematics and Science
- Government grants and loans to institutions and other agencies.
- Educational aims: Shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love for
humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in
the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of
citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and
technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency.
- Free public secondary education
EDSA REPUBLIC
- Government assistance to students and teachers in private education
- Teaching of values in the New Elementary School Curriculum
- Student Employment Law
- Creation of CHED
- Professionalization of teachers (LET)
- Global Education- Education aims for responsible participation in an
interdependent world community.

- Education For All
- Free Secondary Education
- Government Assistance to students and teachers in private education.
B. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION Nature of Philosophy

• Philosophy (from the Greek philein which means to love and sophia meaning wisdom) – is the science of
beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by human reason alone. (C.Bittle).
• It is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge,
truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and language.
TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY (according to function)
Speculative (also known as Prescriptive (also called normative or Analytical (also critical
synoptic or armchair philosophy) evaluative philosophy)- is reflective philosophy) – is critical thinking
is systematic thinking designed thinking that strives to formulate that aims to examine ideas,
to arrive at world views, coherent goals, norms or standards with the concepts, issues or problems
systems of thought or world purpose of guiding human thinking with the purpose of clarifying
outlook. E.g. Classical and conduct. E.g. social philosophy, them. E.g. language analysis and
Philosophies like naturalism, etc. ethics and logic logical analysis
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics - It is Epistemology - Its major concerns are Logic -generally Axiology - branch
simply described as the nature of knowledge, the process of described as the science that deals with values
the theory of knowing and the grounds for and art of correct in general thinking.
reality. It deals with establishing the validity of knowledge. thinking/reasoning.
the nature of being Kinds of Values
and reality, Positions in relation to knowledge Modes of Thinking - Ethics – theory of
essence, truth, - Agnosticism – “not being able to - Inductive Logic- morality
space, time, know”. Believes in the impossibility of reasoning from - Aesthetics – the
causation, essence knowledge. particulars to realm of art and beauty
of God, as well as
the origin and - Skepticism – is the doubting or general or universal. - Religious – value
purpose of the questioning attitude towards It leads to discovery realized through worship,
universe. knowledge. of principles, laws experience and service
- Affirmation of knowledge – is the and formulae, etc.
- Educational – value
belief on the possibility of knowledge. - Deductive Logic – inherent in or derived from
reasoning from general to the educative process
Types of knowledge in relation specific/ particulars.
to observation - Social – is realized in
Methods of showing
- A priori – Latin phrase meaning community through the
proofs of a known individual’s relation to
“from before hand”. It is the
principle or truth. Also society.
reasoning that knowledge comes
known as Syllogism
from pure reason alone and - Utilitarian –
knowledge is independent and even - Dialectic Logic – actualized in harmonious
comes before experience. reasoning in which the adjustment to or efficient
truth is arrived at through control of the forces of
- A Posteriori – Latin phrase which
contrast or conflict of the physical
means “from behind hand”. It advanced
ideas. environment.
the idea that knowledge comes from
experience. Hegel’s dialectic
consists of three
Types of knowledge according to stages, thesis,
means of acquiring them antithesis and
- Empirical – knowledge acquired synthesis.
through sense perception, also known - Experimental Logic –
as scientific knowledge. testing of hypothesis
- Rational – knowledge acquired which makes use of
primarily through reason. induction and
- Intuitive – knowledge obtained deduction.
through intuition, sudden flash of
insight.
- Authoritative – knowledge acquired through an authority (expertise)
- Revealed – knowledge disclosed by God to man.
COMPARISONS OF EASTERN AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

• The distinction between religion and philosophy is not so important to the East and most Eastern religions
teach that ordinary actions can affect the supernatural realm. In the West, a dichotomy of religion and philosophy
works.
• Eastern thinks of time in cyclical manner
• The East resorts or relies much on intuition and mysticism. The West relies on logic and science.
EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES
PHILOSOPHY CHARACTERISTICS OF THOUGHT
• The Hindus define their community as “those who believe in the Vedas” or
“those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of
life (ashramas).
• The cardinal principles of Hinduism are the divinity of soul, the unity of
Hinduism existence, the oneness of Godhead and harmony of religion.
• Hinduism also teaches that the soul never dies. When the body dies, the soul is
reborn. The law of karma states that every action affects how the soul will be
born in the next reincarnation.
• Founded by Siddharta Gautama

• Originates from the experiences of misery life. Life, for the Buddhist, is caught
in a labyrinth of changes so that there is no peace to be found in this world.
There is an endless cycle of change, of birth and death and therefore, the only
way for man to attain peace is the state of “nirvana”, or the fading out of
suffering.
• The Four Noble Truth:
1. Life is full of pain and suffering.
2. The cause of pain and suffering is selfish craving.
3. The cause of pain can be eliminated.
Buddhism
4. The way towards the end of suffering is by 8-fold path.
• Eightfold Path:
1. Right View (Wisdom)
2. Right Intention (Wisdom)
3. Right Speech (Ethical Conduct)
4. Right Action (Ethical Conduct)
5. Right Livelihood (Ethical Conduct)
6. Right Effort (Mental Development)
7. Right Mindfulness (Mental Development)
8. Right Concentration (Mental Development)
• Founded by Jina. It does not accept Vedie Teaching. The doctrine of Jainism is
discussed under four headings:
1. Knowledge is relative – we can never know totality but only a part
thereof.
Jainism or Jinism
2. Jaina cosmology regards the universe as a living organism animated by
life.
3. Its ethics is non-violence.
4. Jainism is pessimistic. Every action has its karmic color.
• The ideal man is the sage and wise man. Life is deemed desirable. They believe
Confucianism in the coordination of thought and action agrees with thought.
• The way to attain virtues is through natural means: (a) being true to one’s
nature, and (2) applying those principles in relationship. The objective is
central harmony. It is founded on the experience of the all-embracing harmony
between men and nature and is highly conservative.
• Confucius – the Latinized name of Kung Fu Tzu which means the Grand
Master, also called “Ch’iu”.
- He propagated the idea of democracy.
- He contends that rulers and officials should make the people affluent and
then educate them.
- He provides primarily moral reasons for caring for the masses.
- The gentlemen acts out of Yi (righteousness) and the inferior man acts out
of Li (profitability)
- He taught that life is a gift that must be treasured.
- Golden rule is ren which is a virtue.
- One should live up to his name because a name has its essence.
- Sufficient food, sufficient weapons and the confidence of the people make
for good government.
• Mencius – Latinized name of Meng Tzu or Teacher Meng
- Man is originally good because he has the four germs of human goodness:
heart of compassion, heart of courtesy and modesty, heart of right and
wrong, and heart of wisdom.
- His all embracing love has the hierarchy: love for parent (highest), love for
other people and love for things (lowest)
- It is with the heart that man thinks.
- Everything must be out in its right place. Even without doing anything
(wuwei), Tao would still accomplish its objectives.
• Strongly emphasizing man’s place in nature. It is concerned with society,
except as something to move away from. It stresses man’s passive role in
nature.
• It is founded on the experience of the dynamic force immanent in the universe,
which gives order and life and meaning to the totality of reality it adhered to
Taoism
the vision of human being’s harmony with nature.
• It believes in the central idea of dualism of the universe.
• Lao Tzu – taught that the Tao is most fully revealed in tranquillity whether
through action nor religious living. Virtue is attained by quiet submission to the
power of the Tao.
• Advocated a strict interpretation of law in every respect. Morality was not
important; adherence to the letter of the law was paramount. Officials who
Legalism
exceeded expectations were as liable for punishment as were those who
(Qin dynasty of China)
underperformed their duties, since both were not adhering exactly to their
duties
• A fusion of Mahayana Buddhism with Taoist principles.
• Bodhidharma was a semilegendary Indian monk who traveled to China in the
fifth century CE. There, at the Shaolin temple, he began the Ch'an school of
Buddhism, known in Japan and in the West as Zen Buddhism.
Zen Buddhism • The philosophy places emphasis on existing in the moment, right now.
• It teaches that the entire universe is one’s mind, and if one cannot realize
enlightenment in one’s own mind now, one cannot ever achieve
enlightenment.
• Practitioners engage in zazen (just sitting) mediatation.
• The indigenous religion of Japan, a sophisticated form of animism that holds
Shinto that spirits called kami inhabit all things. Worship is at public shrines, or in
small shrines constructed in one's home.
WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES
SCHOOL OF
CHARACTERISTICS ADVOCATES
THOUGHT
• It believes that ‘nature’ is the ground of reality. 1. Jean Jacques Rousseau –
NATURALISM Basically, ‘nature’ refers to the aggregate of things in emphasized the importance
the physical world including human beings and of the individual’s direct
Key Words: human nature. The key to understanding nature is experience with the natural
through the senses. environment.

• Other educational beliefs are as follows: 2. John Heinrich Pestalozzi –
- Education is preparation of life. advocator of object study
- Pupil is mainly a physical being with language, education
for social regeneration,
- The school exists due to the prolonged infancy of
learning through
man.
observation and
- The school is the extension of home and
experiences, discipline
professional teachers are “surrogate parents.”
based on love.
• The Principles of its Educative Process: 3. Herbert Spencer – “Survival
a. Confirm to the natural processes of the fittest” – competition
of human against nature.
b. Should be pleasurable
c. Engage the self-activity of the child
d. Acquisition of knowledge
e. For the body and the mind
f. Practices the art of delay
g. Should be inductive
h. Punishment be constituted by consequences of
wrong deeds
• Curriculum:Education should not be a mastery of
bookish information. The child should not be passive
and learning should actively involve children in
dealing with environment using their senses in
solving problems.
• Its origin traced to Plato’s doctrine of ideas and 1. Socrates – used

IDEALISM universals. It believes that moral and spiritual reality introspection in teaching
has the same essence as mental reality. 2. Plato – reality has 2 regions:
Key
Words: • Based on the fundamental idea of importance of World of Ideas and World of
mind and spirit and of developing them in the Senses.
learner. 3. Spinoza – introduced the 3
• Reality is in the ideas independent of sense and levels of knowledge:
experience. Imagination, Reason and
• Its educational ideas are as follows: Intuition
- Education is ideal-centered. 4. Descartes – In order to
- The teacher is the ideal or personification of arrive with certain
reality. knowledge, one should
- The educative process is done mainly through doubt everything that exists
imitation, interest and effort. in material world.
- The ultimate goal of education is the superior life 5. Leibniz – material can be
(life of virtues). broken while the soul
- The school exists due to spiritual necessity cannot be divided.
- The school is a value-realizing institution. 6. Berkeley – “To be is to be
- The pupil is a self, a spiritual being, a personality perceived or to perceive”
whose foundation is God. 7. Kant – Intelligence/
• Curriculum: Education should be directed towards Practical reason is innate to
every human being.
the search for true ideas. It is subject mater or
content-focused, believing that this is essential to 8. Hegel – developed the
dialectic process: Thesis,
mental and oral development
Antithesis, Synthesis
• School of thought attributed to Aristotle. This 1. Aristotle – the union of forms

REALISM philosophy holds that objects or things exist (ideas) and matter gives
independent of the mind. concrete reality to things. He
Key
Words: • Realism can be defined as a philosophical position also developed the logical
that asserts the existence of an objective order of method, syllogism which uses
reality and the possibility of human beings gaining propositions.
knowledge about that reality. It further prescribes 2. Thomas Aquinas –

that our behavior should conform to this knowledge. “Perfection of human being
- Education is formation (Comenius) through and the ultimate reunion of
cultural transmission. the soul with God”. Truths
- Education is viewed mainly as transmission of were eternally in God.
information and knowledge. Humans use reason to seek
- The teacher is an authority. truth.
3
- The “tabula rasa” theory is consistent with this . Francis Bacon – “Knowledge
philosophy. is power”. Devised the
- The pupil is an organism with a highly developed inductive method.
4
brain, superior to others . John Locke – Allknowledge is
- It envisioned that the main goal of education is acquired from sources
the attainment of “good life”. The school’s task is independent of the mind or
to transcribe the good life. as a result of reflection on
• The most efficient and effective way to find out data from independent
about reality is to studyit through systematically sources.
5
organized subject matter disciplines, i.e. Math, . Whitehead – Education
Science, etc. should enable us to get into
the flow of existence, the
process - patterns of reality.
1
• It has assumed various forms: Practicalism (William . Charles Sanders Pierce -
PRAGMATISM James), Instrumentalism (John Dewey), “Experimentalism” – the
Experimentalism (Charles Pierce) Functionalism and meaning of ideas and
Key
Words: even Critical Naturalism. It holds the belief that the thoughts are best discovered
meaning of an idea can be determined by the and established when these
consequences of its test/practice. It also believes that are put in an experimental
change is the essence of reality. test.
- The objective of education is a continuous
2
reconstruction of experiences, effective . William James – asserts that
anything is true if whether it
experiencing with social efficiency.
works.
- The goals of education are more educative and
social efficiency. 3
. John Dewey –
- The experimental method is its method of
“Instrumentalism” – thought
thought. is instrumental in problem
- Democracy is ideal because there is a free solving.
interplay of ideas.
- Initial learning is marked out by an indeterminate
situation leading to a problem.
- Schools exist to supply the volume of learning
each generation needs.
- Pupils are unique individuals that interact actively
with forces in the environment.
• Curriculum: Learning by Doing/ Learning by
Experience
• Existentialism is a kind of philosophizing that

EXISTENTIALISM emphasizes the uniqueness and freedom of the 1. Soren Kierkegaard – stress
individual person against the herd, the crowd or the the person’s absolute
Key
Words: mass society. It contends, further, that all people are freedom and that human
responsible for the meaning of their own existence beings are totally
and the creating of their own essence and self- responsible for the choices
definition. they make.
- Reality or knowledge is not predetermined and is
not a priori. 2. Jean-Paul Sartre –
- Existentialists hold that Existence precedes existence precedes
essence, which means that each of us comes into essence. Each person
the world in a totally blank way. creates his/her own
- Implications on education would center on the meaning.
pupil and teacher.
- Education should fully consider the facticity (from
10 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

particular parents and particular circumstances)
• Curriculum: Stresses activity; recognition of
individual differences, opportunities for making
choices and awareness of consequence of
introspection and self analysis through individualized
learning experiences.
• It is one of the two analytical philosophies. The other 1. Ludwig Wittgenstein - The
LANGUAGE / is logical empiricism. world is represented by
LINGUISTIC • It regards philosophy as an activity of clarifying thought, which is a
ANALYSIS thoughts through careful use of language and logical proposition with sense, since
methods. Its major concern in education is the they all — world, thought,
Key Words: constant examination and reexamination of and proposition — share the
educational ideas and practices through empirical same logical form.
researches and use of accurate language. 2. Noam Chomsky – proposes
• Objectives of education are value statements the Language Learning
couched in education terms cannot be confirmed. Device – which allows human
• The teaching concepts should be done with reference to acquire language
to their specific contexts. 3. Bertrand Russel – proposes
• Educational discourse should be done in specific logical atomism, an ideal
which would mirror the world
terms with their meanings made clear.
• Rooted in Classical Realism, supported by some
PERENNIALISM idealists.
• Perennial means ‘everlasting’. It has a 1. Robert Hutchins –
Key Words: conservative/traditional view of human nature and Schools should pursue
education. intellectual ideas rather
• Based from the meaning itself, the Perennialists than practical and
contend that truth is universal and unchanging. In should not teach a
fact, they view all human beings as possessing the specific set of values.
same essential nature that leads them to think that
education of man must also be universal and 2. Mortimer Adler –
constant. As a result, they believe that students learn establish the Paidea
from reading and analyzing the works by history’s Program which study a
finest thinkers and writers – these are the classics. course that is general
- Since human nature is constant, the nature of not specialized.
education remains constant too.
- Since man’s distinctive characteristic in his ability
to reason, education should concentrate on
developing the rational faculty.
- Education is not a replica of life but preparation of
it.
- Children should be taught certain basic subjects
that would acquaint them with the world’s
permanencies, both spiritual and physical.
- These permanencies are best studied in what they
call the “Great Books”.
• Curriculum: Subject matter consists of perennial
basic education of rational men: history, language,
math, logic, classical literature, science, fine arts,
cultural heritage.
• Pragmatism is its philosophical root
PROGRESSIVISM • Educational progressivism is the belief that education
must be based on the principle that humans are social 1. Francis Parker -
Key Words: animals who learn best in real-life activities with other opposed rote learning,
people. there is no value in
• Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available knowledge without
scientific theories of learning. Adopting the understanding.
pragmatic view that change is the essence of reality;
progressivists declare that education is always in the 2. John Dewey
process of development. Individual differences are
recognized by the philosophy.
- Education should be active and related to the
interests of the child.
- Learning should take place through problem
solving rather than absorption of subject matter.
- Education as the intelligent reconstruction of
experience is synonymous with civilized living.
- Education should be life itself rather than
preparation for living.
- The teacher’s role is not to direct but to advise.
- The school encourage cooperation rather than
competition.
- Only democracy permits, rather encourages, the
free interplay of ideas and personalities that is a
necessary condition of true growth.
• Curriculum: Based on activities and projects that are
in line with the pupils’ needs and abilities. Child-
centered and experience-based learning.
• It is compatible with a variety of philosophical
ESSENTIALISM outlooks. Education in idealism support it. 1. William Bagley –
• This philosophy of education asserts that education Educators and Schools
Key Words: properly involves the learning of the basic skills. It should provide each
sees the primary function of the school as the generation with
preservation and transmission of the basic elements possession of a
of human culture. Essentialism tries to instil all common core of ideas,
students with the most essential or basic academic meanings,
knowledge and skills and character development. understandings and
• It believes that the school should not abandon ideals representing the
traditional methods of mental discipline. most precious elements
• The heart of the educational process is the of the human heritage.
absorption of prescribed subject matter. 2. Arthur Bestor–
• Curriculum: Curriculum focused on assimilation of Education should
provide sound training
prescribed basic subject matter: 3Rs, history, science,
in the fundamental
math, language
ways of thinking.
• This theory claims to be the true successor of
SOCIAL progressivism and declares that the chief purpose of
RECONSTRUCTIO education is to “reconstruct” society in order to meet 1. Theodore Brameld –
NISM the cultural crisis brought about by social, political the great crises were
and economic problems. symptoms of profound
Key
Words: • Education must commit here and now to the creation transition and rapid
of a new social order, which will fulfil the basic values change.
of our culture and at the same time, harmonize with
the underlying social and economic forces of the 2. George Counts –
modern world. Education must assume
• The means and ends of education is geared towards the responsibilities of an
meeting demands of the present cultural crisis. educational
• Curriculum: Includes subjects that deals with social statesmanship.
and cultural crises to prepare students to make
become analyzer and ensure that democratic
principles are followed.
• An educational theory that is predicated on the belief
BEHAVIORISM that human behaviour can be explained in terms of 1. Ivan Pavlov –Classical
responses to external stimuli. Conditioning or
Key
Words: • The basic principle of behaviourism is that education associative learning. A
can best be achieved by modifying or changing response is attached to
student behaviours in socially acceptable manner a given stimulus
through the arrangement of the conditions of 2. John Watson – We can
learning. predict and control the
• For behaviorists, the predictability and control of behavior of an
human behavior are paramount concepts. individual
• The control is obtained not be manipulating the 3. Edward Lee Thorndike
individual, but by manipulating the environment. – Connectionism – Law

• Curriculum: Experience-centered, environmental of Effect, Law of
variables, reinforcements, use of teaching machines, programmed Exercise and Law of
instruction, computer assisted instruction, interactive multimedia Readiness
4. B.F. Skinner – Reinforcements
C. THE TEACHING PROFESSION
Teaching - refers to the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction, at the elementary and secondary
levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education, whether on part-time or full-time
basis in the private or public schools.
Teachers - refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, whether on full-time or
part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and/or
administrative functions in all schools in the aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching under this Act.
Why Teaching is a Profession

✓ requires a number of higher education studies ✓ requires continuous professional growth
✓ regulates itself by a licensing system ✓ affords a life career
✓ possesses its own body of specialized knowledge ✓ sets up its own standards of professional practice
✓ upholds a service above personal gains ✓ has its own professional organization
ELEMENTS INHERENT IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION
1. Accountability
• graduate of a school/college/university recognized by the government and possesses the minimum
educational requirements: BEED/BECED/BSEED Bachelor Degree in Arts or Sciences with at least 10 units of
professional education (secondary) and Bachelor’s Degree in the field of specialization with at least 18 units in
professional education (vocational and two-year technical courses)
• passed the Licensure Examination for Teacher and possesses Certificate of Registration from PRC.
2. Authority
• Attractive/ Referent Authority – [emotional bank account (Covey, 1995)] When the teacher relies on personality,
relationship building, or the fact that they share common interests with students. Attractive authority can be developed
through getting to know and emotionally investing in students. In a sense, when the teacher makes deposits which they can
use their withdrawals as opportunities to influence behavior.
• Expert Authority – (intellectual capital) When the teacher is perceived as being knowledgeable in the subject,
well prepared, or intelligent. Expert authority is driven by the students’ desire to know. Some of this power comes
from a natural human deference for those who are perceived as wise.
• Reward Authority - They include grades, recognition, prizes, praise, privileges and anything else that students
might desire, given to them (externally) by their teacher. The notion of rewarding student behavior can be potentially
effective, but effects differ vastly from different kinds of rewards.
• Coercive Authority - the right to use disincentives, to say “no,” withhold privileges, and give consequences or
punishments to students. Coercive authority implies that if a line is crossed something will happen that will be less
than desirable for the student. No matter how much of the other forms of authority a teacher possesses, without some
amount of coercive authority, it is likely that some students will take advantage of their freedom to cross lines without
concern for boundaries.
• Position / Legitimate Authority - There is no other person in the classroom who can fulfill the duties of the
teacher. We could use the term “in loco parentis” (in the role of parental authority) to describe this type of power. The
teacher is the sanctioned authority in the room as well as the educator.
3. Ethics
• Subscription to the norms of the Professional Teacher’s Code of Ethics.
• Cultivation of mutual respect and absolute tolerance among students
• Serve for students not only as examples of high education but of decent behavior as well
4. Loyalty
• Teachers shall at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in
one another, self-sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When the best interest of the
learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teachers shall support one another. (Section 1,
Article V, Code of Ethics of Professional Teacher)
5. Learning
• Teachers are committed to students and their learning
• Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students
• Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning
• Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from their experience
• Teachers are members of learning community
6. Professionalism
• Keeps in mind the rules and regulations of the Code of Ethics and the institution he/she is in to.
• Participates in the Continuing Education Program of teachers
• Bounded by a social contract in which the public gives the profession independence and responsibility for the
conduct of its affairs in return for the profession’s commitment
Roles of Teachers
1. As a Director of Learning
✓ plans and organizes learning activities
✓ leads pupils/students through the learning episodes
✓ controls the whole learning situations
✓ appraises the effectiveness of the learning situations
2. As an Information Processor
✓ Analyzes information and events
✓ Makes information and events
✓ Makes information readily learnable
✓ Facilitates the comprehension of information and events
✓ Interprets information to learners
✓ Communicates information in a manner that pupils/students comprehend
3. As a Knower
✓ Knows much about the general fields of knowledge
✓ Masters thoroughly the subject matter of his/her field of specialization
✓ Brings learners to the world of ideas
✓ Provides accurate information to pupils/students
✓ Provides accurate information to pupils/students
✓ Answers readily pupils/students’ questions
4. As a Pioneer in the World of Ideas

✓ Carries students to new insights and knowledge
✓ Leads children to wide ranging and unlimited inquiry
✓ Develops new ideas and practices to meet the needs and demands of the time
5. As a Decision-Maker
✓ Decides on what objectives should be established
✓ Decides on the type of instructional program that could best achieve the objectives
✓ Decides on what body of information should be conveyed
✓ Decides on the most effective methods, techniques, approaches and materials that will facilitate the
attainment of the objectives
✓ Decides on the most appropriate grouping that would best benefit the learner.
6. As a Judge of Achievement
✓ Defines what is worth achieving
✓ Defines ability levels of pupils/students
✓ Evaluates pupils/students’ level of achievement
✓ Determines who will be promoted or retained
7. As a Counselor
✓ Establishes effective relationship with the individual pupil/student
✓ Collects pertinent information about each pupil/student
✓ Receives confidences
✓ Guides pupil/student in understanding himself
✓ Gives advices
✓ Assists pupils/students to find solutions to his/her own problems
8. As a Moralist
✓ Develops a functional moral and ethical code
✓ Creates acceptable moral atmosphere

✓ Establishes norms for behavior within and outside the classroom
9. As a Model for the Youth

✓ Exemplifies the scholarship and ideals valued by society
✓ Demonstrates acceptable sets of values
10. As a Person of Culture

✓ Possesses a broad general cultural education
✓ Is well-informed of current developments in various fields of science
✓ Appreciates arts and literature
✓ Demonstrates adequate skills in the use of language
11. As a Community Link

✓ Participates actively in the life of the community
✓ Interprets the school program to the public
✓ Brings parents to participate in school activities
✓ Utilizes the resources of the community to develop significant application of subject matter
12. As a Mediator of Culture

✓ Articulates social, political and economic traditions
✓ Develops cultural values
✓ Transmits culture
✓ Enriches cultural growth of pupils/students
D. LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATION
Relevant Laws – refers to legal acts, decrees, ordinances, orders, memoranda, circulars and the like that were
approved by proper authorities and have become legal bases in the conduct of educational process, in general,
and of teaching, in particular, in the Philippine setting.
I. Article XIV, 1987 Philippine Constitution The mandates are as follows:

1. Protection and promotion of the State to the rights of all citizens to quality education at all levels and make
such education accessible to all.
2. Provision for complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the society.
3. System of free public education in the elementary (compulsory) and secondary levels.
4. System of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies and other incentives which shall be available
to deserving students in both public and private schools especially to the underprivileged.
5. Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning, independent and
out-of-school youth with training in civics, vocational efficiency and other skills.
6. All educational institutions shall include the study of Constitution as part of the curricula.
7. Religion (optional) shall be allowed to be taught in public schools within the regular class hours by instructors
designed and approved by religious authorities without additional cost to the government.
8. The State shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational institutions.
9. Education to put emphasis on the inculcation of patriotism and nationalism as well as other values deemed
important in developing person and responsible citizen.
10. Sole ownership of educational institutions by at least 60% of the capital from Filipino citizen.
11. Tax exemptions for non-stock and non-profit educational institutions.
12. Enjoyment of academic freedom (teacher, students, institutions) in all institutions of higher learning.
13. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-teaching academic and non-
academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of State.
14. Highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the
best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment.
15. Filipino as the national language; Filipino and English as official languages for use in communication and
instruction.
16. Creation of national language commission.
17. Promotion of science and technology.
18. Preservation and enrichment of Filipino culture.
19. Promotion of physical education and other related programs.

II. Education Act of 1982 (Batas PambansaBlg. 232) – An Act Providing for the Establishment and Mamintenance of
an Integrated System of Education. It defines among all others the following:
• Aims of Philippine Educational System
o Provide for broad general education that will assist each individual in the peculiar ecology of his own
society to: a) attain his potentials as a human being; b) enhance the range and quality of individual and group
participation in the basic functions of society; and c) acquire the essential educational foundation of his development
into a productive and versatile citizen;
o Train the nation’s manpower in the middle-level skills for national development;
o Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement of knowledge
for improving the quality of human life; and
o Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational
planning and evaluation.
• Rights, duties and responsibilities of parents and students in school

• Rights of all school personnel
• Special rights and/or privileges of teaching or academic staff
• Special rights of school administration
• Rights of schools
• Obligations of teachers, school administrators and academic non-teaching personnel
• Educational systems
III. R.A. 4670 – Magna Carta for Public School Teachers – this was approved on June 18, 1966 to promote and
improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their
employment and career prospects. It also provided the following:
1. Recruitment and qualifications of teachers
• DepEd to define clearly the recruitment policy with respect to selection and appointment of teachers.
• Minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants:
o Bachelor’s Degree in Elem Ed for teachers in the kindergarten and elementary grades;
o Bachelor’s Degree in Education or its equivalent with a major or minor of a Bachelor’s Degree in
Arts or Science with at least 18 units of Professional Education for teachers of the secondary
schools;
o Bachelor’s degree in the field of specialization at least 18 professional units in Education for
teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses;
o Master’s Degree with a specific area of specialization for teachers of courses on the collegiate
level.
• The School Superintendent may appoint under temporary status, applicants who don’t meet the
minimum qualifications.
2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching Hours – 6 hours of actual classroom teaching a day. Any teacher may be required to render more than
six hours and no more than eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional compensation
at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least 25% of his basic pay.
4. Additional Compensation – at least 25% of the teacher’s regular remuneration must be paid to teachers who render
co-curricular and out of school activities outside of the teacher’s six hours of actual classroom teaching.
5. Cost of Living Allowance – given to teachers to keep pace with the rice in the cost of living
6. Special Hardships Allowances – at least 25% of teacher’s monthly salary, shall be given to teachers assigned in
areas where teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in commuting to the place of work or other hazards
peculiar to the place of employment.
7. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers
8. Study Leave – Teachers are entitled to a study leave not exceeding one year after seven years of service
(Sabbatical Leave). Teachers granted on study leave shall be entitled to at least 60% of their monthly salary. No
teachers shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year of study leave, unless, he needs an additional semester to
finish his thesis for a graduate study in education or allied course without compensation (after the first year of such
study leave).
IV. R.A, 7836 – Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994.An Act to Strenghten
the Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and Prescribing LET and
for other Purposes.
1. Known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994.
2. The objectives of this Act are the following:
a. Promotion, development and professionalization of the practice of the teaching profession.
b. The supervision and regulation of the licensure examination

3. Duties and Functions of the Board for Professional Teachers:
a. Promulgate, administer and enforce rules and regulations in carrying out the Act.
b. Determine and fix frequency, dates and places of examination, appoint personnel as needed for the exam.
c. Issue, suspend or revoke certificate of registration for the practice of teaching profession.
d. Prescribe and collect examination and other fees as it may deemed proper.
e. Prescribe and/or adopt a code of ethical and professional standards for the practice of teaching profession.
f. Administer oaths
g. Supervise and regulate the registration, licensure and practice of professional teachers in the Philippines.
h. Ensure that all educational institutions offering elementary and secondary education comply with the essential
requirements for curricula, faculty and facilities for the elementary and secondary levels.
i. Investigate such violations of this Act, the rules and the code of ethics and professional standards for
professional teachers as it may come to the knowledge of the Board.
4. Revocation of the Certificate of Registration, Suspension from the Practice of the Teaching Profession and
Cancellation of Temporary or Special Permit.
a. Conviction of any criminal offense by a court of competence jurisdiction.
b. Immoral, unprofessional or dishonorable conduct.
c. Declaration by a court of competent jurisdiction for being mentally unsound or insane.
d. Malpractices, gross incompetence, gross negligence or serious ignorance of the practice of the teaching
profession.
e. The use of or perpetration of any fraud or deceit in obtaining a certificate of registration, professional
license or specially/temporary permit.
f. Chronic inebriety or habitual use of drugs.
g. Violation of any of the provisions of the Act, the rules and regulations and other policies of the Board and
Commission, and the code of ethical and professional standards for professional teachers.
h. Unjustified or willful failure to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or the continuing
education program prescribed by the Board and the Commission.
V. R.A. 9293 – An Act Amending Certain Sections of RA 7836

1. Registration and Exception
a. No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a professional teacher unless the person is a duly
registered professional teacher, and a holder of certificate of registration and a valid professional license or a holder of
a valid special/ temporary permit.
b. Professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the past five years shall take at least 12
units of education courses, consisting of at least 6 units of pedagogy and 6 units of content courses to be chosen from
a list of courses to be provided by the Board and the DepEd.
c. Those who have failed LET, with a rating of not lower than five percentage points from the passing
general average rating, shall be eligible as para-teachers upon issuance by the Board of a two-yea special permit,
renewable for a non-extensible period of 2 years. The para-teachers shall be assigned to areas where there is a
shortage or absence of a professional teacher.
VI. R.A. 9155 – Government of Basic Education Act of 2001

1. Declaration of Policy
a. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality basic education and to make such
education accessible to all by providing a free and compulsory education in elementary level and free education in the
high school level.
b. Such education shall include alternative learning systems for basic education to provide them with the
skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens.
c. The school shall be the heart of forma education system.
d. Governance of basic education shall begin at the national level. It is at the regions, divisions, schools and
learning centers herein referred to as the field offices – where the policy and principle for the governance of basic
education shall be translated into programs, projects and services developed, adapted and offered to fit local needs.
2. Governance
a. DECS shall be known as Department of Education (DepEd)
b. The KomisyonngWikang Pilipino, National Historical Institute, Records, Management and Archives Office
and National Library shall now be administratively attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts
(NCCA) and no longer with DepEd. The program for school arts and culture shall remain part of the school curriculum.
c. All functions, programs and activities of DepEd related to Sports competition shall be transferred to the
Philippine Sports Commission (PSC). The program for school sports and physical fitness shall remain part of the basic
education curriculum.

VII. The Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as
technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe,
and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values (Preamble).
It shall include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory
and/or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid level, whether in full-time or part-time basis.
Scope and Limitations: shall apply to all teachers in schools in the Philippines. It covers all public and private
school teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary, secondary levels whether
academic, vocational, special, technical or non-formal.
The Teacher and the State

o Transmit to learners the cultural and educational heritage and must exert the best effort possible to promote
obedience to the laws of the state
o Help carryout the declared policies of the state. o Shall be physically, mentally and morally fit.
o Actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty
o Refrain from engaging in the promotion of any political, religious or other partisan interest.
o Exercise his right to suffrage and all other constitutional rights.
o Refrain from using his position or official authority to influence or coerce the political actions or behaviors of
other persons.
o Enjoy academic freedom and be responsible in taking the privilege of expounding the product of his
researchers and investigations in the interest of the nation.
The Teacher and the Community

o Render the best service by providing an environment conducive to the development of the youth. o Provide
leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for moral, social,
educational, economic and civic betterment.
o Merit reasonable social recognition and behave with honor and dignity at all times.
o Live for and with the community to have sympathetic attitude.
o Help the school keep the people in the community informed of the activities, as well as its problems and
needs.
o Welcome the opportunity to provide leadership in the community.
o Maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with other persons in the community.
o Attend freely one’s church and worships as appropriate without using his position to influence others.
The Teacher and the Profession

o Insure that teaching is the noblest profession.
o Uphold the highest possible standards of quality education
o Participate in the Continuing Professional Education program of the PRC
o Avoid making improper misrepresentations in the process of seeking support for the school. o Use the teaching
profession in a manner that it dignified means for earning a descent living.
The Teacher and the Teaching Community

o Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice
for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues.
o Sincerely acknowledge/recognize assistance received from colleagues o Organize and turn over records
needed to his successor.
o Maintain confidentiality of information until after it has been formally released.
o Seek correctives for what he may appear to be an unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associates o
Submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate, preferably in writing, without
violating the right of the individual concerned
o Apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified; provided that he respects the system of selection on the
basis of merit and competence
The Teacher and the Higher Authorities in the Profession

o Make an honest effort to understand and support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration.
o Shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially under anonymity.
o Transact all official business through channels except when special conditions warrant a different procedure.
o Consider the welfare and interest of the learners when seeking redress against all forms of injustice and in
raising grievances to the administration.

o Recognize the principle that appointments, promotions and transfers are made only on the basis of merit and
are needed in the interest of service.
o Live up to the employment terms and conditions. The School Officials, Teachers and Other Personnel
o Show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other personnel.
o Consider policy formulation and change innovations as cooperative responsibility.
o Attend to the professional growth of teachers
o Never dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinates except for a just cause.
o Ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with pertinent civil service rules and private
school teachers, in accordance with the contracts.
The Teachers and the Learners

o Determine the academic marks and promotion of learners in accordance with generally accepted procedures
of measurement and evaluation.
o Recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and foremost concerns. o Make no prejudice
or discrimination against any learner.
o Avoid accepting gifts from learners or parents in exchange of requested concessions.
o Refrain from accepting any remuneration from tutorials rendered to their students.
o Evaluate learner’s work only in merit and quality of academic performance
o Exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner.
o Desist from inflicting any form of corporal punishment on offending pupils/students
o Extend needed assistance to ensure maximum development of learners and prevent or solve learner’s
problems and difficulties
The Teachers and the Parents

o Establish and maintain cordial relations with parents
o Inform parents of the progress and all sorts of deficiencies of their children. o Be tactful in dealing with parents
regarding their parent’s deficiencies.
o Seek parent cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners.
o Discourage the parents from making ill remarks and unfounded criticisms about the school as a whole.
o Hear parents’ complaints with sympathy and understanding.
The Teacher and Business

o Engage in legitimate income generating activities.
o Maintain a good reputation with respect to financial matters.
o Settle promptly all debts and/or make satisfactory arrangement on his private financial affairs.
o Avoid acting as agent of any business venture engaged in furnishing textbooks and other school
commodities, of which, he can possibly exercise influence in their purchase or distribution.
The Teacher as a Person

o Live with dignity at all times wherever he is.
o Place premium upon self-respect and self-discipline o Serve as a model worthy of emulation
o Recognize God as Guide of his own destiny and of others.
Disciplinary Action
o Revocation of the Certificate of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher o Suspension from the
practice of teaching profession
o Reprimand or cancellation of temporary/ special permit

Practice Items
1. As a parent and at the same time a teacher, which of the following will you do to show your cooperation to a PTA project in
your school to be financed with the proceeds of the sales of the school canteen where food prices are a little bit higher?
A. Bring food for you and your children, but always make it a point to buy in the school canteen.
B. Buy all your food in the school canteen but request for a discount.
C. Bring food enough for you and your children but do not eat in the canteen.
D. Buy all your food from the school canteen even if you cannot afford to do everyday.
2. The singing of the National anthem in schools is an offshoot of the philosophy of __________.
A. Nationalism B. Pragmatism C. Naturalism D. Socialism
3. Which Republic Act provides government assistance to students and teachers in private education?
A. RA 7784 B. RA 6728 C. RA 7836 D. RA 6675
4. Who among the following believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular, homework and respect for legitimate
authority?
A. Essentialist C. Progressivist D. Reconstructionis
B. Perennialist t
5. The Constitutional provision on language has the following aims EXCEPT:

A. To make the regional dialect as auxiliary media of instructions in regional school
B. To maintain English as a second language
C. To make Filipino the sole medium of instruction
D. To make the Filipino the national language & medium of instruction & communication
6. Who among the following stressed the processes of experience and problem solving?
A. Dewey B. Aristotle C. Hegel D. Plato
7. Which of the following measures should a teacher do to a principal whom she would like to file a case of sexual harassment
without violating the relationship of the teacher to her superiors?
A. Present the ease before competent authority & prepare to prove the charge
B. Write an anonymous letter to a higher school official to denounce the superior
C. Call a parent-teacher meeting and denounce the superior
D. Encourage the other teachers & students to hold a demonstration to oust the superior
8. Pick out the situation that illustrates the duty of a new teacher to the state.
A. Take a long vacation which she firmly believes she deserves after four years of diligent study before taking the
examination for teachers.
B. Apply for teaching job where eligibility is not required to gain teaching experience before taking the teachers board
examination.
C. Prepare for the wedding she and her boyfriend have long planned to be able to raise a family with children which they plan
to rear as good citizen of our country.
D. Take the licensure examination for teacher and an oath to do her best to help carry out the policies of the state.
9. Parents are up in arms on the telephone bills that pay for sex calls. What is the solution to this problem?
A. The telephone company is to blame for this C. Parents allow this to make their children modern
B. The government restriction have no teeth D. Parents, school and students should discuss this openly.
10. A student collapsed in her social studies class. It was found out that he did not eat her lunch. What need is shown in the
situation?
A. Psychological need C. Somatotonic
B. Physiological need D. Safety need
11. The main function of a philosophy of education is to:

A. Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy
B. Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society’s needs
C. Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning
D. Define the goals & set the direction for which education is to strive

12. Which curricular move served to strengthen spiritual and ethical values?
A. Integration of creative thinking in all subject
B. Reducing the number of subject areas into the skill subject
C. Introduction of Values Education as a separate subject area
D. Re-introducing Science as a subject in Grade 1
13. The Filipino tendency to resort to the easy way out from a term paper as a course requirement by hiring a ghost writer or by
passing a photocopied term paper provide which Filipino traits?
A. Anticipation B. Ambivalence C. Pakikisama D. Lack of discipline
14. Which thrust on value formation is meant to help the students make use of their thinking and scientific investigation to decide
on topics and questions about values?
A. Value inculcation B. Analysis C. Value clarification D. Moral development
15. Rights which cannot be renounced or transferred because they are necessary for the fulfillment of man’s primordial obligations
are called:
A. Alienable rights B. Perfect rights C. Inalienable rights D. Acquired rights
16. Your teacher is of the opinion that the world and everything in it are ever changing and so teaches you the skill to cope with the
changes. Which is his governing philosophy?
A. Experimentalism B. Existentialism C. Realism D. Idealism
17. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth. Which practice is NOT keeping with his role as
facilitator?
A. Considers the multiple intelligences of learners
B. Humiliates misbehaving pupils
C. Dialogues with parents and with other members of the community
D. Keeps himself abreast with educational trends
18. Which one indicates a teacher’s genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching?
A. Sticking to teaching for the moment that there are no better offers
B. Telling everyone that he went to teaching for there was no other choice then.
C. Engaging himself in continuing professional education
D. Belittling the remuneration one gets from teaching
19. In the Preamble of the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers, which is not mention about teachers?
A. Duly licensed professionals C. LET passers
B. Possess dignity and reputation D. With high moral values
20. A teacher discovers that a product of a certain bottling company brings about damage to teeth. Much as he wants to share the
products of his research, he could not because of harassment from all sides. Which teacher’s right is violated?
A. Right to property C. Academic freedom
B. Right to one’s honor D. Right to make a livelihood
21. On which constitutional provision is the full or partial integration of capable deaf and blind students in the classroom based?
The provision on _____.
A. Providing citizenship and vocational training to adult citizen
B. Protecting and promoting the right of all citizen to quality education
C. Academic freedom
D. Creating scholarship for poor and deserving students
22. The main purpose of the compulsory study of the Constitution in Philippine schools is to _______.
A. Develop the students into responsible, thinking citizens
B. Acquaint students with the historical development of the Philippine Constitution
C. Prepare students for law-making
D. Make constitutional experts of the students
23. The cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching is an influence of _______.
A. Taoism B. Shintoism C. Confucianism D. Zen Buddhism

24. Section 5, Article XIV of the Constitution states that academic freedom shall be enjoyed in ______.
A. Public assemblies C. All levels of learning
B. State colleges and universities D. All institution of higher learning
25. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experience should follow learning in her
teaching, she therefore exerts effort in ______.
A. Encouraging learners to memorize factual knowledge
B. Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills
C. Requiring learners full mastery of the lesson
D. Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles
26. The NSEC orients secondary education to –

A. The teaching of the national symbols
B. The development of competencies and values for social living
C. Health values development
D. National development requirements & reflects research based direction
27. Which of these philosophers is reflective of that of Dewey’s which stresses the development of an individual capable of
reflective thinking specifically that of being able to solve the problem he faced individually or collectively.
A. Disciplinarianism B. Developmentalism C. Experimentation D. Rationalism
28. Which of the following abilities is stressed by humanistic education?

A. Learn the different philosophies of education B. Develop man C. Enjoy the great works of man such as the classics D.
into a thinking individual Make man distinctly civilized, educated and refined
29. An appreciation lesson is one that is designed to lead the class to conduct and enjoy something. Which of the following
statements closely approximate the meaning of the above?
A. An appreciation lesson should be a lesson in values
B. Appreciation lessons help pupils weigh and clarify values
C. One cannot fully appreciate what one does not understand or enjoy
D. A teacher should plan lessons that will guide children to appreciate what is beautiful
30. Who expounded on the need to the study the child carefully for individualized instruction?
A. Da Feltre B. Erasmus C. Boccacio D. Ascham
31. Which of the following should a teacher do if she cannot pay the monthly installment of an appliance she got from a
department store in their town?
A. Reject any notice of demand for payment to make the impression that she did not receive any.
B. Move to another neighborhood to escape payment
C. Inform the manager of the store personally and make a satisfactory arrangement of payment on or before the due date
of payment
D. Offer to return the used appliance to the store on the condition that she will be refunded on the monthly installment she
paid.
32. Which of the following will you recommend to a senior high school scholar who is impregnated by a fellow student?
A. Tell her parents about her condition C. Direct her to an abortion clinic B. Stop schooling till after she
gave birth D. Force her boyfriend to marry her
33. The government prescribes a higher percentage on the administration of education institution to Filipino citizens in order to
A. Minimize the unemployment problem C. Protect the rights of the citizen B. Procedure globally
competitive graduates D. Ensure the teaching of Filipino
34. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance responsibility and accountability?
A. A teacher paid on an hour basis, takes her time with the subject matter till end of period
B. A teacher paid on an hour basis, teaches as much as she could for duration of the period
C. A teacher paid on an hour basis, spends most of the time on the latest gossips in showbiz
D. A teacher paid on an hour basis, entertain her students with stories till the end of the period

35. Which of the following will you do to an examinee you caught cheating and who offered you a certain sum of money to keep
quiet?
A. Motion him to keep quiet & watch for him after the examination
B. Confiscate his test paper & report him to the examination supervisor
C. Announce to all examinees the name of the cheater
D. Ignore him but let him feel that you saw him
36. The whole child concept of education is contrary to the:

A. Academic essentials approach to education C. Focus on the disadvantaged approach to education
B. Progressivist approach to education D. The mental discipline approach to education
37. Which philosophy approves of a teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students to memorize the rules of
grammar?
A. Existentialism B. Realism C. Pragmatism D. idealism
38. The current emphasis on the development of critical thinking by the use of philosophic methods that emphasize debate and
discussion began with ______.
A. Aristotle B. Socrates C. Confucius D. Plato
39. Which schools are subject to supervision, regulation and control by the state?
A. Public schools C. Private schools
B. Sectarian and non-sectarian schools D. Public, private sectarian and non-sectarian schools
40. The first American teachers in the Philippines were ________.

A. Soldiers C. Missionaries
B. Graduates of the normal school D. Elementary graduates
41. Who were the Thomasites?

A. The soldiers who doubted the success of the public educational system to be set in the Philippines
B. The first American teacher recruits to help establish the public educational system in the Philippines
C. The first religious group who came to the Philippines on board the US transport Thomas
D. The devotees to St. Thomas Aquinas who came to evangelized.
42. “Approach every pupil as she is without allowing yourself to be influenced by your foreknowledge of his/her home background”
is an advice from a/an?
A. Rationalist C. Positivist
B. Existentialist-phenomenologist D. Essentialist
43. “Specialization is knowing more and more about less and less. Then it is better to be a generalist”, claims Teacher F. On which
philosophy does Teacher F learn?
A. Essentialism B. Progressivism C. Perennialism D. Existentialism
44. Teacher Cora observe cleanliness and order in her classroom to create a conducive atmosphere for learning. On which theory is
her practice based?
A. Psychoanalysis B. Gestalt psychology C. Behaviorism D. Humanistic psychology
45. The free public elementary and secondary education in the country are in line with the government effort to address
educational problems of ______.
A. Productivity C. Access & quality D. Effectiveness &
B. Relevance & quality efficiency
46. Which is the Teacher’s Professionalization Act?

A. R. A. 7836 B. R. A. 4670 C. R. A. 7722 D. R. A. 9293
47. “The State shall protect & promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels.” Which government program is in
support of this?
A. Exclusion of children with special needs from the formal system
B. Free elementary and secondary education
C. Deregulated tuition fee hike

D. Re-introduction of the NEAT and NSAT
48. The Filipino learner envisioned by the Department of Education is one who is imbued with the desirable values of a person who
is ___.
A. Makabayan, makatao, makahalaman at maka-Diyos
B. Makabayan, makasarili, makakalikasan at maka-Diyos
C. Makabayan, makakaragatan, makatao at maka-Diyos
D. Makabayan, makatao, makakalikasan at maka-Diyos
49. Principal tells her teachers that training in the humanities is most important. To which educational philosophy does he adhere?
A. Existentialism B. Progressivism C. Essentialism D. Perennialism
50. With which goals of educational institution as provided by the constitution is the development of work skills aligned?
A. To develop moral character C. To teach the duties of citizenship B. To develop vocational efficiency D. To
inculcate love of country
51. Who is remembered for his famous quotation? “My loyalty to my party ends where my loyalty to my country begins.
A. Carlos P. Garcia B. Ferdinand E. Marcos C. Manuel L. Quezon D. Manuel A. Roxas
52. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be neither prejudiced nor discriminatory against any learner, says the Code of Ethics.
When is a teacher prejudice against any learner?
A. When he makes a nearsighted pupil sit in front.
B. When he considers multiple intelligences in the choice of his teaching strategies.
C. When he makes a farsighted pupil sit at the back
D. When he refuses a pupil with a slight physical disability in class.
53. You are very much interested in a quality professional development programs for teachers. What characteristic should you look
for?
A. Prescribed by top educational leaders C. Required for renewal of professional license
B. Dependent on the availability of funds D. Responsive to identified teachers’ needs
54. To ensure high standards of teachers’ personal and professional development, which of the following measures must be
implemented?
I. A school head plans the professional development of his/ her teachers.
II. Every teacher formulates his/her own professional development plan.
III. The implementation of what is learned in a training must be monitored.
A. I only B. I and III C. II and III D. II only
55. As a community leader, which of the following should a teacher NOT do?
A. Support effort of the community to improve their status in life
B. Make herself aloof to ensure that her decisions will not be influenced by community politics
C. Solicit donation from philanthropists in the community
D. Play an active part in the activities of the community
56. A teacher is said to be a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to
learners such heritage. Which practice makes the teacher fulfill such obligation?
A. Use of interactive teaching strategies C. Observe continuing professional education B. Use the latest educational
technologies D. As a class, study the life of Filipino heroes
57. Is there a legal basis for increasing the teacher’s starting salary to P18,000 a month?
A. No, it is a gift to teachers from Congress C. No, it is simply an act of benevolence from PGMA
B. Yes, R.A. 7836 D. Yes, the Philippine Constitution
58. The use of values clarification as a strategy in values education flows from which philosophy?
A. Progressivism B. Reconstructionism C. Essentialism D. Existentialism
59. Who of the following believes that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment?
A. Progressivist B. Essentialist C. Existentialist D. Behaviorist
60. Honesty remains a value even if nobody in the school system values it. This is the conviction of a/an ____.
A. Realist B. Pragmatist C. Idealist D. Existentialist
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
I. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
A. DEFINITIONS
1.1 Growth - change in size, quantitative change
1.2 Development - change in capacity, qualitative change series of changes affected by maturation
1.3 Learning - change for the better; aspect of development that connotes modification of behavior which
results from practice and experience
B. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Early foundations are critical
2. Maturation and learning play important roles in development
3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern(cephalocaudal & proximo distal)
4. All individuals are different
5. Each phase of development has its hazards
6. Development is aided by stimulation
7. Development is affected by cultural changes
8. There are social expectations for every stage of development
9. Each phase of development has characteristic patterns of behavior
C. FACTORS
1. Heredity -Maturation - Nature
2. Environment - Learning - Nurture
D. STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN

The Life span is arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments with each
segment being a part of a whole. It is divided into:
1. Prenatal Period – from conception to birth
2. Infancy – from birth to the end of the second week
3. Babyhood – after end of the second week to end of the second year
4. Early Childhood – after two to six years
5. Late Childhood – after six to ten or twelve years
6. Preadolescence or Puberty – from ten to or twelve or thirteen or fourteen years
7. Adolescence - after thirteen or fourteen years to eighteen years
8. Early Adulthood – after eighteen to thirty-five years
9. Middle Adulthood – after thirty-five to sixty-five years
10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) – after sixty-five years to death
E. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
Babyhood ad Early Childhood

• Learning to take food
• Learning to walk
• Learning to talk
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
• Getting ready to read
• Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop a conscience
Late Childhood
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
• Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism
• Learning to get along with age-mates
• Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
• Developing conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values
• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
• Achieving personal independence
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates or both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
• Preparing for an economic career
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior- developing an
ideology
• Getting started in an occupation

• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a marriage partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children
• Managing a home
• Taking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social group
Middle Age
• Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
• Developing adult leisure time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
• Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
• Adjusting to aging parents
• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
• Adapting to social roles in a flexible way
II. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Psychosexual - Freud
2. Psychosocial - Erikson
3. Moral Development – Kohlberg
4. Cognitive Development – Piaget
5. Emotional – Goleman
1.Self Awareness 2. Self Management
3.Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management
6. Multiple Intelligence - Gardner

1. Word smart - Linguistic
2. Number smart - Mathematical Visual
3. Picture smart – Spatial
4. Self-smart - Intrapersonal
5. Person smart – Interpersonal
6. Body smart -Bodily /kinesthetic
7. Music smart - Musical/Rhythmic
8. Nature smart – Environmentalist
9. Spirit smart -Existentialist / Philosopher
7. RECIPROCATING INFLUENCES
Richard Q. Bell (1979) focused on the mutually interactive effects of the mother and child.
Robert Cairns (1998) points out, the idea of bidirectionality does not assume that parents and children exercise
equal influences over each other.
Bell’s model has made us aware that socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the
system on every other person.
8. FAMILY SYSTEM MODEL
Patricia Minuchin’s (1985) family system model underscores the bidirectional influences and reciprocal
relationships among all family members.
Minuchin’s model underscores that children’s socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person
in the system.
9. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT
BRONFENBRENNER - stress that development takes place in a variety of contexts that extend from the
immediate physical environment of the child.
a. THE MICROSYSTEM
It includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood
b. THE MESOSYSTEM
It includes links between home, school, and neighborhood.
c. THE EXOSYSTEM
Consists of settings that do not include the child but that affect the child, such as city
government, the workplace, school board, and mass media.
d. THE MACROSYSTEM
Involves the dominant attitudes and ideologies of the child’s culture
e. THE CHRONOSYSTEM
Patterns of stability and change in children’s environment over time.
10. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO CULTURAL CONTEXTS
Lev Vygotsky (1898 – 1934) – made culture an important feature in his theory. His theory emphasized the
collective wisdom of each culture that is then passed on to its children.
Culture reflects the values, ideals, and beliefs of a particular group of people that are passed on from one
generation to the next.
Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s phrase to describe the range of skills a child has not yet mastered,
but could accomplish with the assistance provided by adults and more knowledgeable peers.
Scaffolding
More knowledgeable other
I11. THEORIES OF LEARNING

A. Behavioral Approach
1. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
2. Operant Conditioning - Skinner
3. Behaviorist Conditioning – Watson
4. Connectionism Conditioning - Thorndike
5. Purposive Behaviorism - Tolman
6. Observational Learning - Bandura
B. Humanistic Approach
Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow
C. Cognitive Approach
1. Gestalt Insight theory - Max Wertheiner – founder
- Wolfgang Kohler
- Kurth Koffka
2. Information processing – information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory
memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the (STM)
Short Term Memory and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the (LTM)
Long Term Memory. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the
information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.
3. Constructivist Theory - Jerome Bruner SPIRAL curriculum
The ability to represent knowledge develops in (3) three stages
1. Enactive representation –represent objects in terms the immediate sensation
2. Iconic representation – learning can be obtain through the use of pictures,
models and mental images
3. Symbolic representation- the ability to think in abstract terms
4. Meaningful Verbal Learning- David P. Ausubel
Knowledge is hierarchically organized , that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related
to what is already known
1. Derivative Subsumption- new information as an example of what you have learned

2. Correlative Subsumption- you change or expand the concept
3. Superordinate Learning- from specific concept to general terms
4. Combinatorial Learning- learning by analogy
Types of Advance Organizers
1. Expository 2. Narrative 3. Skimming 4. Graphic Organizers
5. Conditions of Learning – Gagne Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute its conditions
NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS
1. Gaining Attention (Reception) 6. Eliciting Performance (Responding)
2. Informing the Learners of the Objectives(Expectancy) 7. Providing Feedback(Reinforcement)
3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning(Retrieval) 8. Assessing Performance (Evaluation)
4. Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer
5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) (Generalization)
1V. LANDMARKS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical / Motor Development
Nervous System, Muscular, Endocrine Glands, Physique
2. Cognitive Development Speech, Understanding
3. Social Development
Social Individual, Gregarious Inference of Social Group Gang
4. Moral Development
Morality, Discipline, Recreational Activitie
Learning / Thinking Styles

I. Sensory Preferences
1. Visual Learners- (Visual Iconic and Visual Symbolic)
2. Auditory Learners (Listeners and Talkers)
3. Tactile / Kinesthetic - hands on approach II. Global-Analytic Continuum
1. Global – Forest Seers
2. Analytic – Tree Seers
LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to Word Meaning 2. Responds to Tone of Voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes Information Linearly 4. Processes Information in Varied Order
5. Responds to Logic 5. Responds to Emotion
6. Plans Ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls Peoples Names 7. Recalls Peoples Faces
8. Speaks with Few Gestures 8. Gestures when Speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less Punctual
10. Prefers Formal Study Design 10. Prefers sounds, music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying
V. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Physical Disabilities 4. Sensory Impairments
2. Mental Retardation 5. Learning Disabilities
3. Behavioral Disabilities
Impairment – deceased or defective tissue (hearing and visual)

Disability - reduction of function or absence of a particular body part or organ Handicap
- refers to the problems that an impaired or disabled person might have met in interacting
with the environment
A. Classification of Physical Disability

1. Orthopedic Impairment- bone and muscular defect
1.1 Poliomyelitis – infantile paralysis caused by virus
1.2. Osteomyelitis – tuberculosis of the bone and spine
1.3. Bone Fracture – breaks in the continuity of bones
1.4. Muscular Dystrophy – deterioration of the muscles
2. Neuro-Muscular Impairments – defects of the nerve and muscle system

2.1. Cerebral Palsy – non progressive alteration of movement or motor functioning
2.2. Erb’s Palsy – “birth palsy” paralysis of the muscles of the shoulders, arms and
hands
2.3.Congenitally Crippled – crippling conditions at birth
2.3.1 Clubfoot – deformed feet accompanied by webbed toes
2.3.2.Clubhand – deformed hand and fingers
2.3.3. Polydactylism – with extra toes or fingers
2.3.4. Syndactylism – webbed fingers or toes
B. MENTAL RETARDATION
1. MILD - educability in academic subjects at a minimum level
- educability in social adjustment and can get along independently
- minimal occupational adequacies and can latter support himself
2.M0DERATE – not educable in academic achievement but with self help skills,
social adjustment in the family economic usefulness in the home
3. SEVERE – can be trained in health habits and may contribute partially to self maintenance under complete
supervision
4. PROFOUND – unable to be trained in total self care and need continued help in taking care of their personal
needs
C. BEHAVIORAL DISABILITIES
1. Emotional Disturbance – psychosocial problems or impairment (SED) Seriously Emotionally

Disturbed
2. Schizophrenia – psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking
3. Autism – psychotic condition characterized by bizarre behavior. Extreme social isolation and delayed
development
4. ADHD – (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
5. Paranoid – extreme fear
6. Narcistic – extreme love of self
7. Anti Social – has no friends
8. Dependent – can not make simple decisions for oneself
9. Acting Child – full of pretense
10. Withdrawn – extreme shyness
D. LEARNING DISABILITIES
Considered as hidden disability characterized by poor academic performance, delayed physical development
accompanied by academic, social and psychological problems.
a. DYSARTHRIA - STUTTERING
b. DYSGRAPHIA - WRITING
c. MOTOR APHASIA - SPEAKING
d. VISUAL AGNOSIA - SIGHT
e. AUDITORY AGNOSIA - HEARING
f. OLFACTORY AGNOSIA - SMELLING
g. DISCALCULIA - MATH
h. DYSLEXIA - READING
E. SENSORY IMPAIRMEN
1. Visual Handicaps (Visual impairment and Blindness)
VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS
- POOR SIGHT
- AMBLYOPIA (LAZY EYE)
- HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
- MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
- ASTIGMATISM
- CATARACT
- GLAUCOMA
2, Hearing Impaired (Slight, Mild, Moderate, Severe,

Profound) Can be classified as Prelingual and
Postlingual Classified as Prelingual and Postlingual
SUMMARY OF FREUD’S AND ERIKSON’S

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Freud’s Stages of Childhood Erickson’s Stages of Childhood
Psychosexual Stage Implications Developmental Tasks Implications
Infant Oral Stage Child explores Provide oral stimulation by Developmental task is to Name a primary care giver.
the world by using the giving pacifiers, do not form a sense of trust vs. Provide experiences that
mouth, especially the discourage thumb sucking. mistrust. Child learns to add to security, such as soft
tongue. Lack of oral Breast-feeding may provide love and be loved. sounds and touch. Provide
experiences now may lead more stimulation’s than visual stimulation for active
to alcoholism or obesity formula feeding. As it child involvement.
(oral dependence) later in requires the infant to
life expand more energy
Toddler Anal Stage Child learns to Help children achieve Developmental task is to Provide opportunities for
control urination and bowel and bladder control form a sense of autonomy decision-making such as
defecation. Constipation or without undue emphasis on vs. shame. Child learns to offering choices of clothes
obsessive-compulsive its importance. If at all be independent and make to wear or toys to play
personality may become possible, continue bowel decisions for self. with. Praise for ability to
chronic problems in later and bladder training while make decisions rather than
life from effects of this child is hospitalized. judging correctness of any
period. one decision.
Pre-schooler Phallic Stage Child learns Accept child’s sexual Developmental task is it Provide opportunities for
sexual identity through interest, such as fondling form a sense of initiative exploring new places or
awareness of genital area. his or her own genitals, as a vs. guilt. Child learns how activities. Allow play to
Difficulty with sexual normal area of exploration. to do things (basic problem include activities such as
identity and authority Help parents answer solving) and that doing water, modeling, clay, or
figures may become questions about birth or things is desirable. finger paint.
problems later if period is sexual differences.
interrupted.
School-ager Latent Stage Child’s Help the child have Developmental task is to Provide opportunities such
personality development positive experiences so his form a sense of industry as allowing child to
appears to be non-active or self-esteem continues to vs. inferiority. Child learns assemble supplies for a
dormant. grow and he prepares for how to do things well. dressing change (short
the conflicts of projects finished
adolescence. completely), o that child
feels rewarded for
accomplishment.
Adolescent Genital Stage Adolescent Provide opportunities forDevelopmental task is to Provide opportunities for
develops sexual maturity the child to relate with form a sense of identify the adolescent to discuss
and learns how to opposite sex, allow child to vs. role confusion. feelings about event
established satisfactory verbalize feelings about Adolescent learns who he important to him. Other
relationship with the new relationships is and what kind of person support for decision-
opposite sex. Negative he will be by adjusting to a making.
experiences may lead to new body image, seeking
unsatisfactory sexual emancipation from parents,
adjustment later, and choosing a vocation, and
problems such as frigidity determining a value
or impotence. system.
6. Intimacy vs Isolation
7. Generativity vs Stagnation
8. Integrity vs Despair
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Age (years) Stage Description Implication

Preconventional
level
1 0 Child does right to gain parent’s approval Praise child for right actions. Consistency
helps build sense of security.
2 -3 1 Punishment-obedience orientation. Child does Child needs help to determine right
right either because a parent asks her to or to actions. Give clear instructions to avoid
avoid punishment confusing her.
4 -7 2 Instrumental hedonism and concrete Child unable to recognize that like
reciprocity. Child carries out actions to satisfy situations requires like actions. Unable to
own needs rather than society’s Will do take responsibility for self-care, since
something for you if you do something for her. fulfilling own desires more important.
Conventional Level 3 Orientation to interpersonal relations of Child enjoys helping others, as this is “nice
7 - 10 mutuality. Child follows rules as to what is behavior. Allow child to help you with bed
“nice” making, etc. Give praise for sharing. Etc.
10-12 4 Maintenance of social order, fixed rules, and Child often ask what are the rules and if
authority. Child finds following rules satisfying something is “right”. Has Difficulty
follows those of authority figures as well as modifying procedures because one method
parents. may not be “right”. Follows self-care
measures only if you are there to enforce
them.
Post conventional 5 Social contact utilitarian lawmaking Can be responsible for self-care, views this
Level Over 12 perspective. Follows standards of society as a standard of adult behavior.
6 Universal ethical principle orientation. Many adults do not reach this level of
Individual follows internalized standards of moral development.
conduct
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Stage of Age
Development Span Implications
Sensorimotor 1 month Stimuli assimilated into beginning mental images: behavior entirely reflective.
Neonatal reflex
Primary circular 1-4 Hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop. Infant spends much time looking at objects and
reaction month separating self from them. Beginning intention of behavior present (infant brings thumb to
mouth for a purpose to suck it).
Enjoyable activity for this period: rattle or tape of parent’s voice.
Secondary 4-8 Infant learns to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable experiences from environment.
circular reaction months Memory traces are present, infant anticipates familiar events (a parent coming near him
and will pick him up).
Good toy for this period: mirror, good game: peck-a-boo
Coordination of 8-12 Infant can plan activities to attain specific goals. Perceives that others can cause activity and
secondary months that of own body are separate from activity of objects. Can search for and retrieve toy that
reactions disappear from view. Recognizes shapes and sizes of familiar objects. Because of
increased sense of separateness, infant experiences separation anxiety when primary care
giver leaves him.
Good toy for this period: nesting toys, i.e. colored boxes.
Tertiary circular 12-18 Child is able to experiments to discover new properties of objects and events. Capable of space
reaction months perception and time perception as well as permanence. Objects outside self are understood
as causes of action.
Good games for this period: throw-and-retrieve.
Invention of new 18-24 Transitional phase to the pre-operational thought period. Uses memory and imitation to act.
means through months Can solve or fail.
mental act. Good toys for this period: those with several uses, i.e., blocks, colored plastic rings.
Preoperational 2-7 years Thought becomes more symbolic, child can arrive at answers mentally instead of through
thought physical attempt only. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete
and literal. Child is egocentric (unable to viewpoints of others). Static thinking (inability
to remember what he started to talk about, so that at end of a sentence, may be talking
about another topic). Concept of time, now, concept of distance, only as far as he can see.
Centering of focusing in a single aspect of an object causes distorted reasoning. No
awareness of reversibility (that for every action there is an opposite action). Unable to
state cause-effect relationships, categories, or abstractions.
Good toy for this period: items that require imagination, such as Play-Doh.
Concrete 7-12 Concrete operations include systematic reasoning. Child uses memory to learn broad concepts
operational years (fruit) and individual aspects of concepts (apples, oranges). Classifications involve sorting
thought objects according to attribute such as color, seriation, in which objects are ordered
according to increasing or decreasing measures such as weight, multiplication, in which
objects are simultaneously classified and seriated using weight. Child is aware of
reversibility, as opposite operation or continuation of reasoning back to a starting point
(follows route thought maze and then reverses steps).
Good activity for this period: collecting and classifying natural objects such as native plants,
seashells, etc.
Expose child to other viewpoints by asking questions such as, “How do you think you’d feel if
you were a nurse and had to tell a boy to stay in bed?”
Formal 12 years Can solve hypothetical problems with scientific reasoning; understands casualty and can deal
operational with past, present, and future. Adult or mature thought.
thought Good activity for this period: “talk time” to sort through attitudes and opinions.
1

Refresher Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Area: Developmental Reading
LET Competencies:
Use activities that enhance critical, creative, and metacognitive reading
Analyze extrinsic and intrinsic factors that affect reading performance
PART I – CONTENT UPDATE
A reading teacher-
➢ Goes through an active, purposeful, organized cognitive process that is used to make
sense of the world, such process being improved by doing the following:
A. Becoming aware of one’s thinking process

B. Carefully examining one’s thinking process and the thinking process of others
C. Practicing one’s thinking abilities
To think critically a reading teacher -
➢ must carefully examine his/her thinking and the thinking of others, in order to clarify
and improve own understanding
➢ should examine and test suggested solutions to see whether they will work
➢ need to test ideas for flaws or defects and must not be inhibited by fear of being
aggressive and destructive, nor have fear of retaliation, and over-evaluation
➢ should engage in critical thinking activities such as thinking actively, carefully exploring
situations with questions, thinking for oneself, viewing situations from
different perspectives, and discussing ideas in organized ways
Critical thinking is -
➢ from the Greek word for critic (kritikos), which means to question, to make sense of, to
be able to analyze.
➢ not simply one way of thinking; it is a total approach to understanding how we make
sense of a world that includes many parts.
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Critical thinkers are -

• Skeptical (Just because it’s in print doesn’t mean it is right)
• Fact-oriented (Give me the facts and convince me that they are the
relevant ones)
• Analytic (How has the work been organized? What strategies has the
writer used?)
• Open-minded ( Beprepared to listen to different points of view; do not be
restricted by
personal biases)
• Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported by the
evidence?)
• Creative ( What are some entirely different ways of looking at the
problem or issue?)
• Willing to take a stand (Is the argument convincing? What is my position
on the issue?)
• Those who show the ability to separate fact from opinion; recognizes
propaganda techniques, compares different sources of information; recognizes important
missing information; draws inferences that are not explicitly stated, and identifies the
author’s background and purpose
To think creatively, a reading teacher must -
➢ use his/her cognitive processes to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy
of further elaboration
➢ discover a new or improved solution to a problem, or a set of new ideas
➢ organize ideas in different ways, and make unusual comparisons
➢ not be inhibited by conformity, censorship, rigid education, and desire to find an

answer quickly
A reading teacher practices metacognitive skills by -
➢ being aware of one’s mental processes such that one can monitor, regulate, and direct
them to a desired end
➢ having the ability to think about and control own learning
➢ practicing self-regulation and monitoring comprehension by answering the following

questions:
1. Are there any words I don’t understand?

2. Is there any information that doesn’t agree with what I already know?
3. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can’t tell who or what is
being
talked about?
4. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can’t tell how the ideas
are
related?
5. Are there any ideas that don’t fit together because I think the ideas are
contradictory?
6. Is there any information missing or not clearly explained?
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A reading teacher has to be familiar with -

➢ The constructivist’s view of comprehension
Comprehension is the act of making sense or constructing meaning of the text.
Writers begin with texts-in-the-head and prepare, to the best of their linguistic
and rhetorical competence, printed texts, which readers (with the help of their
own linguistic and rhetorical competence) use as blueprints to construct their
own meaning. However, the readers’ prior knowledge, particularly of word
meanings, greatly affects the comprehension of texts.
➢ Factors that affect comprehension
1. what the reader brings to the reading situation (developmental stages)
➢ background experience
➢ knowledge of subject
➢ vocabulary
➢ purpose
➢ motivation
2. the characteristics of the written text (print material)

➢ content
➢ format
➢ readability
➢ concepts
➢ organization
➢ author’s purpose
3. the learning context that defines the task and the purpose of the reader
(reading
situation)
➢ setting
➢ task
➢ environment
➢ outcome
4. the strategies consciously applied by the reader to obtain meaning

➢ Strategy is a systematic plan, consciously adapted and monitored, to
improve
one’s performance in learning (Harris and Hodges, 1995)
➢ Major comprehension strategies

• The preparational strategies
1. previewing
2. activating prior knowledge
3. setting purpose and goals
4. predicting
• The organizational strategies
1. comprehending the main idea

2. determining important details
3. organizing details
4. sequencing
5. following directions
6. summarizing
• The elaboration strategies

1. making inferences
2. imaging
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3. generating questions
4. evaluating (critical reading)
• The metacognitive strategies

1. regulating
2. checking
3. repairing
➢ The three main groups of reading theories
1. Bottom-up – depicts reading starting with the input of some graphic signals or
stimulus. The role of the reader is to get meaning from the text based on the stimulus or
the words used. This is also called data-driven processing.
2. Top-down – depicts reading beginning with the cognitive processes occurring in

the reader’s mind as he or she reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text
based on the information already held within the reader’s store of prior knowledge. This is
also called concept-driven processing.
3. Interactive – depicts reading as the process of constructing meaning through

the dynamic interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge, the information
suggested by the written language, and the context of the reading situation.
➢ Stages of reading development

(Importance: to provide greater understanding of the reading process as well as to
have asense of the scope of reading instruction )
Stage One. Emergent Literacy (Birth to Five Years)
➢ learn primarily through direct sensory contact and physical manipulation
perception-
based conclusions
➢ experience difficulty putting experiences into words
➢ rapid language growth
➢ explore writing in the form of scribbles, letter-like forms, or invented spelling
➢ egocentric
➢ love being read to and cannot hear their favorite tales often enough
➢ have poorly developed concept of causation
➢ like the elements of rhyme, repetition, and alliteration
Stage 2. Early Reading (Kindergarten and First Grade)

➢ manipulate objects and ideas mentally
➢ can reason logically
➢ have difficulty comprehending underlying principles
➢ have evolving grasp of the alphabetic principle
Stage Three. Growing Independence (Grades Two and Three)

➢ develop evolving fluency
➢ extensive reading of both fiction and nonfiction
➢ become more appreciative of stories involving the lives of others
➢ judge their reading affectively and personally rather than by using standards
➢ may have difficulty explaining why they like a selection
Stage Four. Reading to Learn (Grades Four through Six)

➢ wide application of word-attack and comprehension skills
➢ much greater emphasis is placed on grasping informational text
➢ vocabulary and conceptual load increase significantly
➢ words in listening vocabulary increase
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Step 5. Abstract Reading (Grades Seven and Up)

➢ can construct multiple hypotheses
➢ become more elaborate in evaluation of readings and reflect an evolving set of
standards for judging
➢ Factors that Help Emergent Literacy Learners’ Reading Development

• Background of experiences – exposure to various experiences,
opportunities (oral
expression, listening, writing) and materials
• Language facility – opportunities for oral expression (conversation,

discussion, oral
reports, storytelling, drama, etc.), listening, writing
• Interest in reading – oral reading, free silent reading, recreational reading,

close
reading/study of literature, book clubs, paperbacks, magazines, and
newspapers,
poetry reading, poetry collections, etc.
• Social and emotional development – individual and group communication

and
participation; experiences structured so the child feels accepted and secure
and
develops desirable attitudes toward himself and others (Language is a
prime
catalyst in social and emotional development).
• Physical development – other than good general health, vision and hearing
acuity are most important. Auditory discrimination of speech sounds suggests ideas like
rhyming words and initial sounds in words. The child’s need to make fine visual
discrimination is obvious, suggesting early activities with forms and shapes, and letter
recognition, words beginning or ending alike, etc.
• Intelligence – data attest to the importance of mental age, but do not

establish a
particular point on the mental age, but do not establish a particular point on
the mental age-continuum as the point below which children will not achieve
success in reading. Prereading activities, socioeconomic factors, teachers,
methods, and materials must be considered in each individual situation.
➢ Beginning Reading
1. Who are beginning readers?
• Kinder to grade 1 (Gunning, 2003)

• Anyone who have not been taught the conventional reading (Savage, 1994)
• A person learning to read in the second language (Folse, 1996)
What are their characteristics?
• problem solvers
• needing plenty of opportunities for choice
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• motivated through novelty

• retaining information better if given a chance to master a few things well
• needing TIME for learning
• bringing more than an empty shell to school
2. When is the right time to teach beginning reading?
• A child is never totally ready or unready to read.

• When learners have achieved unity of their capabilities, abilities with their
interests (Hittleman, 1978)
3. Appropriate approach in teaching beginning reading
➢ "Balanced Reading Instruction in Practice"
• Start with whole text. Grounding

instruction in whole texts provides
the basis for
meaningful literacy activities.
Examples include the shared
reading of poems or stories using
big books or charts. An active
demonstration of the teacher's own
composing and spelling processes
s extremely powerful, as he or she models at the chalkboard, thinking aloud about
what word will come next or how a word is spelled.
• Focus on knowledge about the parts of language that may be useful for
reading and writing. Responding to all texts only at the holistic level is not enough.
Instruction should include a planned, systematic effort to highlight specific textual features
and literary devices as a variety of materials are read, written, and discussed over time.
Highlighting specific textual features helps children form generalizations about language
that they can apply to their own independent efforts to read and write.
• Return to whole texts for application and practice. Planned opportunities to

apply what has been learned about the parts of language allow students to move from
simply knowing about a generalization to using that knowledge in a purposeful way. This
also acknowledges the fact that isolated language elements behave differently depending
on context. For example, the letter s behaves differently when paired with t as opposed to
h. Words such as lead or wind not only mean different things in different contexts, they
may be pronounced differently. Effective beginning readers use word meaning and
sentence structure, along with sound-letter relationships, to approach unknown words.
➢ The Four-Pronged Approach ( a literature-based integrated approach to teaching

beginning reading)
1. The goal of this approach is the development of:
✓ a genuine love for, habit and enjoyment of reading

✓ critical thinking skills, starting with noting the important details of a selection,
making interpretations, making judgments and valuing.
✓ oral language and using the grammatical structures correctly.
✓ decoding and encoding skills
2. Characteristics :
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• It is literature-based - uses a story or a poem (aside from a springboard for

the other skills) for developing genuine love for reading.
• It integrates literature and skills
• It is a balanced approach – uses whole language approach and explicit

instruction
• It is made up of four components:

o Genuine Love for Reading (GLR) o Critical Thinking (CT)
o Grammar and Oral Language Development (GOLD): has the following
parts:
▪ Presentation lesson or introduction - uses the story as a springboard
▪ Teacher Modeling or Direct Instruction
▪ Guided Practice
▪ Individual Practice
o Transfer Stage (TS)
➢ How can teachers help improve comprehension?

• assess prior knowledge and help them relate it to new ideas in the texts
• teach words in the texts that label schemata important to the writer’s
message
• help students sharpen cognitive skills they may need to comprehend the
texts
• show students the way writers organize printed texts to help them “read the
blueprints” more accurately
➢ WHAT ARE EFFECTIVE COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES?
• Before Reading – activities that can activate students’ prior knowledge,

while
extending, refining, and sometimes building the
schemata
1. Overview- a strategy in which teachers tell students about the selection or

assignment prior to reading, serves to activate relevant schemata that students hold in
long-term memory and often enrich and refine those schemata. Advance organizers and
structured overviews are examples of this strategy.
2. Vocabulary Preview- a strategy that starts from identifying and selecting
words that may cause problems, then proceeds to explaining in advance these unfamiliar
words to students. Teaching problem words provides
“anchors for new information”, provides opportunities to relate unfamiliar
concepts to familiar ones, and is one aspect of developing the general
background knowledge necessary for comprehension.
3. Structural Organizer- a strategy that teaches students to focus attention on

the ways passages are organized. Before students read an assignment, teachers should
point out the basic rhetorical frameworks underlying the discourse (enumeration, time
order, cause-effect, problem-solution, comparison-contrast), call attention to specific
plans of paragraph organization, signal words, main idea sentences, headings, and
subtitles.
4. Student-Centered Study Strategies - PQRST, Triple S Technique, OK5R,

PQ4R, S4R, PQ5R are some strategies that provide for previewing, student-centered
questions, and establishment of purpose, as well as during- and post-reading activities.
8
5. Teacher-Directed Lesson Frameworks- Directed Reading Activity (DRA),

Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA), Guided Reading Procedure, Reciprocal
Questioning (ReQuest) are examples of strategies that give teachers a plan on which
they can build lessons while some give students strategies for approaching the texts.
• While or During Reading - activities that can guide reader-text interactions,

while reading is taking place
Question Answering
Inserted Questions
Immediate Oral Feedback
Time Lines and Charts
Listing main Ideas
Outlining
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
• After or Post Reading- activities that help students remember new ideas and
information, while providing teachers with feedback on how well texts have been
understood
1. Follow-up pre- and during-reading activities

2. Have students talk about what they read
3. Have students write about what they read
4. Have students make up tests on their reading
5. Encourage students to respond to reading “creatively”
• Teaching Guidelines
1. Show students what to do before they begin to read in order to improve their
comprehension.
2. Plan activities to promote active involvement with texts while students read.
3. Help students sharpen, develop and remember their interpretations of a text
with appropriate after-reading activities.
4. Take steps to help students internalize instructional strategies so that they
become for them learning strategies.
• Steps in Applying Selected Strategies a. Vocabulary Previews
1. Check the assignment and list words that may be important for students to
understand.
2. Arrange these in a schema that shows the interrelationships particular to the
learning tasks.
3. Add to this schema words students probably already understand in order to
highlight
relationships between the new and the known.
4. Double-check the overview to make sure that major ideas are clearly shown
and in
a way that students will understand.
5. Share the structured overview with students, telling them why words were
placed
where they were and asking them to contribute other words.
6. As students read, have them relate other new words and information to the
graphic
overview.
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b. DRTA
1. The teacher has students survey an assignment using titles, headings, and
pictures
to get a general idea of what the author is discussing. The teacher regularly
asks,
“what do you think this section will be about? Why?”
2. The students read up to a point predetermined by the teacher.
3. The teacher asks similar questions but posed to reflect the reading; that is,
“what
was it about? were you correct? why did you predict incorrectly?”
4. The group then reads on to the next stopping point, once again reading to
find
answers to their questions.
5. The process continues until the completion of the assignment.
c. Guided Reading Procedure
1. Prepare students by explaining important concept, building appropriate

background
knowledge, and providing directions for the actual reading.
2. Students read, trying to remember all they can.
3. Students turn their books over on their desks and repeat all they can
remember
while the teacher records this on the board.
4. The teacher calls attention to information not remembered and suggests
that
students reread to discover more.
5. Students reread.
6. Their new recollections are now recorded on the board but now in outline
form.
7. The teacher asks more questions to help students recall more from their
reading
and tries to synthesize the new information with the information obtained by
the first
reading.
8. Immediate feedback is given to students through a quiz.
d. Request
1. Teacher and students read together a section of the text, usually the first
sentence.
2. The teacher closes the book and invites questions from the group.
3. Next the students close their books, and the teacher asks them questions
about
what they have read.
4. When the teacher believes that students understand that much of the text,
the next
section is read and steps 1 and 2 are repeated.
5. Once students become familiar with ReQuest and with the text, the teacher
incorporates predictions (as in DRTA).
6. The group now reads the remaining sections.
7. The teacher checks out the predictions: “Were your guesses right? Where do
you
think you went wrong?”
e. Encouraging Students to Talk About What They Read
1. Have students pretend to be television reporters who must sum up a “story”

in two
minutes. After allowing few minutes for preparation, they can have
individuals tell
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the central idea to the group.

2. Students can be encouraged to explain what an in-class reading was all
about to
another student absent the day it was read.
3. Teachers can ask, “What do you think are the (four) main important ideas of
this
text?”
4. Students can be asked to use the “5W’s plus H” model for some selections.
➢ Other Strategies in Reading in the Content Areas
1. Clink and Clunk
• Click and Clunk is an excellent means to assess what information the students
have learned and what information needs to be covered in more depth. This strategy
helps students recognize the information they do not understand, and assists them in
getting the information they need. It motivates students as they attempt to increase the
information they understand (“clinks”) and decrease what they do not understand
(“clunks”).
• Procedure
Have students create two columns on their paper and label them “Clink” and
“Clunk.” Next, have the students read a passage, then list what they really
understand (Clink) and what they do not understand (Clunk). As a group,
discuss the “Clunks” and try to clarify the information. This can be done through
direct teacher instruction or by allowing students who understand the issue to
explain it to the class.
Language Arts Social Studies

Topic: Parts of Speech Topic: Roman Republic
Clink Clunk Clink Clunk
nouns adverbs dictator plebeian
verbs prepositions republic patrician
adjectives interjections veto consul
Science Math
Clink Clunk Topic: Equations and Inequalities
Concentrated saturated Clink Clunk
Matter diluted solving equations polynomials
• Assessment
After covering the material, discuss the Clink-Clunk list again to see if all the
“Clunk” items can be moved to “Clink.” Those terms in the “Clunk” column that
are clearly understood can be moved to the “Clink” column and any terms
remaining in the “Clunk” column should be explained further.
2. Circle-Seat-Center
This strategy allows students to work in small peer groups and go over all the
information the teacher would like to cover. The strategy is an excellent way to
reinforce information in a variety of ways: The Circle group focuses on verbal
learning, the Seat group focuses on visual learning, and the Center group
focuses on tactile learning. This also allows students who learn through
different modalities the opportunity to learn through their strength.
• Procedure
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First, instruct students to read the text. Following this, divide the class into three
groups based on instructional needs. Give each group an assignment: Circle,
Seat, or Center. The Circle group covers information in the text with your
assistance. The Seat group members work individually or within their group to
go over the text information using worksheets and study sheets. The Center
groups works on projects, individually or in the group, related to the information
covered in the text. After a designated amount of time, students rotate to
another group.
Social Studies Language Arts

Topic: Fall of Rome Topic: Parts of Speech
Circle: Discuss text, including reasons for the fall of Rome. Circle: Discussion and clarify the topic for students.
Seat: Students work identifying the parts of speech using

worksheets or skills sheets.
Center: Students create cards to be used in a game.
Science
Topic: Matter in Solution
Circle: Discuss the types of solutions.
Seat: Complete worksheets or respond to questions at end of
section.
Center: Create charts to classify types of solutions.
• Assessment
Use teacher observation of information covered during discussion, correct

answers on worksheets, and evaluate of information covered in projects to
determine students’ level of comprehension.
• Jigsaw
Jigsaw allows students to work with their peers and to learn information from
one another. This strategy allows for all members of the class to receive
information about an entire section in a text. It is a collaborative strategy that
ensures the participation of all students.
• Procedure
First, group three to six students in teams. Give each team member a topic on
which to become an “expert.” The teams then split up and find the students
from the other teams who are working on their topic. After working in the topic
groups, students return to their teams and present the information they gained.

When reviewing a specific story, assign team members with a When studying the five themes of geography, assign each
component such as character, plot, setting, problem, or member of a team one of the topics: location, place, human-
Science Math
Give each member of a group a topic such as acids, Use as review. After studying fractions, divide into groups and
bases, and salts. assign each member a topic such as adding, subtracting,
• Assessment
Determine students’ level of comprehension by the correct number of
responses in a quiz or through discussion of information presented by each
team.
4. Partner Prediction
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This strategy gives students the opportunity to work with their peers and make
predictions about as story or section. Because students are sharing their ideas
with a partner, more students will be able to discuss prediction and they will not
feel self-conscious about speaking in from of the entire class. If a student is
having difficulties with prediction, partner him or her with someone who is able
to do it, and he or she will have the opportunity to see how the process is done.
• Procedure
First, identify places in the text to stop and predict what might happen next.
Then read the title and first portion aloud and ask what students think the story
will be about. Students should be seated next to partners so they can share
their ideas with each other. This process is repeated throughout the reading.
When the end of the selection is near, stop and ask how students think it will
end.

Topic: “Cats on the Run” Topic: “Cats on the Run”
Students discuss what this story may be about. As reading Students discuss what this story may be about. As reading
begins, students discuss what might happen in the story. begins, students discuss what might happen in the story.
Science
Topic: Plants
Students discuss what they know. Reading covers types of
trees and flowers. Students discuss how to tell the
difference and which ones they have seen, and they discuss
what else might be covered in the text
• Assessment
Through teacher observation and discussion, determine accuracy of student
predictions. Monitor the involvement of individual, students during the paired
retelling. Discussion can be used to determine students’ level of
comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage
responses from students who appear off task. Students should correctly
respond to 80% of the questions during a discussion. Change partners to
increase accuracy if necessary.
5. Reciprocal Teaching
This strategy allows students to begin to work together and to “teach” each
other as they take over the discussion.
• Procedure
Begin by dividing the class into small groups. Each group should then read and
discuss a short section from the text. After all the groups have completed this,
bring the entire class together and discuss the information that was covered.
Start by leading the discussion, then gradually decrease your input and allow
student input to increase. Encourage the participation of all students.

Topic: Short Section of a Story Topic: Earth’s Human Geography
Ask the following questions: Why did the main character react Ask the following questions: Where do people live? Why do
as he or she did? What is the importance of the setting they migrate? What problems will the growing population
Science
Go over types of matter, or ask, What is an ecosystem?
13
• Assessment
Use discussion, quizzes, and observation to determine if material is
understood. Observation should include monitoring the involvement of
individual students and their responses. Discussion can be used to determine
students’ levels of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading.
Encourage responses from students who appear off task. Students should
correctly respond to 80% of the question during a discussion or given on a quiz.
Encourage students to assist one another.
6. Think-Pair-Share/Think-Pair-Square
This is a partner or group activity that allows students to work together to check
for comprehension.
• Procedure
After reading a story or section of text, students should think of things they
already know, decide what the reading reminds them of, and determine what
might happen next. Students then “Pair and Share” (two students) or “Pair and
Square” (four students) and discuss the things they have thought about.

After covering a short story or selection, discuss After covering South America, discuss people,
character, plot, motivation, setting, and resolution. culture, religion, land, climate, and resources.
Science Math
After covering animal habitats, discuss what animals After reading a word problem determine what is being
need to survive and how different animals adapt. asked, what information is given, and what mathematical
• Assessment
Use discussion, quizzes, or tests during or following the activity. Discussion can
be used to determine students’ level of comprehension by assessing their
responses after reading. Encourage responses from students who appear off
task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the questions during a
discussion or given on a quiz or test.
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PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Exercise: Read critically as you compare the pair of sentences marked A and B given
below. Then answer the questions that follow. Write only the letter of the best answer.
A. I saw Johnny slink out of the yard hiding something behind his back.
B. I saw Johnny walk out of the yard with the bike tire.
1. The speaker in sentence A is probably

A. Suspicious of Johnny
B. Angry at Johnny
C. Afraid of Johnny
D. Happy with Johnny
This is a question on inferring the speaker’s feeling. Remember that one’s feeling
about people and situation can be revealed through the words used to express it.
Notice in sentence A the words slink out and hiding something as opposed to walk out
in sentence B. The feeling evoked by the words in A is not positive, but negative.
Looking at the choices, only choice D contains positive feeling, so this is not what you
are looking for; this is a distracter. If you compare choices A to C, you will realize that
they are negative words, but the clue word hiding something will lead you to select A –
suspicious of Johnny. This is because when you say hiding something, you feel
something is kept as secret, and this makes you feel suspicious first, not angry or
afraid.
A. After Congressman Jones wasted as much time as he could, he stumbled through

his
speech.
B. After Congressman Jones weighed every aspect of the important controversy, he
rendered
his momentous decision.
2. The speaker in sentence A views Congressman Jones’ speech as

A. uninformative and boring
B. sarcastic and ironic
C. short and direct
D. well-delivered
This is a question on noting the speaker’s point of view in sentence A, which is

revealed through the choice of words such as wasted as much time and stumbled.
Sentence B, on the other hand, described the same speech with the phrases
weighed… important controversy, and … momentous decision. Choices B and C are
incorrect because there is no clue from the text that will tell there is irony and sarcasm.
Neither is there any indication that it is short and direct. Since the clues tell negative
comments about the speech, choice D is not the right answer. It is choice A that
shows the point of view of the speaker about the speech – uninformative and boring.
A. Harry (“Killer”) Smith, the notorious gambler, was questioned by the police about
a gangland slaying.
B. Mr. Harold Smith, well-known in local racing circles, was asked by the authorities
to comment about the recent events in the city.
3. The speaker in sentence B is trying to

A. save Harry Smith’s reputation
B. destroy Harry Smith’s credibility
C. project a positive image of Harry Smith
15
D. recall events that make Harry Smith famous
This is a question on identifying the speaker’s purpose. Take note of the words killer,
notorious gambler, and gangland slaying in sentence A, and the words/phrase well-
known in local racing circles, authorities, and recent events. Since the question is
focused on sentence B, one can see that the clues are all good comments about
Harry. So choice B is a distracter – it contains a negative thought of Harry. Choice D is
partially correct, but one does not write just for the purpose of recalling events in this
context. Choice A may also be correct, but it can just be a result of choice C – a
projection of positive image. Perhaps it would save, perhaps it would not save his
reputation. One cannot be sure which might happen between the two. But one can be
certain that the purpose of the writer is C – to project good image of Harry.
Read the selection and answer the questions that follow. Encircle the letter of the best
answer for each item.
Mr. and Mrs. Reyes are looking for a new house. Read what they say about it.
Mrs. Reyes: This is a large, beautiful house.

Mr. Reyes: It only has 1000 square meters as floor area.
Mrs. Reyes: It seems very clean. It has two windows in every room.
Mr. Reyes: It appears to have a nice view from the terrace. But it costs 2.5 million
pesos. It seems to be very expensive.
Mrs. Reyes: I think it seems reasonable for such a nice house.
Mr. Reyes: Well it does have four bedrooms and two bathrooms but it still appears to
be too big for our family.
- from Feuerstein and Scheolnik, 1995
1. Which of Mrs. Reyes’ statements is a fact?

A. This is a large, beautiful house.
B. It seems very clean.
C. It has two windows in every room.
D. I think it seems reasonable for such a nice house.
2. Which of Mr. Reyes’ statement is an opinion?

A. It only has 1000 square meters as floor area.
B. But it costs 2.5 million pesos.
C. It seems to be very expensive.
D. Well it does have four bedrooms and two bathrooms.
3. Who appears to be more eager to have the house?

A. Mr. Reyes
B. Mrs. Reyes
C. Both
D. None
Cancer is a growth, and since growth is an essential part of life itself, it would be
expected that cancer would be found in all living things. Such indeed is the fact. The
disease is universal in scope. It develops in all strata of plant and animal life. It has
existed at least since the beginning of recorded history and affects men impartially –
wherever they live and whatever their race or color or level of culture or material
progress. Cancer is not a special disease of civilization, except insofar as civilization
enables more people to live longer and except as civilization introduces certain
carcinogenic agents.
16
4. The main idea of the selection is

A. Cancer is found in all living things.
B. Cancer is an essential part of life itself.
C. Cancer is found in plants.
D. Civilized living contributed to cancer.
5. Which of the following is the topic sentence?

A. Such indeed is the fact.
B. The disease is universal in scope.
C. It develops in all strata of plant and animal life.
D. It has existed at least since the beginning of recorded history.
6. Which of the following statements maybe deleted from the selection?

A. Cancer is not a special disease of civilization
B. It affects men impartially.
C. Such indeed is the case.
D. Cancer is a growth.
7. What is the author’s purpose for writing the selection?

A. To enumerate the effects of cancer
B. To convince people not to be afraid of cancer
C. To explain the nature of cancer
D. To warn people about cancer
As early as 1961, dire predictions were being made of the effect of automation on
employment. According to one estimate, about 25, 000 jobs are eliminated every week
by automation. As the years pass, however, predictions of displaced workers and
extensive unemployment have not materialized. In fact, Charles Silbeman in Myths of
Automation demonstrates that automation is not producing unemployment and argues
that the new technology is “enlarging the spheres of human action and choice”. It
cannot be refuted that automation and new technology have brought man a powerful
new assistant in the production of goods and services, yet this new apprentice must
be regarded with apprehension.
8. Which statement from the selection shows a contrasting view?

A. It cannot be refuted that automation and new technology have brought man
a
powerful assistant.
B. According to one estimate, about 25, 000 jobs are eliminated every week by
automation.
C. As the years pass, however, predictions of displaced workers have not
materialized.
D. As early as 1961, dire predictions were being made of the effect of
automation.
9. How does the writer view automation and new technology?

A. They compete against human labor.
B. They minimize production of goods.
C. They provide people with help at work.
D. They find ways to lessen human involvement in production.
10. What message does the author want to leave to the readers?
A. That new technology and automation are harmless.
B. That new technology and automation can be beneficial to man.
C. That new technology and automation cost less than manual labor.
D. That new technology and automation are investments for a better economy.
17
11. Ms. Padilla is a Grade 1 Teacher who is concerned with building letters into words
and words into sentences. She uses flashcards so the pupils can sound out syllables and
words correctly.
What reading model is reflected in Ms. Padilla’s instruction?

A. Bottom-Up model
B. Top-Down model
C. Interactive model
D. Schema model
12. Mr. Morauda is a Grade 1 Teacher who plans reading instruction as a part of the
language
block. He provides varied reading experiences that involve children sitting quietly,
silently
reading library books or making a book based on their own experiences.
What theoretical model of reading does Mr. Morauda show?

A. Bottom-Up model
B. Top-Down model
C. Interactive model
D. Schema model
13. Ms. Torres believes that her pupils need direct sensory contact and physical
manipulation
in the classroom so that they learn easily and recall input effortlessly. What is the
grade level of Ms. Torres’ class?
A. Pre-school
B. Primary
C. Intermediate
D. High School
14. One Grade 3 teacher of English to multilingual learners has just finished reading a
story
aloud to the class.
Which of the following is the best post – reading activity for the learner?
A. Provide students with a guide for reader-text interactions.
B. Have students write about what they have read.
C. Give them comprehension questions.
D. Let them rest for a while.
15. Mr. German is a teacher handling English for a culturally-diverse class. He would
regularly
read aloud to his pupils, would provide time for free silent reading, recreational
reading,
and would lend them magazines and newspapers.
What factor in reading does Mr. German want to cultivate among his pupils?
A. Emotional/social development
B. Physical development
C. Interest in reading
D. Intelligence
16. Mr. Arce is a new grade 1 teacher who is unsure whether the pupils are ready for
beginning reading instruction. Before he begins his lessons, he must observe that
A. the pupils are emotionally prepared for social interaction and competition
B. the pupils have achieved unity of their capabilities with their interests
C. the pupils can respond to simple questions and instructions
D. the pupils show desire to learn in class
18
17. Teacher Millicent knows well that the text or the print material is one factor that
affects
reading. So she tries to match the text with the ease or difficulty of
students’ comprehension based on the style of writing.
What text factor does Teacher Millicent consider in the choice of reading materials
for her
class?
A. Organization
B. Format
C. Readability
D. Content
18. Ms. Morallos teaches her grade 6 class how to write a summary of an expository
text. In
her discussion, she explains what it is, models it through think aloud, and informs
her
pupils when and how this skill learned in the classroom can be used even during
their
own free silent reading. She provides them with guided and independent
practices before
she conducts an evaluation.
What approach to teaching is reflected in Ms. Morallos’ practice?

A. Indirect Instruction
B. Explicit Instruction
C. Intrinsic Instruction
D. Independent Instruction
19. ReQuest is a strategy used to develop learners ability in asking significant

questions. The teacher needs to model questioning skills and let the pupils practice the
same until the learners are ready to use the skill automatically.
What is the best reason for teaching the learners this skill?
A. Learners become purposive when they set their own questions while
reading.
B. Teachers become confused by the questions asked by the learners.
C. Teachers find time to review the questions of the learners.
D. Learners feel important when they make questions.
20. Mr. Gutierrez is planning to have a list of 200 words in Science for the school’s
vocabulary
development program. After going through all the books used by his fourth grade
pupils,
he is still in the dark as to what words need to be included in his list.
Which of the following criteria should NOT be the basis of Mr. Gutierrez for word
selection?
A. High frequency words
B. Content area words
C. High utility words
D. Difficult words
PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
Read the selection and answer the questions that follow. Write only the letter of the
best answer for each item.
19
Mama Sewing
1 I don’t know why Mama ever sewed for me. She sewed for other people, made
beautiful dresses and suit and blouses, and got paid for doing it. But I don’t know
why she
sewed for me. I was so mean.
It was all right in the days when she had to make my dresses a little longer in the
front than
in the back to make up for the way I stood, with my legs pushed back and my
stomach
stuck out. I was little then, and I trusted Mama. But when I got older, I worried.
2 Mama would turn the dress on the wrong side and slide it over my head, being
careful not
let the pins stick me. She’d kneel on the floor with her pin cushion, fitting the dress
on me,
and I’d look down at that dress, at the lop-sided, raw-edged, half-basted, half-
pinned thing –
and know that it was never going to look like anything. So I’d pout while Mama
frowned
and sighed and kept on pinning.
3 Sometimes she would sew all night, and in the morning I’d have a perfectly beautiful
dress,
just right for the school program or the party. I’d put it on, and I’d be ashamed of the
way I
had acted. I’d be too ashamed to say I was sorry.
4 But Mama knew.
- Eloise Greenfield and Lessie Jones

Little
2. The speaker in the selection is perhaps

A. a son
B. a daughter
C. a sister
D. a brother
3. The word mean in paragraph 1 is used with the same meaning as the statement
A. My classmates mean to see me in the hospital, but they can’t.
B. The mean of the students’ scores is unexpected.
C. The words mean the same to me.
D. Be kind to your classmates; don’t be mean.
4. The fourth paragraph tells that

A. The speaker is ashamed.
B. The speaker knows Mama.
C. Mama knows the speaker is worried.
D. Mama knows the speaker is sorry.
5. The theme of the selection can be stated as

A. Mothers stay true to their calling.
B. Mothers know what is best for their children.
C. Mothers forgive and forget always.
D. Mothers work to earn for the children.
20
The American family of today is smaller than it used to be in several ways. On the
average there are fewer children (although this trend may be changing). Birth control
techniques and changing values have led to fewer large families. The American family
is also small in that it is a nuclear rather than the extended family. Grandparents and
other relatives live elsewhere, and in fact the children will leave too at an earlier age.
5. The selection implies that

A. American family today is smaller than it used to be.
B. Values held by families change through the years.
C. The kind of family affects the size of American family.
D. The relatives live in another place.
6. The selection mentions ___ kinds of family.

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
7. The writer gives ____ reasons to account for having smaller American family today.
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
The revolt against the British government was not a vast, spontaneous movement.
Instead, it was carefully planned by shrewd men and laboriously and sagaciously
executed by some of the most active spirits on the continent. It could never have
succeeded if it had been left unorganized. It was because the patriots were well
organized, and because the Tories or loyalists were not, that the former won the day.
8. The two warring camps mentioned in the selection are the

A. Tories and loyalists
B. Patriots and British
C. Patriots and Tories
D. Shrewd men and active spirits
9. The writer tries to discuss the topic by

A. Comparing the two troops of fighters
B. Giving the reasons for winning a battle
C. Enumerating characteristics of British soldiers
D. Solving problems related to planning military tactics
10. The idea of the selection can best be summarized by the statement
A. Nothing beats a well-planned action.
B. The pen is mightier than the sword.
C. Forewarned is forearmed.
D. Life is full of battles.
Read the given situations below. Write the letter of the best answer for each situation
described.
11. Among native speakers of English, students from Grade 7 and up are supposed to
be
ready for abstract reading. This means that learners on this stage are able to
________
A. grasp informational texts
B. construct multiple hypotheses
C. manipulate objects and ideas mentally
D. judge affectively and personally than by using standard
21
12. All the three reading theories recognize the role of reader and text in the
comprehension
process. However, only the interactive model accounts for the role of the reading
situation
in the meaning-making process.
This factor is known as ______

A. Outcome B. Task C. Context D. Purpose
13. The four-Pronged Approach upholds the holistic and balanced instruction in
beginning
reading. One important characteristic of this approach is _______
A. The inclusion of critical thinking skills after reading
B. The development of genuine love for reading
C. The integration of whole language, literature, and explicit instruction
D. The heavy emphasis on grammar and oral language development
14. The reader’s prior knowledge plays a vital role in negotiating meaning and
transacting with
the text. To enhance the schemata of the learners, Teacher Arabella exposes her
grade 2
pupils to the pragmatic use of language in their day to day life experiences so that
they
develop rich vocabulary.
Teacher Arabella believes that ________

A. Word meanings aid textual understanding
B. Word pronunciation builds comprehension
C. Word knowledge is learned best in isolation
D. Word familiarity is gained in the classroom
15. In one Grade 6 reading class in public school, Teacher Samantha conducts a
regular 10-
minute silent reading of an expository text in Science.
What is the best silent reading activity that Teacher Samantha can give her
students?
A. Invite resource person to discuss the content of the material.
B. Prepare reading road maps to guide reader-text interactions.
C. Instruct them to write reflection journals on their notebook.
D. Check understanding by asking post-reading questions.
16. Mr. Siruet is a Science Teacher in Ilocos. He strongly believes that devoting 10-15
minutes for real-time reading in the classroom and guiding the pupils’ interaction
with
Science materials before or after doing an activity is better than just assigning
them to
read at home and make sense of the text on their own.
What could be the best explanation for Mr. Siruet’s reading practice?
A. That Science is one subject that calls for inquiry and discovery.
B. That Science class does not require actual reading time in class.
C. That time can be spent in more meaningful hands-on activities
D. That experience with print enriches vocabulary and understanding of Science
concepts.
17. Teacher Jeremiah is planning an integration lesson using Social Studies text for
his Grade
5 English class.
Which of the following is the best thing to do to activate his pupils’ background
22
knowledge?
A. Ask several critical questions.
B. Make the pupils prepare an outline.
C. Unlock difficult words by using the dictionary
D. Present advance organizer of the topic.
18. Ms. Yelena handles Grade 4 classes in Makabayan. Before conducting any
discussion,
she makes sure that her pupils have read the text by allotting 7-10 minutes of
silent
reading in the classroom.
Which of the following should NOT be done by Ms. Yelena during the silent
reading
activity?
A. Insert questions in selected parts of the text as guide.
B. Make students fill in the blanks of the structured overview.
C. Let students fill in the L column of the KWL chart.
D. Leave students to do what they want in reading silently by themselves.
19. As a post-reading activity in any content-area reading class, which of the following
should
be avoided by the teacher?
A. Have students talk about what they read.
B. Ask questions to score comprehension.
C. Have students prepare make up test on their reading.
D. Go back to the Anticipation Guide for some correction.
20. Reading in the content area aims to help students make sense of the text and
negotiate
meaning as readers actively interact with the text.
Which of the following activities will best achieve this goal?

A. Have the reading of the text be done at home.
B. Make them read silently.
C. Allow students to ask questions.
D. Practice oral reading for fluency.
23
PART IV– KEY TO CORRECTION
Part ll – Analyzing Test Items Part lll – Enhancing Test-Taking

Skills
1. C 1. B
2. C 2. D
3. B 3. D
4. A 4. B
5. B 5. C
6. C 6. B
7. C 7. B
8. C 8. C
9. C 9. B
10. B 10. A
11. A 11. B
12. C 12. C
13. A 13. C
14. B 14. A
15. C 15. B
16. B 16. D
17. C 17. D
18. B 18. D
19. A 19. B
20. D 20. C
Refresher Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

AREA: ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING
LET Competencies:
1. Diagnose learning and strengths and difficulties
2. Construct appropriate test items for given objectives
3. Use/Interpret measures of central tendency, variability and standard scores
4. Assign marks and grades
5. Apply basic concepts and principles of evaluation in classroom instruction, testing and
measurement
PREPARED BY: Mr. Joseph Randolph P. Palattao

BASIC CONCEPTS
Test
▪ An instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge.
▪ Comprised of test items of the area it is designed to measure.
Measurement
▪ A process of quantifying the degree to which someone/something possesses a given trait (i.e.
quality, characteristics or features)
▪ A process by which traits, characteristics and behaviors are differentiated.
Assessment
▪ A process of gathering and organizing data into an interpretable form to have basis for decision-
making
▪ It is a prerequisite to evaluation. It provides the information which enables evaluation to take
place.
Evaluation
▪ A process of systematic analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data in order to make
sound judgment or decision.
▪ It involves judgment about the desirability of changes in students.
MODES OF ASSESSMENT
MODE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
▪ Scoring is
objective
The objective paper- ▪ Standardized ▪ Administration is ▪ Preparation of
and-pen test which Tests instrument is time-
Traditional easy because
usually assesses low- ▪ Teacher-made consuming
students can
level thinking skills Tests ▪ Prone to cheating
take the test at
the same time
▪ Preparation of
A mode of assessment the instrument is ▪ Scoring tends to be
▪ Practical Test
that requires actual relatively easy subjective without
▪ Oral and Aural
Performance demonstration of ▪ Measures rubrics
Tests
skills or creation of behaviours that ▪ Administration is
▪ Projects
products of learning cannot be time consuming
deceived
A process of gathering ▪ Working ▪ Measures ▪ Development is
multiple indicators of Portfolios student’s growth time consuming
student progress to ▪ Rating tends to be
Portfolio ▪ Show Portfolios and
support course goals in ▪ Documentary development subjective without
dynamic, ongoing and rubrics
Portfolios ▪ Intelligence-fair
collaborative process
1
FOUR TYPES OF EVALUATION PROCEDURES
PLACEMENT SUMMATIVE FORMATIVE DIAGNOSTIC

EVALUATION EVALUATION EVALUATION EVALUATION
▪
done before ▪ done after ▪ reinforces successful ▪
determine recurring or
instruction instruction learning persistent difficulties
▪ certifies mastery of
▪ provides continuous
▪ searches for the underlying
causes of these problems that
the intended do not respond to first aid
▪ treatment
determines feedback to both
learning outcomes ▪ helps formulate a plan for a
mastery students and teachers detailed remedial instruction
▪ graded
of prerequisite concerning learning
▪ examples: quarter
skills success and failures
exams, unit or
▪ not graded
▪ chapter tests, final
not graded ▪ examples: short
exams
quizzes, recitations
▪ determines the extent of what the pupils have achieved or

mastered in the objectives of the intended instruction
▪ administered during instruction
▪ determine the students’ strength and weaknesses
▪ designed to formulate a plan for remedial
instruction
▪ place the students in specific learning groups to facilitate
teaching and learning
▪ modify the teaching and learning process
▪ serve as a pretest for the next unit
▪ not graded
▪ serve as basis in planning for a relevant instruction
PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT
1) Clarity of Learning Targets

➢ Clear and appropriate learning targets include (1) what students know and can do and (2) the
criteria for judging student performance.
2) Appropriateness of Assessment Methods

➢ The method of assessment to be used should match the learning targets.
3) Validity
➢ This refers to the degree to which a score-based inference is appropriate, reasonable, and useful.
4) Reliability
➢ This refers to the degree of consistency when several items in a test measure the same thing, and
stability when the same measures are given across time.
5) Fairness
➢ Fair assessment is unbiased and provides students with opportunities to demonstrate what they
have learned.
6) Positive Consequences
➢ The overall quality of assessment is enhanced when it has a positive effect on student
motivation and study habits. For the teachers, high-quality assessments lead to better information and
decision-making about students.
7) Practicality and efficiency

➢ Assessments should consider the teacher’s familiarity with the method, the time required, the
complexity of administration, the ease of scoring and interpretation, and cost.
2
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LEARNING TAXONOMIES
A. COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Levels of
Learning Description Some Question Cues
Outcomes
▪ Involves remembering or recalling ▪ List, define, identify,
Knowledge previously learned material or a wide name, recall, state,
range of materials arrange
▪ Ability to grasp the meaning of material by ▪ Describe, interpret,

Comprehension translating material from one form to classify, differentiate,
another or by interpreting material explain, translate
▪ Ability to use learned material in new and ▪ Apply, demonstrate, solve,

Application
concrete situations interpret, use, experiment
▪ Ability to break down material into its ▪ Analyse, separate,

Analysis component parts so that the whole explain, examine,
structure is understood discriminate, infer
▪ Ability to put parts together to form a new ▪ Integrate, plan, generalize,

Synthesis
whole construct, design, propose
▪ Ability to judge the value of material on the ▪ Assess, decide, judge,

Evaluation support, summarize,
basis of a definite criteria
defend
B. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Categories Description Some Illustrative Verbs
▪ Willingness to receive or to attend to a ▪ Acknowledge, ask, choose,
Receiving
particular phenomenon or stimulus follow, listen, reply, watch
▪ Refers to active participation on the ▪ Answer, assist, contribute,

Responding
part of the student cooperate, follow-up, react
▪ Adopt, commit, desire,

▪ Ability to see worth or value in a
Valuing display, explain, initiate,
subject, activity, etc.
justify, share
▪ Bringing together a complex of values,
▪ Adapt, categorize, establish,
resolving conflicts between them, and
Organization generalize, integrate,
beginning to build an internally
organize
consistent value system
▪ Values have been internalized and ▪ Advocate, behave, defend,
Value
have controlled ones’ behaviour for a encourage, influence,
Characterization
sufficiently long period of time practice
C. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
▪ Early stages in learning a complex skill after an ▪ Carry out, assemble,
Imitation indication of readiness to take a particular type practice, follow, repeat,
of action. sketch, move
▪ A particular skill or sequence is practiced (same as imitation)

Manipulation continuously until it becomes habitual and done ▪ acquire, complete,
conduct, improve,
with some confidence and proficiency.
perform, produce
(same as imitation and
manipulation)
▪ A skill has been attained with proficiency and
Precision ▪ Achieve, accomplish,
efficiency.
excel, master, succeed,
surpass
▪ Adapt, change, excel,
▪ An individual can modify movement patterns to
Articulation reorganize, rearrange,
a meet a particular situation.
revise
▪ An individual responds automatically and

creates new motor acts or ways of manipulation ▪ Arrange, combine,
Naturalization compose, construct,
out of understandings, abilities, and skills
create, design
developed.
3
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS
MAIN POINTS FOR

TYPES OF TESTS
COMPARISON
Psychological Educational
▪ Aims to measure students ▪ Aims to measure the result of

intelligence or mental ability in instructions and learning (e.g.
a large degree without Achievement Tests,
Purpose
reference to what the students Performance Tests)
has learned (e.g. Aptitude
Tests, Personality Tests,
Intelligence Tests)
Survey Mastery
▪ Covers a broad range of ▪ Covers a specific objective
objectives
Scope of Content ▪ Measures general achievement ▪ Measures fundamental skills
in certain subjects and abilities
▪ Constructed by trained ▪ Typically constructed by the
professional teacher
Verbal Non-Verbal
▪ Words are used by students in ▪ Students do not use words in
Language Mode
attaching meaning to or attaching meaning to or in
responding to test items responding to test items
Standardized Informal
▪ Constructed by a professional ▪ Constructed by a classroom
item writer teacher
▪ Covers a broad range of ▪ Covers a narrow range of
content covered in a subject content
area
Construction ▪ Uses mainly multiple choice ▪ Various types of items are used
▪ Items written are screened and ▪ Teacher picks or writes items
the best items were chosen for as needed for the test
the final instrument
▪ Can be scored by a machine ▪ Scored manually by the teacher
▪ Interpretation of results is ▪ Interpretation is usually
usually norm-referenced criterion-referenced
Individual Group
▪ Mostly given orally or requires ▪ This is a paper-and-pen test
actual demonstration of skill
▪ One-on-one situations, thus, ▪ Loss of rapport, insight and
Manner of many opportunities for clinical knowledge about each
Administration observation examinee
▪ Chance to follow-up ▪ Same amount of time needed
examinee’s response in order to gather information from one
to clarify or comprehend it more student
clearly
Objective Subjective
▪ Scorer’s personal judgment ▪ Affected by scorer’s personal
does not affect the scoring opinions, biases and judgments
Effect of Biases ▪ Worded that only one answer is ▪ Several answers are possible
acceptable
▪ Little or no disagreement on ▪ Possible to disagreement on
what is the correct answer what is the correct answer
4
Power Speed
▪ Consists of series of items ▪ Consists of items approximately
arranged in ascending order of equal in difficulty
Time Limit and
difficulty
Level of Difficulty
▪ Measures student’s ability to ▪ Measure’s student’s speed or
answer more and more difficult rate and accuracy in responding
items
Selective Supply
▪ There are choices for the ▪ There are no choices for the
answer answer
▪ Multiple choice, True or False, ▪ Short answer, Completion,
Matching Type Restricted or Extended Essay
Format ▪ Can be answered quickly ▪ May require a longer time to
answer
▪ Prone to guessing ▪ Less chance to guessing but
prone to bluffing
▪ Time consuming to construct ▪ Time consuming to answer and
score
Maximum Performance Typical Performance

Nature of ▪ Determines what individuals ▪ Determines what individuals
Assessment can do when performing at their will do under natural conditions
best
Norm-Referenced Criterion-Referenced
▪ Result is interpreted by ▪ Result is interpreted by
comparing one student’s comparing student’s
performance with other performance based on a
students’ performance predefined standard (mastery)
▪ Some will really pass ▪ All or none may pass
▪ There is competition for a ▪ There is no competition for a

limited percentage of high limited percentage of high
scores score
▪ Typically covers a large domain ▪ Typically focuses on a
Interpretation of learning tasks delimited domain of learning
tasks
▪ Emphasizes discrimination ▪ Emphasizes description of what
among individuals in terms of learning tasks individuals can

level of learning and cannot perform
▪ Favors items of average ▪ Matches item difficulty to
difficulty and typically omits learning tasks, without altering
very easy and very hard items item difficulty or omitting easy
or hard items
▪ Interpretation requires a clearly ▪ Interpretation requires a clearly
defined group defined and delimited
achievement domain
Four Commonly-used References for Classroom Interpretation
Reference Interpretation Provided Condition That Must Be Present

Ability- How are students performing relative to Good measures of the students’
referenced what they are capable of doing? maximum possible performance
How much have students changed or
Growth- Pre- and Post- measures of performance
improved relative to what they were
referenced that are highly reliable
doing earlier?
Norm- How well are students doing with respect Clear understanding of whom students
referenced to what is typical or reasonable? are being compared to
Criterion- Well-defined content domain that was
What can students do and not do?
referenced assessed.
5
TYPES OF TEST ACCORDING TO FORMAT
1. Selective Type – provides choices for the answer
a. Multiple Choice – consists of a stem which describes the problem and 3 or more alternatives
which give the suggested solutions. The incorrect alternatives are the distractors.
b. True-False or Alternative Response – consists of declarative statement that one has to mark
true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, and the like.
c. Matching Type – consists of two parallel columns: Column A, the column of premises from
which a match is sought; Column B, the column of responses from which the selection is made.
Type Advantages Limitations

MultipleChoice
▪ More adequate sampling of content ▪ Prone to guessing
▪ Tend to structure the problem to be ▪ Often indirectly measure targeted

addressed more effectively behaviors
▪ Can be quickly and objectively scored ▪ Time-consuming to construct
▪ Prone to guessing
▪ Can be used only when dichotomous
AlternateResponse
▪ More adequate sampling of content

answers represent sufficient response
▪ Easy to construct
options
▪ Can be effectively and objectively
▪ Usually must indirectly measure
scored
performance related to procedural
knowledge
▪ Difficult to produce a sufficient number
▪ Allows comparison of related ideas,
of plausible premises
Type
concepts, or theories
▪ Not effective in testing isolated facts
▪ Effectively assesses association
between a variety of items within a topic ▪ May be limited to lower levels of
Matching
number of rela ted items
understanding
▪ Encourages integration of information
▪ Useful only when there is a sufficient
▪ Can be quickly and objectively scored
▪ Can be easily administered
▪ May be influenced by guessing
2. Supply Test
a. Short Answer – uses a direct question that can be answered by a word, phrase, a number, or
a symbol
b. Completion Test – consists of an incomplete statement
Advantages Limitations
▪ Generally limited to measuring recall of

▪ Easy to construct
information
▪ Require the student to supply the answer ▪ More likely to be scored erroneously due
▪ Many can be included in one test
to a variety of responses
3. Essay Test
a. Restricted Response – limits the content of the response by restricting the scope of the topic
b. Extended Response – allows the students to select any factual information that they think is
pertinent, to organize their answers in accordance with their best judgment
▪ Measure more directly behaviors
specified by performance objectives ▪ Provide a less adequate sampling of
▪ Examine students’ written content
communication skills ▪ Less reliable scoring
▪ Require the student to supply the ▪ Time-consuming to score
response
6
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING TESTS
1. Use your test specifications as guide to item writing.
2. Write more test items than needed.
3. Write the test items well in advance of the testing date.
4. Write each test item so that the task to be performed is clearly defined.
5. Write each test item in appropriate reading level.
6. Write each test item so that it does not provide help in answering other items in the test.
7. Write each test item so that the answer is one that would be agreed upon by experts.
8. Write test items so that it is the proper level of difficulty.
9. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.
SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS
A. SUPPLY TYPE
1. Word the item/s so that the required answer is both brief and specific.
2. Do not take statements directly from textbooks to use as a basis for short answer items.
3. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement.
4. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate type of answer wanted.
5. Blanks should be equal in length.
6. Answers should be written before the item number for easy checking.
7. When completion items are to be used, do not have too many blanks. Blanks should be at the
center of the sentence and not at the beginning.
Essay Type
1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily
measured by objective items.
2. Formulate questions that will cell forth the behavior specified in the learning outcome.
3. Phrase each question so that the pupils’ task is clearly indicated.
4. Indicate an approximate time limit for each question.
5. Avoid the use of optional questions.
B. SELECTIVE TYPE Alternative-Response

1. Avoid broad statements.
2. Avoid trivial statements.
3. Avoid the use of negative statements especially double negatives.
4. Avoid long and complex sentences.
5. Avoid including two ideas in one sentence unless cause and effect relationship is being
measured.
6. If opinion is used, attribute it to some source unless the ability to identify opinion is being
specifically measured.
7. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length.
8. The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal.
9. Start with false statement since it is a common observation that the first statement in this type is
always positive.
Matching Type
1. Use only homogenous materials in a single matching exercise.
2. Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the pupils that response
may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
3. Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right.
4. Arrange the list of responses in logical order.
5. Indicate in the directions the bass for matching the responses and premises.
6. Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page.
7
Multiple Choice
1. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem.
2. The item should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of irrelevant
information.
3. Use a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcome requires it.
4. Highlight negative words in the stem for emphasis.
5. All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item.
6. An item should only have one correct or clearly best answer.
7. Items used to measure understanding should contain novelty, but beware of too much.
8. All distracters should be plausible.
9. Verbal association between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided.
10. The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer.
11. The alternatives should be arranged logically.
12. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately equal
number of times but in random number.
13. Use of special alternatives such as “none of the above” or “all of the above” should be done
sparingly.
14. Do not use multiple choice items when other types are more appropriate.
15. Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page.
16. Break any of these rules when you have a good reason for doing so.
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
PERFORMANCE AND AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENTS
▪ Specific behaviors or behavioural outcomes are to be observed

When To
▪ Possibility of judging the appropriateness of students’ actions
Use
▪ A process or outcome cannot be directly measured by paper-&-pencil tests
▪ Allow evaluation of complex skills which are difficult to assess using

written tests
Advantages ▪ Positive effect on instruction and learning
▪ Can be used to evaluate both the process and the product
▪ Time-consuming to administer, develop, and score
Limitations ▪ Subjectivity in scoring
▪ Inconsistencies in performance on alternative skills
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
Characteristics:
1. Adaptable to individualized instructional goals
2. Focus on assessment of products
3. Identify students’ strengths rather than weaknesses
4. Actively involve students in the evaluation process
5. Communicate student achievement to others
6. Time-consuming
7. Need of a scoring plan to increase reliability
TYPES DESCRIPTION
Showcase ▪ A collection of students’ best work
▪ Used for helping teachers, students, and family members think about various
Reflective
dimensions of student learning (e.g. effort, achievement, etc.)
▪ A collection of items done for an extended period of time

Cumulative ▪ Analyzed to verify changes in the products and process associated with
student learning
Goal-based ▪ A collection of works chosen by students and teachers to match pre-
established objectives
▪ A way of documenting the steps and processes a student has done to
Process
complete a piece of work
8
RUBRICS
→ scoring guides, consisting of specific pre-established performance criteria, used in evaluating
student work on performance assessments
Two Types:
1. Holistic Rubric – requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole,
without judging the component parts separately
2. Analytic Rubric – requires the teacher to score individual components of the product or
performance first, then sums the individual scores to obtain a total score
AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENTS
1. Closed-Item or Forced-choice Instruments – ask for one or specific answer
a. Checklist – measures students’ preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc.
by marking a set of possible responses
b. Scales – these instruments that indicate the extent or degree of one’s response
1) Rating Scale – measures the degree or extent of one’s attitudes, feelings, and perception
about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 3- or 5- point scale
2) Semantic Differential Scale – measures the degree of one’s attitudes, feelings and
perceptions about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 5- or 7- or 11- point scale of
semantic adjectives
3) Likert Scale – measures the degree of one’s agreement or disagreement on positive or
negative statements about objects and people
c. Alternate Response – measures students preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs,

interests, etc. by choosing between two possible responses
d. Ranking – measures students preferences or priorities by ranking a set of responses
2. Open-Ended Instruments – they are open to more than one answer

a. Sentence Completion – measures students preferences over a variety of attitudes and allows
students to answer by completing an unfinished statement which may vary in length
b. Surveys – measures the values held by an individual by writing one or many responses to a
given question
c. Essays – allows the students to reveal and clarify their preferences, hobbies, attitudes,
feelings, beliefs, and interests by writing their reactions or opinions to a given question
SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING NON-TEST OF ATTITUDINAL NATURE

1. Avoid statements that refer to the past rather than to the present.
2. Avoid statements that are factual or capable of being interpreted as factual.
3. Avoid statements that may be interpreted in more than one way.
4. Avoid statements that are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration.
5. Avoid statements that are likely to be endorsed by almost everyone or by almost no one.
6. Select statements that are believed to cover the entire range of affective scale of interests.
7. Keep the language of the statements simple, clear and direct.
8. Statements should be short, rarely exceeding 20 words.
9. Each statement should contain only one complete thought.
10. Statements containing universals such as all, always, none and never often introduce ambiguity
and should be avoided.
11. Words such as only, just, merely, and others of similar nature should be used with care and
moderation in writing statements.
12. Whenever possible, statements should be in the form of simple statements rather than in the
form of compound or complex sentences.
13. Avoid the use of words that may not be understood by those who are to be given the completed
scale.
14. Avoid the use of double negatives.
9
CRITERIA TO CONSIDER IN CONSTRUCTING GOOD TESTS
VALIDITY - the degree to which a test measures what is intended to be measured. It is the usefulness
of the test for a given purpose. It is the most important criteria of a good examination.
FACTORS influencing the validity of tests in general

✓ Appropriateness of test – it should measure the abilities, skills and information it is supposed
to measure
✓ Directions – it should indicate how the learners should answer and record their answers
✓ Reading Vocabulary and Sentence Structure – it should be based on the intellectual level of
maturity and background experience of the learners
✓ Difficulty of Items- it should have items that are not too difficult and not too easy to be able to
discriminate the bright from slow pupils
✓ Construction of Items – it should not provide clues so it will not be a test on clues nor should it
be ambiguous so it will not be a test on interpretation
✓ Length of Test – it should just be of sufficient length so it can measure what it is supposed to
measure and not that it is too short that it cannot adequately measure the performance we want to
measure
✓ Arrangement of Items – it should have items that are arranged in ascending level of difficulty
such that it starts with the easy ones so that pupils will pursue on taking the test
✓ Patterns of Answers – it should not allow the creation of patterns in answering the test
WAYS of Establishing Validity

✓ Face Validity – is done by examining the physical appearance of the test
✓ Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of the
test so that it reflects the curricular objectives
✓ Criterion-related validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by a
test is correlated with scores obtained in another external predictor or measure. Has two purposes:
▪sets of scores obtained
Concurrent Validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the
from two measures given concurrently
▪the sets of scores
Predictive Validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating
obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval
✓ Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors that

influence scores in a test, e.g. verbal, numerical, spatial, etc.
▪ Convergent Validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait other
than what it intended to measure (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative Thinking
Test)
▪ Divergent Validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait
and not other traits (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading Comprehension
Test)
RELIABILITY – it refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested using
the same instrument or one that is parallel to it.
FACTORS affecting Reliability

✓ Length of the test – as a general rule, the longer the test, the higher the reliability. A longer
test provides a more adequate sample of the behavior being measured and is less distorted by chance
of factors like guessing.
✓ Difficulty of the test – ideally, achievement tests should be constructed such that the average
score is 50 percent correct and the scores range from zero to near perfect. The bigger the spread of
scores, the more reliable the measured difference is likely to be. A test is reliable if the coefficient of
correlation is not less than 0.85.
✓ Objectivity – can be obtained by eliminating the bias, opinions or judgments of the person who
checks the test.
10
✓ Administrability – the test should be administered with ease, clarity and uniformity so that
scores obtained are comparable. Uniformity can be obtained by setting the time limit and oral
instructions.
✓ Scorability – the test should be easy to score such that directions for scoring are clear, the
scoring key is simple, provisions for answer sheets are made
✓ Economy – the test should be given in the cheapest way, which means that answer sheets
must be provided so the test can be given from time to time
✓ Adequacy - the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine the educational
outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the
areas measured
Type of Reliability
Method Procedure Statistical Measure
Measure
Give a test twice to the same group

Test-Retest Measure of stability with any time interval between sets Pearson r
from several minutes to several years
Measure of Give parallel forms of test at the
Equivalent Forms Pearson r
equivalence same time between forms
Give parallel forms of test with

Test-Retest with Measure of stability
increased time intervals between Pearson r
Equivalent Forms and equivalence
forms
Give a test once. Score equivalent Pearson r and

Split Half halves of the test (e.g. odd-and even Spearman-Brown
numbered items) Formula
Give the test once, then correlate the

Kuder-Richardson
Kuder-Richardson Measure of Internal proportion/percentage of the students
Formula 20 and 21
Consistency passing and not passing a given item
Give a test once. Then estimate

Cronbach reliability by using the standard Kuder-Richardson
Coefficient Alpha deviation per item and the standard Formula 20
deviation of the test scores
ITEM ANALYSIS
STEPS:
1. Score the test. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest.
2. Get the top 27% (upper group) and below 27% (lower group) of the examinees.
3. Count the number of examinees in the upper group (PT) and lower group (PB) who got each
item correct.
4. Compute for the Difficulty Index of each item.
(PT + PB)
Df = N = the total number of examinees

N
5. Compute for the Discrimination Index.

(PT - PB)
Ds = n = the number of examinees in each group

n
INTERPRETATION
Difficulty Index (Df) Discrimination Index (Ds)

0.76 – 1.00 → very easy 0.40 – above → very good
0.25 – 0.75 → average 0.30 – 0.39 → reasonably good
0.00 – 0.24 → very difficult 0.20 – 0.29 → marginal item
0.19 – below → poor item
11
SCORING ERRORS AND BIASES
▪ Leniency error: Faculty tends to judge better than it really is.

▪ Generosity error: Faculty tends to use high end of scale only.
▪ Severity error: Faculty tends to use low end of scale only.
▪ Central tendency error: Faculty avoids both extremes of the scale.
▪ Bias: Letting other factors influence score (e.g., handwriting, typos)
▪ Halo effect: Letting general impression of student influence rating of specific criteria (e.g., student’s
prior work)
▪ Contamination effect: Judgment is influenced by irrelevant knowledge about the student or other
factors that have no bearing on performance level (e.g., student appearance)
▪ Similar-to-me effect: Judging more favorably those students whom faculty see as similar to themselves
(e.g., expressing similar interests or point of view)
▪ First-impression effect: Judgment is based on early opinions rather than on a complete picture (e.g.,
opening paragraph)
▪ Contrast effect: Judging by comparing student against other students instead of established criteria
and standards
▪ Rater drift: Unintentionally redefining criteria and standards over time or across a series of
scorings (e.g., getting tired and cranky and therefore more severe, getting tired and reading more
quickly/leniently to get the job done)
FOUR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Measurement Characteristics Examples
Nominal Groups and labal data Gender (1-male; 2-female)
Rank data
Ordinal Income (1-low, 2-average, 3-high)
Distance between points are indefinite
Distance between points are equal Test scores

Interval
No absolute zero Temperature
Height
Ratio Absolute zero
Weight
SHAPES OF FREQUENCY POLYGONS
1. Normal / Bell-Shaped / Symmetrical

2. Positively Skewed – most scores are below the mean and there are extremely high scores
3. Negatively Skewed – most scores are above the mean and there are extremely low scores
4. Leptokurtic – highly peaked and the tails are more elevated above the baseline
5. Mesokurtic – moderately peaked
6. Platykurtic – flattened peak
7. Bimodal Curve – curve with 2 peaks or modes
8. Polymodal Curve – curve with 3 or more modes
9. Rectangular Distribution – there is no mode
12
DESCRIBING AND INTERPRETING TEST SCORES
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY
ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USED APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS
MEASURES OF CENTRAL
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
TENDENCY
(describes the degree of spread or
(describes the representative
dispersion of a set of data)
value of a set of data)
▪ When the frequency

distribution is regular or Mean – the arithmetic average Standard Deviation – the root-
symmetrical (normal) mean-square of the deviations
▪ Usually used when data are from the mean
numeric (interval or ratio)
▪ When the frequency

distribution is irregular or Median – the middle score in a Quartile Deviation – the average
skewed group of scores that are ranked deviation of the 1st and 3rd quartiles
▪ Usually used when the data is from the median
ordinal
▪ When the distribution of scores

is normal and quick answer is Mode – the most frequent score Range – the difference between
needed the highest and the lowest score in
▪ Usually used when the data the distribution
are nominal
How to Interpret the Measures of Central Tendency

▪ The value that represents a set of data will be the basis in determining whether the group is
performing better or poorer than the other groups.
How to Interpret the Standard Deviation

▪ The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not.
= give the limits of an average ability ▪ The result will also help you
determine the number of students that
fall below and above the average performance.
Main points to remember:
Points above Mean + 1SD = range of above average

Mean + 1SD
Mean - 1SD
Points below Mean – 1SD = range of below average
How to Interpret the Quartile Deviation

▪ The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not.
▪ The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the
average performance.

Points above Median + 1QD = range of above average
Median + 1QD
= give the limits of an average ability
Median – 1QD
Points below Median – 1QD = range of below average
13
MEASURES OF CORRELATION
Pearson r
XY X Y Where:
X – scores in a test
Y – scores in a retest
N N N
N – number of examinees
r
X2 X 2 Y2 Y
N
N N
Spearman Brown Formula

2roe Where:
reliability of the whole test = 1 roe – reliability coefficient
roe using split-half or odd-
even procedure
Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
Where:
K K – number of items of a test
KR p – proportion of the examinees
20 1
who got the item right
K 1 S
q – proportion of the examinees
who got the item wrong
2
S – variance or standard
deviation squared
Where:
p K
X
K
q=1-p
KR21 1
K 1 S
INTERPRETATION OF THE Pearson

r Correlation value
1 ----------- Perfect Positive Correlation

for Validity:
high positive correlation computed r should be at least
0.75 to be significant
0.5 ----------- Positive Correlation
low positive correlation for Reliability:
computed r should be at least
0 ----------- Zero Correlation
0.85 to be significant
low negative correlation
-0.5 ----------- Negative Correlation
high negative correlation
-1 ----------- Perfect Negative Correlation
14
STANDARD SCORES
▪ Indicate the pupil’s relative position by showing how far his raw score is above or below average
▪ Express the pupil’s performance in terms of standard unit from the mean
▪ Represented by the normal probability curve or what is commonly called the normal curve
▪ Used to have a common unit to compare raw scores from different tests
PERCENTILE
▪ tells the percentage of examines that lies below one’s score
Example:
P85 = 70 (This means the person who scored 70 performed better than 85% of the
examinees)
85%N CF
Formula: P85 LL i
F
P85
Z-SCORES
▪ tells the number of standard deviations equivalent to a given raw score
X X Where:
Formula: Z
X – individual’s raw score
SD
X – mean of the normative group
SD – standard deviation of the
normative group
Example:
Mean of a group in a test: X = 26

SD=2
Joseph’s Score: X=27

John’s Score: X=25
X X 27 26 1
Z
X X 25 26 1
SD 2 2
Z=0.5 Z SD 2 2
Z = -0.5
T-SCORES
15
▪ it refers to any set of normally distributed standard deviation score that has a mean of 50
and a standard deviation of 10
▪ computed after converting raw scores to z-scores to get rid of negative values
Formula: T score 50 10(Z)
Example:
Joseph’s T-score = 50 + 10(0.5) John’s T-score = 50 + 10(-0.5)
=50+5 = 50 – 5
= 55 = 45
ASSIGNING GRADES / MARKS / RATINGS

Marking or Grading is a way to report information about a student’s performance in a subject.
GRADING/REPORTING
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
SYSTEM
▪ can be recorded and processed ▪ might not actually indicate

quickly
Percentage mastery of the subject
▪ provides a quick overview of
(e.g. 70%, 86%) equivalent to the grade
student performance relative to ▪ too much precision
other students
▪ a convenient summary of ▪ provides only a general

Letter student performance indication of performance
(e.g. A, B, C, D, F) ▪ uses an optimal number of ▪ does not provide enough
categories information for promotion
▪ encourages students to ▪
reduces the utility of grades
Pass – Fail broaden their program of
▪ has low reliability
studies
▪
time-consuming to prepare and
▪ more adequate in reporting
Checklist process
student achievement ▪
can be misleading at times
▪ can include whatever is relevant ▪ might show inconsistency

between reports
Written Descriptions about the student’s ▪
performance
read
Parent-Teacher ▪ direct communication between ▪ unstructured

Conferences parent and teacher ▪ time-consuming
GRADES:
a. Could represent:
▪ how a student is performing in relation to other students (norm-referenced grading)
▪ the extent to which a student has mastered a particular body of knowledge (criterion-
referenced grading)
▪ how a student is performing in relation to a teacher’s judgment of his or her potential
b. Could be for:
▪ Certification that gives assurance that a student has mastered a specific content or
achieved a certain level of accomplishment
▪ Selection that provides basis in identifying or grouping students for certain educational
paths or programs
▪ Direction that provides information for diagnosis and planning
▪ Motivation that emphasizes specific material or skills to be learned and helping students to
understand and improve their performance
16
c. Could be based on:
▪ examination results or test data ▪ reports, themes and research
▪ observations of student works papers
▪ group evaluation activities ▪ discussions and debates
▪ class discussions and recitations ▪ portfolios
▪ homeworks ▪ projects
▪ notebooks and note taking ▪ attitudes, etc.
d. Could be assigned by using:

▪ Criterion-Referenced Grading – or grading based on fixed or absolute standards where
grade is assigned based on how a student has met the criteria or a well-defined objectives of a
course that were spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade he or she wants
to receive regardless of how other students in the class have performed. This is done by transmuting
test scores into marks or ratings.
▪ Norm-Referenced Grading – or grading based on relative standards where a student’s

grade reflects his or her level of achievement relative to the performance of other students in the
class. In this system, the grade is assigned based on the average of test scores.
▪ Point or Percentage Grading System whereby the teacher identifies points or

percentages for various tests and class activities depending on their importance. The total of these
points will be the bases for the grade assigned to the student.
▪ Contract Grading System where each student agrees to work for a particular grade
according to agreed-upon standards.
GUIDELINES IN GRADING STUDENTS
1. Explain your grading system to the students early in the course and remind them of the grading
policies regularly.
2. Base grades on a predetermined and reasonable set of standards.
3. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible.
4. Base grades on the student’s attitude as well as achievement, especially at the elementary and
high school level.
5. Base grades on the student’s relative standing compared to classmates.
6. Base grades on a variety of sources.
7. As a rule, do not change grades, once computed.
8. Become familiar with the grading policy of your school and with your colleague’s standards.
9. When failing a student, closely follow school procedures.
10. Record grades on report cards and cumulative records.
11. Guard against bias in grading.
12. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class.
17
PART II: Test Practice
Directions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Then, choose the best answer to each question.
1. How does measurement differ from evaluation?

A. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving
meaning to the numerical value of the trait.
B. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of
organizing data.
C. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of
testing.
D. Measurement is gathering data while assessment is quantifying the data gathered.
2. Miss del Sol rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory equipment
and measurement tools and if they are able to follow the specified procedures. What
mode of assessment should Miss del Sol use?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Traditional Assessment
B. Journal Assessment D. Performance-Based Assessment
3. Who among the teachers below performed a formative evaluation?

A. Ms. Olivares who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who among
her students understood what she was trying to stress.
B. Mr. Borromeo who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine the
outcome of instruction.
C. Ms. Berces who gave a ten-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students
failed to understand.
D. Mrs. Corpuz who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils.
4. St. Andrews School gave a standardized achievement test instead of giving a teacher-made test to
the graduating elementary pupils. Which could have been the reason why this was the kind of test
given?
A. Standardized test has items of average level of difficulty while teacher-made test has
varying levels of difficulty.
B. Standardized test uses multiple-choice format while teacher-made test uses the essay test
format.
C. Standardized test is used for mastery while teacher-made test is used for survey.
D. Standardized test is valid while teacher-made tests is just reliable.
5. Which test format is best to use if the purpose of the test is to relate inventors and their inventions?
A. Short-Answer C. Matching Type B. True-False D. Multiple Choice
6. In the parlance of index of test construction, what does TOS mean?

A. Table of Specifics C. Table of Scopes
B. Terms of Specifications D. Table of Specifications
7. Here is the item:

“From the data presented in the table, form generalizations that are supported by the data.”
Under what type of question does this item fall?

A. Convergent B. Evaluative C. Application D. Divergent
18
8. The following are synonymous to performance objectives EXCEPT:
A. Learner’s objective C. Teacher’s objective
B. Instructional objective D. Behavioral objective
9. Which is (are) (a) norm-referenced statement?

A. Danny performed better in spelling than 60% of his classmates.
B. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly.
C. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly and spelled 35 words out of 50
correctly.
D. Danny spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly.
10. Which guideline in test construction is NOT observed in this test item?
EDGAR ALLAN POE WROTE ________________________.
A. The length of the blank suggests the answer.

B. The central problem is not packed in the stem.
C. It is open to more than one correct answer.
D. The blank is at the end of the question.
11. Which does NOT belong to the group?

A. Completion C. Multiple Choice
B. Matching D. Alternate Response
12. A test is considered reliable if

A. it is easy to score
B. it served the purpose for which it is constructed
C. it is consistent and stable
D. it is easy to administer
13. Which is claimed to be the overall advantage of criterion-referenced over norm-referenced

interpretation?
A. An individual’s score is compared with the set mastery level.
B. An individual’s score is compared with that of his peers.
C. An individual’s score is compared with the average scores.
D. An individual’s score does not need to be compared with any measure.
14. Teacher Liza does norm-referenced interpretation of scores. Which of the following does she do?
A. She uses a specified content as its frame of reference.
B. She describes group of performance in relation to a level of master set.
C. She compares every individual student score with others’ scores.
D. She describes what should be their performance.
15. All examinees obtained scores below the mean. A graphic representation of the score distribution
will be ________________.
A. negatively skewed C. leptokurtic
B. perfect normal curve D. positively skewed
16. In a normal distribution curve, a T-score of 70 is

A. two SDs below the mean. C. one SD below the mean
B. two SDs above the mean D. one SD above the mean
17. Which type of test measures higher order thinking skills?

A. Enumeration C. Completion
B. Matching D. Analogy
19
Who is the best admired for outstanding contribution to world peace?
A. Kissinger C. Kennedy
B. Clinton D. Mother Teresa
18.
What is WRONG with this item?
A. Item is overly specific. C. Test item is opinion- based
B. Content is trivial. D. There is a cue to the right answer.
19. The strongest disadvantage of the alternate-response type of test is

A. the demand for critical thinking C. the encouragement of rote memory
B. the absence of analysis D. the high possibility of guessing
20. A class is composed of academically poor students. The distribution will most likely to be
A. leptokurtic. C. skewed to the left
B. skewed to the right D. symmetrical
21. Of the following types of tests, which is the most subjective in scoring?
A. Enumeration C. Essay
B. Matching Type D. Multiple Choice
22. Tom’s raw score in the Filipino class is 23 which is equal to the 70th percentile. What does this
imply?
A. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score lower than 23.
B. Tom’s score is higher than 23% of his classmates.
C. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score above 23.
D. Tom’s score is higher than 23 of his classmates.
23. Test norms are established in order to have a basis for

A. establishing learning objectives C. planning effective instructional devices
B. identifying pupil’s difficulties D. comparing test scores
24. The score distribution follows a normal curve. What does this mean?
A. Most of the scores are on the -2SD
B. Most of the scores are on the +2SD
C. The scores coincide with the mean
D. Most of the scores pile up between -1SD and +1SD
25. In her conduct of item analysis, Teacher Cristy found out that a significantly greater number from
the upper group of the class got test item #5 correctly. This means that the test item
A. has a negative discriminating power C. is easy
B. is valid D. has a positive discriminating power
26. Mr. Reyes tasked his students to play volleyball. What learning target is he assessing?
A. Knowledge C. Products
B. Skill D. Reasoning
27. Martina obtained an NSAT percentile rank of 80. This indicates that
A. She surpassed in performance 80% of her fellow examinees
B. She got a score of 80
C. She surpassed in performance 20% of her fellow examinees
D. She answered 80 items correctly
28. Which term refers to the collection of student’s products and accomplishments for a period for
evaluation purposes?
A. Anecdotal Records C. Observation Report
B. Portfolio D. Diary
20
29. Which form of assessment is consistent with the saying “The proof of the pudding is in the eating”?
A. Contrived B. Authentic C. Traditional D. Indirect
30. Which error do teachers commit when they tend to overrate the achievement of students identified
by aptitude tests as gifted because they expect achievement and giftedness to go together?
A. Generosity error C. Severity Error
B. Central Tendency Error D. Logical Error
31. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based?

A. Portfolio assessment is dynamic assessment.
B. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge.
C. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score.
D. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score.
32. Which is a valid assessment tool if I want to find out how well my students can speak
extemporaneously?
A. Writing speeches
B. Written quiz on how to deliver extemporaneous speech
C. Performance test in extemporaneous speaking
D. Display of speeches delivered
33. Teacher J discovered that her pupils are weak in comprehension. To further determine which
particular skill(s) her pupils are weak in, which test should Teacher J give?
A. Standardized Test C. Diagnostic
B. Placement D. Aptitude Test
34. “Group the following items according to phylum” is a thought test item on _______________.
A. inferring C. generalizing
B. classifying D. comparing
35. In a multiple choice test, keeping the options brief indicates________.

A. Inclusion in the item irrelevant clues such as the use in the correct answer
B. Non-inclusion of option that mean the same
C. Plausibility & attractiveness of the item
D. Inclusion in the item any word that must otherwise repeated in each response
36. Which will be the most authentic assessment tool for an instructional objective on working with and
relating to people?
A. Writing articles on working and relating to people
B. Organizing a community project
C. Home visitation
D. Conducting a mock election
37. While she is in the process of teaching, Teacher J finds out if her students understand what she is
teaching. What is Teacher J engaged in?
A. Criterion-referenced evaluation C. Formative Evaluation
B. Summative Evaluation D. Norm-referenced Evaluation
38. With types of test in mind, which does NOT belong to the group?
A. Restricted response essay C. Multiple choice
B. Completion D. Short Answer
39. Which tests determine whether the students accept responsibility for their own behavior or pass on
responsibility for their own behavior to other people?
A. Thematic tests C. Stylistic tests
B. Sentence completion tests D. Locus-of-control tests
21
40. When writing performance objectives, which word is NOT acceptable?
A. Manipulate C. Comprehend
B. Delineate D. Integrate
41. Here is a test item: _____________ is an example of a mammal.
What is defective with this test item?

A. It is very elementary.
B. The blank is at the beginning of the sentence.
C. It is a very short question.
D. It is an insignificant test item.
42. “By observing unity, coherence, emphasis and variety, write a short paragraph on taking
examinations.” This is an item that tests the students’ skill to _________.
A. evaluate C. synthesize
B. comprehend D. recall
43. Teacher A constructed a matching type of test. In her columns of items are a combination of
events, people, circumstances. Which of the following guidelines in constructing matching type of test
did he violate?
A. List options in an alphabetical order C. Make list of items heterogeneous
B. Make list of items homogeneous D. Provide three or more options
44. Read and analyze the matching type of test given below:
Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Write only the letter of your answer on the blank of the left column.
Column A Column B
th
___ 1. Jose Rizal A. Considered the 8 wonder of the world
___ 2. Ferdinand Marcos B. The national hero of the Philippines
___ 3. Corazon Aquino C. National Heroes’ Day
___ 4. Manila D. The first woman President of the Philippines
___ 5. November 30 E. The capital of the Philippines
___ 6. Banaue Rice Terraces F. The President of the Philippines who served several terms
Question: What does the test lack?

A. Premise C. Distracter
B. Option D. Response
45. A number of test items in a test are said to be non-discriminating. What conclusion/s can be drawn?
I. Teaching or learning was very good.
II. The item is so easy that anyone could get it right.
III. The item is so difficult that nobody could get it.
A. I only B. I and III C. II only D. II and III
46. Measuring the work done by a gravitational force is a learning task. At what level of cognition is it?
A. Comprehension C. Evaluation
B. Application D. Analysis
47. Which improvement/s should be done in this completion test item: An example of a mammal is
________.
A. The blank should be longer to accommodate all possible answers.
B. The blank should be at the beginning of the sentence.
C. The question should have only one acceptable answer.
D. The item should give more clues.
22
48. Here is Teacher D’s lesson objective: “To trace the causes of Alzheimer’s disease.” Which is a
valid test for this particular objective?
A. Can an Alzheimer’s disease be traced to old age? Explain.
B. To what factors can Alzheimer’s disease be traced? Explain.
C. What is an Alzheimer’s disease?
D. Do young people also get attacked by Alzheimer’s disease? Support your answer?
49. What characteristic of a good test will pupils be assured of when a teacher constructs a table of
specifications for test construction purposes?
A. Reliability C. Construct Validity
B. Content Validity D. Scorability
50. Study this test item.A test is valid when _____________________.

a. it measures what is purports to measure
b. covers a broad scope of subject matter
c. reliability of scores
d. easy to administer
How can you improve this test item?

A. Make the length of the options uniform.
B. Pack the question in the stem.
C. Make the options parallel.
D. Construct the options in such a way that the grammar of the sentence remains correct.
51. In taking a test, one examinee approached the proctor for clarification on what to do. This implies a
problem on which characteristic of a good test?
A. Objectivity C. Scorability
B. Administrability D. Economy
52. Teacher Jane wants to determine if her students’ scores in the second grading is reliable. However, she
has only one set of test and her students are already on their semestral break. What test of
reliability can she use?
A. Test-retest C. Equivalent Forms
B. Split-half D. Test-retest with equivalent forms
53. Mrs. Cruz has only one form of test and she administered her test only once. What test of
reliability can she do?
A. Test of stability C. Test of correlation
B. Test of equivalence D. Test of internal consistency
Use the following table to answer items 54 – 55.

Class Limits Frequency
50–54 9
45–49 12
40–44 16
35–39 8
30-34 5
54. What is the lower limit of the class with the highest frequency?
A. 39.5 B. 40 C. 44 D. 44.5
55. What is the crude mode?

A. 40 B. 42 C. 42.5 D. 44
56. About what percent of the cases falls between +1 and -1 SD in a normal curve?
A. 43.1% B. 95.4% C. 99.8% D. 68.3%
23
57. Study this group of test which was administered to a class to whom Peter belongs, then answer the
question:
SUBJECT MEAN SD PETER’S SCORE
Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109
In which subject(s) did Peter perform most poorly in relation to the group’s mean performance?
A. English C. English and Physics
B. Physics D. Math
58. Based on the data given in #57, in which subject(s) were the scores most widespread?
A. Math C. Cannot be determined
B. Physics D. English
59. A mathematics test was given to all Grade V pupils to determine the contestants for the Math Quiz
Bee. Which statistical measure should be used to identify the top 15?
A. Mean Percentage Score C. Percentile Rank
B. Quartile Deviation D. Percentage Score
60. A test item has a difficulty index of .89 and a discrimination index of -.44. What should the teacher
do?
A. Make it a bonus item. C. Retain the item.
B. Reject the item. D. Make it a bonus and reject it.
61. What is/are important to state when explaining percentile-ranked tests to parents?
I. What group took the test
II. That the scores show how students performed in relation to other students.
III. That the scores show how students performed in relation to an absolute measure.
A. II only B. I & III C. I & II D. III only
62. Which of the following reasons for measuring student achievement is NOT valid?
A. To prepare feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process
B. To certify the students have attained a level of competence in a subject area
C. To discourage students from cheating during test and getting high scores
D. To motivate students to learn and master the materials they think will be covered by the
achievement test.
63. The computed r for English and Math score is -.75. What does this mean?
A. The higher the scores in English, the higher the scores in Math.
B. The scores in Math and English do not have any relationship.
C. The higher the scores in Math, the lower the scores in English.
D. The lower the scores in English, the lower the scores in Math.
64. Which statement holds TRUE to grades?

Grades are _________________.
A. exact measurements of intelligence and achievement
B. necessarily a measure of student’s intelligence
C. intrinsic motivators for learning
D. are a measure of achievement
65. What is the advantage of using computers in processing test results?

A. Test results can easily be assessed.
B. Its statistical computation is accurate
C. Its processing takes a shorter period of time
D. All of the above
24
PART III: Improving Test-Taking Skills
1. Which of the following steps should be completed first in planning an achievement test?
A. Set-up a table of specifications. C. Determine the length of the test.
B. Go back to the instructional objectives. D. Select the type of test items to use.
__________________ is an example of a leafy vegetable.
2.
Why is this test item poor?

I. The test item does not pose a problem to the examinee.
II. There is a variety of possible correct answers to this item.
III. The language used in the question is not precise.
IV. The blank is near the beginning of a sentence.
A. I and III B. II and IV C. I and IV D. I and II
3. On the first day of class after introductions, the teacher administered a Misconception/Preconception
Check. She explained that she wanted to know what the class as a whole already knew about the
Philippines before the Spaniards came. The Misconception/Preconception Check is a form of a
A. diagnostic test C. criterion-referenced test B. placement test D. achievement

test
4. A test item has a difficulty index of .81 and discrimination index of .13. What should the test
constructor do?
A. Retain the item. C. Revise the item.
B. Make it a bonus item. D. Reject the item.
5. If a teacher wants to measure her students’ ability to discriminate, which of these is an appropriate
type of test item as implied by the direction?
A. “Outline the chapter on The Cell”.
B. “Summarize the lesson yesterday”.
C. “Group the following items according to shape.”
D. “State a set of principles that can explain the following events.”
6. A positive discrimination index means that

A. the test item could not discriminate between the lower and upper groups
B. more from the upper group got the item correctly
C. more from the lower group got the item correctly
D. the test item has low reliability
7. Teacher Ria discovered that her pupils are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have helped
her discover her pupil’s strength?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Journal Entry
B. Performance Assessment D. Pen-and-paper Test
8. Which among the following objectives in the psychomotor domain is highest in level?
A. To contract a muscle C. To distinguish distant and close sounds
B. To run a 100-meter dash D. To dance the basic steps of the waltz
9. If your LET items sample adequately the competencies listed in education courses syllabi, it can be
said that LET possesses _________ validity.
A. Concurrent B. Construct C. Content D. Predictive
25
10. In the context on the theory on multiple intelligences, what is one weakness of the pen-and-paper
test?
A. It is not easy to administer.
B. It puts the non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage.
C. It utilizes so much time.
D. It lacks reliability.
11. Which test has broad sampling of topics as strength?

A. Objective Test C. Essay
B. Short Answer Test D. Problem Type
12. Quiz is to formative as periodic is to ____________.

A. criterion-referenced C. norm-referenced
B. summative test D. diagnostic test
13. What does a negatively skewed score distribution imply?

A. The score congregate on the left side of the normal distribution curve.
B. The scores are widespread.
C. The students must be academically poor.
D. The scores congregate on the right side of the normal distribution.
14. The criterion of success in Teacher Lyn’s objective is that “the pupils must be able to spell 90% of
the words correctly”. Ana and 19 others correctly spelled 40 words only out of 50. This means that
Teacher Lyn:
A. attained her objective because of her effective spelling drill
B. attained her lesson objective
C. failed to attain her lesson objective as far as the twenty pupils are concerned
D. did not attain her lesson objective because of the pupil’s lack of attention
15. In group norming, percentile rank of the examinee is:

A. dependent on his batch of examinees. C. unaffected by skewed distribution.
B. independent on his batch of examinees. D. affected by skewed distribution.
16. When a significantly greater number from the lower group gets a test item correctly, this
implies that the test item
A. is very valid C. is not highly reliable
B. is not very valid D. is highly reliable
17. Which applies when there are extreme scores?

A. The median will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency.
B. The mode will be the most reliable measure of central tendency.
C. There is no reliable measure for central tendency.
D. The mean will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency.
18. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE?

A. They emphasize merely process.
B. They stress on doing, not only knowing.
C. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments.
D. They accentuate on process as well as product.
19. If the scores of your test follow a negatively skewed distribution, what should you do?
Find out_________________.
A. Why your items were easy C. Why most of the scores are low
B. Why most of the scores are high D. Why some pupils scored high
20. Median is to point as standard deviation is to __________.

A. Area B. Volume C. Distance D. Square
26
21. Referring to assessment of learning, which statement on the normal curve is FALSE?
A. The normal curve may not necessarily apply to homogeneous class.
B. When all pupils achieve as expected their learning, curve may deviate from the normal
curve.
C. The normal curve is sacred. Teachers must adhere to it no matter what.
D. The normal curve may not be achieved when every pupil acquires targeted competencies.
22. Aura Vivian is one-half standard deviation above the mean of his group in arithmetic and one
standard deviation above in spelling. What does this imply?
A. She excels both is arithmetic and spelling.
B. She is better in arithmetic than in spelling.
C. She does not excel in spelling nor in arithmetic.
D. She is better in spelling than in arithmetic.
23. You give a 100-point test, three students make scores of 95, 91 and 91, respectively, while the other 22
students in the class make scores ranging from 33 to 67. The measure of central tendency
which is apt to best describe for this group of 25 is
A. the mean C. an average of the median & mode
B. the mode D. the median
24. NSAT and NEAT results are interpreted against a set of mastery level. This means that NSAT
and NEAT fall under
A. criterion-referenced test C. aptitude test
B. achievement test D. norm-referenced test
25. Which of the following is the MOST important purpose for using achievement test? To measure
the_______.
A. Quality & quantity of previous learning C. Educational & vocational aptitude
B. Quality & quantity of previous teaching D. Capacity for future learning
26. What should be AVOIDED in arranging the items of the final form of the test?
A. Space the items so they can be read easily
B. Follow a definite response pattern for the correct answers to insure ease of scoring
C. Arrange the sections such that they progress from the very simple to very complex
D. Keep all the items and options together on the same page.
27. What is an advantage of point system of grading?

A. It does away with establishing clear distinctions among students.
B. It is precise.
C. It is qualitative.
D. It emphasizes learning not objectivity of scoring.
28. Which statement on test result interpretation is CORRECT?

A. A raw score by itself is meaningful.
B. A student’s score is a final indication of his ability.
C. The use of statistical technique gives meaning to pupil’s scores.
D. Test scores do not in any way reflect teacher’s effectiveness.
29. Below is a list of method used to establish the reliability of the instrument. Which method is
questioned for its reliability due to practice and familiarity?
A. Split-half C. Test-retest
B. Equivalent Forms D. Kuder Richardson Formula 20
30. Q3 is to 75th percentile as median is to _______________.

th
A. 40 percentile C. 50th percentile
B. 25th percentile D. 49th percentile
27
31. What type of test is this:
Knee is to leg as elbow is to _____________.
A. Hand B. Fingers C. Arm D. Wrist
A. Analogy C. Short Answer Type

B. Rearrangement Type D. Problem Type
32. Which statement about standard deviation is CORRECT?

A. The lower the SD the more spread the scores are.
B. The higher the SD the less spread the scores are.
C. The higher the SD the more spread the scores are.
D. It is a measure of central tendency.
33. Which test items do NOT affect variability of test scores?

A. Test items that are a bit easy.
B. Test items that are moderate in difficult.
C. Test items that are a bit difficult.
D. Test items that every examinee gets correctly.
34. Teacher B wants to diagnose in which vowel sound(s) her students have difficulty. Which tool is
most appropriate?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Performance Test
B. Journal Entry D. Paper-and-pencil Test
35. The index of difficulty of a particular test is .10. What does this mean? My students ____________.
A. gained mastery over the item.
B. performed very well against expectation.
C. found that the test item was either easy nor difficult.
D. find the test item difficult.
36. Study this group of test which was administered with the following results, then answer the question
that follows.
Subject Mean SD Ronnel’s Score
Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109
In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform best in relation to the group’s performance?
A. Physics and Math C. Math
B. English D. Physics
37. Which applies when the distribution is concentrated on the left side of the curve?
A. Bell curve C. Leptokurtic
B. Positively skewed D. Negatively Skewed
38. Standard deviation is to variability as _________ is to central tendency.

A. quartile B. mode C. range D. Pearson r
39. Danny takes an IQ test thrice and each time earns a similar score. The test is said to possess
____________.
A. objectivity B. reliability C. validity D. scorability
40. The test item has a discrimination index of -.38 and a difficulty index of 1.0. What does this imply to
test construction? Teacher must__________.
A. recast the item C. reject the item
B. shelve the item for future use D. retain the item
28
41. Here is a sample TRUE-FALSE test item: All women have a longer life-span than men. What is
wrong with the test item?
A. The test item is quoted verbatim from a textbook.
B. The test item contains trivial detail.
C. A specific determiner was used in the statement.
D. The test item is vague.
42. In which competency do my students find greatest difficulty? In the item with the difficulty index of
A. 1.0 B. 0.50 C. 0.90 D. 0.10
43. “Describe the reasoning errors in the following paragraph” is a sample though question on
_____________.
A. synthesizing B. spplying C. analyzing D. summarizing
44. In a one hundred-item test, what does Ryan’s raw score of 70 mean?
A. He surpassed 70 of his classmate in terms of score.
B. He surpassed 30 of his classmates in terms of score.
C. He got a score above the mean.
D. He got 70 items correct.
45. Study the table on item analysis for non-attractiveness and non-plausibility of distracters based on
the results of a multiple choice tryout test in math. The letter marked with an asterisk in the correct
answer.
A* B C D
Upper 27% 10 4 1 1
Lowe 27% 6 6 2 0
Based on the table which is the most effective distracter?

A. Option A B. Option C C. Option B D. Option D
46. Here is a score distribution:

98, 93, 93, 93, 90, 88, 87, 85, 85, 85, 70, 51, 34, 34, 34, 20, 18, 15, 12, 9, 8, 6, 3, 1.
Which is a characteristic of the score distribution?

A. Bi-modal C. Skewed to the right
B. Tri-modal D. No discernible pattern
47. Which measure(s) of central tendency is (are) most appropriate when the score distribution is badly
skewed?
A. Mode C. Median
B. Mean and mode D. Mean
48. Is it wise to practice to orient our students and parents on our grading system?
A. No, this will court a lot of complaints later.
B. Yes, but orientation must be only for our immediate customers, the students.
C. Yes, so that from the very start, students and their parents know how grades are derived.
D. No, grades and how they are derived are highly confidential.
49. With the current emphasis on self-assessment and performance assessment, which is
indispensable?
A. Numerical grading C. Transmutation Table
B. Paper-and-Pencil Test D. Scoring Rubric
50. “In the light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen when …?” is a sample thought
question on ____________.
A. inferring B. generalizing C. synthesizing D. justifying
29
51. With grading practice in mind, what is meant by teacher’s severity error?
A teacher ___________.
A. tends to look down on student’s answers
B. uses tests and quizzes as punitive measures
C. tends to give extremely low grades
D. gives unannounced quizzes
52. Ms. Ramos gave a test to find out how the students feel toward their subject Science. Her first item
was stated as “Science is an interesting _ _ _ _ _ boring subject”. What kind of instrument was given?
A. Rubric C. Rating Scale
B. Likert-Scale D. Semantic Differential Scale
53. Which holds true to standardized tests?

A. They are used for comparative purposes.
B. They are administered differently.
C. They are scored according to different standards.
D. They are used for assigning grades.
54. What is simple frequency distribution? A graphic representation of

A. means C. raw scores
B. standard deviation D. lowest and highest scores
55. When points in scattergram are spread evenly in all directions this means that:
A. The correlation between two variables is positive.
B. The correlation between two variables is low.
C. The correlation between two variables is high.
D. There is no correlation between two variables.
56. Which applies when skewness is 0?

A. Mean is greater than the median. C. Scores have 3 modes.
B. Median is greater than the mean. D. Scores are normally distributed.
57. Which process enhances the comparability of grades?

A. Determining the level of difficulty of the test
B. Constructing departmentalized examinations for each subject area
C. Using table of specifications
D. Giving more high-level questions
58. In a grade distribution, what does the normal curve mean?

A. All students having average grades.
B. A large number of students with high grades and very few low grades.
C. A large number of more or less average students and very few students receiving low and
high grades
D. A large number of students receiving low grades and very few students with high grades
59. For professional growth, which is a source of teacher performance?

A. Self-evaluation C. Student’s evaluation
B. Supervisory evaluation D. Peer evaluation
60. The following are trends in marking and reporting system, EXCEPT:
A. indicating strong points as well as those needing improvement
B. conducting parent-teacher conferences as often as needed
C. raising the passing grade from 75 to 80
D. supplementing subject grade with checklist on traits
30
Refresher Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

AREA: ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING
LET Competencies:
1. Diagnose learning and strengths and difficulties
2. Construct appropriate test items for given objectives
3. Use/Interpret measures of central tendency, variability and standard scores
4. Assign marks and grades
5. Apply basic concepts and principles of evaluation in classroom instruction, testing and
measurement
PREPARED BY: JAYMC Reviewer

BASIC CONCEPTS
Test
 An instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge.
 Comprised of test items of the area it is designed to measure.
Measurement
 A process of quantifying the degree to which someone/something possesses a given trait (i.e.
quality, characteristics or features)
 A process by which traits, characteristics and behaviour’s are differentiated.
Assessment
 A process of gathering and organizing data into an interpretable form to have basis for decision-
making
 It is a prerequisite to evaluation. It provides the information which enables evaluation to take
place.
Evaluation
 A process of systematic analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data in order to make
sound judgment or decision.
 It involves judgment about the desirability of changes in students.
MODES OF ASSESSMENT
MODE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Scoring is
objective
The objective paper-  Standardized  Administration is  Preparation of
and-pen test which Tests instrument is time-
Traditional easy because
usually assesses low-  Teacher-made consuming
students can
level thinking skills Tests  Prone to cheating
take the test at
the same time
 Preparation of
A mode of assessment the instrument is  Scoring tends to be
 Practical Test
that requires actual relatively easy subjective without
Performance demonstration of skills  Oral and Aural  Measures rubrics
Tests
or creation of products  Projects behaviours that  Administration is
of learning cannot be time consuming
deceived
A process of gathering  Development is
 Working  Measures
multiple indicators of Portfolios student’s growth time consuming
Portfolio student progress to  Rating tends to be
 Show Portfolios and
support course goals in subjective without
 Documentary development
dynamic, ongoing and rubrics
Portfolios  Intelligence-fair
collaborative process
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FOUR TYPES OF EVALUATION PROCEDURES
PLACEMENT SUMMATIVE FORMATIVE DIAGNOSTIC

EVALUATION EVALUATION EVALUATION EVALUATION
 
done before  done after  reinforces successful determine recurring or
instruction instruction learning persistent difficulties
 certifies mastery of
 provides continuous
 searches for the underlying
causes of these problems that
the intended do not respond to first aid
 treatment
determines feedback to both
learning outcomes  helps formulate a plan for a
mastery students and teachers detailed remedial instruction
 graded
of prerequisite concerning learning
 examples: quarter
skills success and failures
exams, unit or
 not graded
 chapter tests, final
not graded  examples: short
exams
quizzes, recitations
 determines the extent of what the pupils have achieved or

mastered in the objectives of the intended instruction
 administered during instruction
 determine the students’ strength and weaknesses
 designed to formulate a plan for remedial
teachingplace the students in specific learning groups to facilitate
and learning
instruction
 modify the teaching and learning process

 serve as a pretest for the next unit
 not graded
 serve as basis in planning for a relevant instruction
PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT
1) Clarity of Learning Targets

 Clear and appropriate learning targets include (1) what students know and can do and (2) the criteria for
judging student performance.
2) Appropriateness of Assessment Methods

 The method of assessment to be used should match the learning targets.
3) Validity
 This refers to the degree to which a score-based inference is appropriate, reasonable, and useful.
4) Reliability
 This refers to the degree of consistency when several items in a test measure the same thing, and
stability when the same measures are given across time.
5) Fairness
 Fair assessment is unbiased and provides students with opportunities to demonstrate what they have
learned.
6) Positive Consequences
 The overall quality of assessment is enhanced when it has a positive effect on student
motivation and study habits. For the teachers, high-quality assessments lead to better information and
decision-making about students.
7) Practicality and efficiency

 Assessments should consider the teacher’s familiarity with the method, the time required, the complexity
of administration, the ease of scoring and interpretation, and cost.
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INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LEARNING TAXONOMIES
A. COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Levels of Learning
Description Some Question Cues
Outcomes
 Involves remembering or recalling  List, define, identify,
Knowledge previously learned material or a wide name, recall, state,
range of materials arrange
 Ability to grasp the meaning of material  Describe, interpret,

Comprehension by translating material from one form to classify, differentiate,
another or by interpreting material explain, translate
 Ability to use learned material in new and  Apply, demonstrate, solve,

Application
concrete situations interpret, use, experiment
 Ability to break down material into its  Analyse, separate,

Analysis component parts so that the whole explain, examine,
structure is understood discriminate, infer
 Ability to put parts together to form a new  Integrate, plan, generalize,

Synthesis
whole construct, design, propose
 Ability to judge the value of material on  Assess, decide, judge,

Evaluation support, summarize,
the basis of a definite criteria
defend
B. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
 Willingness to receive or to attend to a  Acknowledge, ask, choose,
Receiving
particular phenomenon or stimulus follow, listen, reply, watch
 Refers to active participation on the part  Answer, assist, contribute,

Responding
of the student cooperate, follow-up, react
 Ability to see worth or value in a subject,  Adopt, commit, desire, display,

Valuing
activity, etc. explain, initiate, justify, share
 Bringing together a complex of values,

resolving conflicts between them, and  Adapt, categorize, establish,
Organization
beginning to build an internally generalize, integrate, organize
consistent value system
Value  Values have been internalized and have  Advocate, behave, defend,
controlled ones’ behaviour for a
Characterization encourage, influence, practice
sufficiently long period of time
C. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
 Early stages in learning a complex skill after an  Carry out, assemble,
Imitation indication of readiness to take a particular type of practice, follow, repeat,
action. sketch, move
(same as imitation)
 A particular skill or sequence is practiced  acquire, complete,
Manipulation continuously until it becomes habitual and done
conduct, improve,
with some confidence and proficiency.
perform, produce
(same as imitation and
manipulation)
 A skill has been attained with proficiency and
Precision  Achieve, accomplish,
efficiency.
excel, master, succeed,
surpass
 An individual can modify movement patterns to a  Adapt, change, excel,
Articulation reorganize, rearrange,
meet a particular situation.
revise
 An individual responds automatically and creates  Arrange, combine,

Naturalization new motor acts or ways of manipulation out of compose, construct,
understandings, abilities, and skills developed. create, design
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS
MAIN POINTS FOR

TYPES OF TESTS
COMPARISON
Psychological Educational
 Aims to measure students  Aims to measure the result of

intelligence or mental ability in instructions and learning (e.g.
a large degree without Achievement Tests,
Purpose
reference to what the students Performance Tests)
has learned (e.g. Aptitude
Tests, Personality Tests,
Intelligence Tests)
Survey Mastery
 Covers a broad range of  Covers a specific objective
objectives
Scope of Content  Measures general achievement  Measures fundamental skills
in certain subjects and abilities
 Constructed by trained  Typically constructed by the
professional teacher
Verbal Non-Verbal
 Words are used by students in  Students do not use words in
Language Mode
attaching meaning to or attaching meaning to or in
responding to test items responding to test items
Standardized Informal
 Constructed by a professional  Constructed by a classroom
item writer teacher
 Covers a broad range of  Covers a narrow range of
content covered in a subject content
area
Construction  Uses mainly multiple choice  Various types of items are used
 Items written are screened and  Teacher picks or writes items
the best items were chosen for as needed for the test
the final instrument
 Can be scored by a machine  Scored manually by the teacher
 Interpretation of results is  Interpretation is usually
usually norm-referenced criterion-referenced
Individual Group
 Mostly given orally or requires  This is a paper-and-pen test
actual demonstration of skill
 One-on-one situations, thus,  Loss of rapport, insight and
Manner of many opportunities for clinical knowledge about each
Administration observation examinee
 Chance to follow-up  Same amount of time needed
examinee’s response in order to gather information from one
to clarify or comprehend it more student
clearly
Objective Subjective
 Scorer’s personal judgment  Affected by scorer’s personal
does not affect the scoring opinions, biases and judgments
Effect of Biases  Worded that only one answer is  Several answers are possible
acceptable
 Little or no disagreement on  Possible to disagreement on
what is the correct answer what is the correct answer
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Power Speed
 Consists of series of items  Consists of items
arranged in ascending order of approximately equal in difficulty
Time Limit and
difficulty
Level of Difficulty
 Measures student’s ability to  Measure’s student’s speed or
answer more and more difficult rate and accuracy in
items responding
Selective Supply
 There are choices for the  There are no choices for the
answer answer
 Multiple choice, True or False,  Short answer, Completion,
Matching Type Restricted or Extended Essay
Format  Can be answered quickly  May require a longer time to
answer
 Prone to guessing  Less chance to guessing but
prone to bluffing
 Time consuming to construct  Time consuming to answer and
score
Maximum Performance Typical Performance

Nature of  Determines what individuals  Determines what individuals
Assessment can do when performing at their will do under natural conditions
best
Norm-Referenced Criterion-Referenced
 Result is interpreted by  Result is interpreted by
comparing one student’s comparing student’s
performance with other performance based on a
students’ performance predefined standard (mastery)
 Some will really pass  All or none may pass
 There is competition for a  There is no competition for a

limited percentage of high limited percentage of high
scores score
 Typically covers a large domain  Typically focuses on a
Interpretation of learning tasks delimited domain of learning
tasks
 Emphasizes discrimination  Emphasizes description of what
among individuals in terms of learning tasks individuals can

level of learning and cannot perform
 Favors items of average  Matches item difficulty to
difficulty and typically omits learning tasks, without altering
very easy and very hard items item difficulty or omitting easy
or hard items
 Interpretation requires a clearly  Interpretation requires a clearly
defined group defined and delimited
achievement domain
Four Commonly-used References for Classroom Interpretation
Reference Interpretation Provided Condition That Must Be Present

Ability- How are students performing relative to Good measures of the students’
referenced what they are capable of doing? maximum possible performance
How much have students changed or
Growth- Pre- and Post- measures of
improved relative to what they were
referenced performance that are highly reliable
doing earlier?
Norm- How well are students doing with Clear understanding of whom students
referenced respect to what is typical or reasonable? are being compared to
Criterion- Well-defined content domain that was
What can students do and not do?
referenced assessed.
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TYPES OF TEST ACCORDING TO FORMAT
1. Selective Type – provides choices for the answer
a. Multiple Choice – consists of a stem which describes the problem and 3 or more alternatives
which give the suggested solutions. The incorrect alternatives are the distractors.
b. True-False or Alternative Response – consists of declarative statement that one has to mark
true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, and the like.
c. Matching Type – consists of two parallel columns: Column A, the column of premises from
which a match is sought; Column B, the column of responses from which the selection is made.
Type Advantages Limitations
 More adequate sampling of content  Prone to guessing

MultipleChoice
 Tend to structure the problem to be  Often indirectly measure targeted

addressed more effectively behaviors
 Can be quickly and objectively scored  Time-consuming to construct
 Prone to guessing
 Can be used only when dichotomous
AlternateResponse
 More adequate sampling of content answers represent sufficient response

 Easy to construct options
 Can be effectively and objectively scored  Usually must indirectly measure
performance related to procedural

knowledge
 Difficult to produce a sufficient number of
 Allows comparison of related ideas,
plausible premises
Type
concepts, or theories
 Not effective in testing isolated facts
 Effectively assesses association
 May be limited to lower levels of
between a variety of items within a topic
understanding
Encourages integration of information
Matching

 Useful only when there is a sufficient
 Can be quickly and objectively scored
number of related items
 Can be easily administered
 May be influenced by guessing
2. Supply Test
a. Short Answer – uses a direct question that can be answered by a word, phrase, a number, or a
symbol
b. Completion Test – consists of an incomplete statement
 Generally limited to measuring recall of

 Easy to construct
information
 Require the student to supply the answer  More likely to be scored erroneously due
 Many can be included in one test
to a variety of responses
3. Essay Test
a. Restricted Response – limits the content of the response by restricting the scope of the topic
b. Extended Response – allows the students to select any factual information that they think is
pertinent, to organize their answers in accordance with their best judgment
 Measure more directly behaviors
specified by performance objectives  Provide a less adequate sampling of
 Examine students’ written content
communication skills  Less reliable scoring
 Require the student to supply the  Time-consuming to score
response
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GENERAL SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING TESTS
1. Use your test specifications as guide to item writing.
2. Write more test items than needed.
3. Write the test items well in advance of the testing date.
4. Write each test item so that the task to be performed is clearly defined.
5. Write each test item in appropriate reading level.
6. Write each test item so that it does not provide help in answering other items in the test.
7. Write each test item so that the answer is one that would be agreed upon by experts.
8. Write test items so that it is the proper level of difficulty.
9. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.
SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS
A. SUPPLY TYPE
1. Word the item/s so that the required answer is both brief and specific.
2. Do not take statements directly from textbooks to use as a basis for short answer items.
3. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement.
4. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate type of answer wanted.
5. Blanks should be equal in length.
6. Answers should be written before the item number for easy checking.
7. When completion items are to be used, do not have too many blanks. Blanks should be at the
center of the sentence and not at the beginning.
Essay Type
1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily
measured by objective items.
2. Formulate questions that will cell forth the behavior specified in the learning outcome.
3. Phrase each question so that the pupils’ task is clearly indicated.
4. Indicate an approximate time limit for each question.
5. Avoid the use of optional questions.
B. SELECTIVE TYPE Alternative-Response

1. Avoid broad statements.
2. Avoid trivial statements.
3. Avoid the use of negative statements especially double negatives.
4. Avoid long and complex sentences.
5. Avoid including two ideas in one sentence unless cause and effect relationship is being
measured.
6. If opinion is used, attribute it to some source unless the ability to identify opinion is being
specifically measured.
7. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length.
8. The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal.
9. Start with false statement since it is a common observation that the first statement in this type is
always positive.
Matching Type
1. Use only homogenous materials in a single matching exercise.
2. Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the pupils that response
may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
3. Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right.
4. Arrange the list of responses in logical order.
5. Indicate in the directions the bass for matching the responses and premises.
6. Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page.
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Multiple Choice
1. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem.
2. The item should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of irrelevant
information.
3. Use a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcome requires it.
4. Highlight negative words in the stem for emphasis.
5. All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item.
6. An item should only have one correct or clearly best answer.
7. Items used to measure understanding should contain novelty, but beware of too much.
8. All distracters should be plausible.
9. Verbal association between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided.
10. The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer.
11. The alternatives should be arranged logically.
12. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately equal
number of times but in random number.
13. Use of special alternatives such as “none of the above” or “all of the above” should be done
sparingly.
14. Do not use multiple choice items when other types are more appropriate.
15. Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page.
16. Break any of these rules when you have a good reason for doing so.
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
PERFORMANCE AND AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENTS
 Specific behaviors or behavioural outcomes are to be observed

When To
 Possibility of judging the appropriateness of students’ actions
Use
 A process or outcome cannot be directly measured by paper-&-pencil tests
 Allow evaluation of complex skills which are difficult to assess using written
tests
Advantages  Positive effect on instruction and learning
 Can be used to evaluate both the process and the product
 Time-consuming to administer, develop, and score
Limitations  Subjectivity in scoring
 Inconsistencies in performance on alternative skills
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
Characteristics:
1. Adaptable to individualized instructional goals
2. Focus on assessment of products
3. Identify students’ strengths rather than weaknesses
4. Actively involve students in the evaluation process
5. Communicate student achievement to others
6. Time-consuming
7. Need of a scoring plan to increase reliability
TYPES DESCRIPTION
Showcase  A collection of students’ best work
 Used for helping teachers, students, and family members think about various
Reflective
dimensions of student learning (e.g. effort, achievement, etc.)
 A collection of items done for an extended period of time

Cumulative  Analyzed to verify changes in the products and process associated with student
learning
Goal-based  A collection of works chosen by students and teachers to match pre-established
objectives
 A way of documenting the steps and processes a student has done to complete
Process
a piece of work
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RUBRICS
→ scoring guides, consisting of specific pre-established performance criteria, used in evaluating
student work on performance assessments
Two Types:
1. Holistic Rubric – requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole,
without judging the component parts separately
2. Analytic Rubric – requires the teacher to score individual components of the product or
performance first, then sums the individual scores to obtain a total score
AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENTS
1. Closed-Item or Forced-choice Instruments – ask for one or specific answer
a. Checklist – measures students’ preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc.
by marking a set of possible responses
b. Scales – these instruments that indicate the extent or degree of one’s response
1) Rating Scale – measures the degree or extent of one’s attitudes, feelings, and perception
about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 3- or 5- point scale
2) Semantic Differential Scale – measures the degree of one’s attitudes, feelings and
perceptions about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 5- or 7- or 11- point scale of
semantic adjectives
3) Likert Scale – measures the degree of one’s agreement or disagreement on positive or
negative statements about objects and people
c. Alternate Response – measures students preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs,

interests, etc. by choosing between two possible responses
d. Ranking – measures students preferences or priorities by ranking a set of responses
2. Open-Ended Instruments – they are open to more than one answer

a. Sentence Completion – measures students preferences over a variety of attitudes and allows
students to answer by completing an unfinished statement which may vary in length
b. Surveys – measures the values held by an individual by writing one or many responses to a
given question
c. Essays – allows the students to reveal and clarify their preferences, hobbies, attitudes,
feelings, beliefs, and interests by writing their reactions or opinions to a given question
SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING NON-TEST OF ATTITUDINAL NATURE

1. Avoid statements that refer to the past rather than to the present.
2. Avoid statements that are factual or capable of being interpreted as factual.
3. Avoid statements that may be interpreted in more than one way.
4. Avoid statements that are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration.
5. Avoid statements that are likely to be endorsed by almost everyone or by almost no one.
6. Select statements that are believed to cover the entire range of affective scale of interests.
7. Keep the language of the statements simple, clear and direct.
8. Statements should be short, rarely exceeding 20 words.
9. Each statement should contain only one complete thought.
10. Statements containing universals such as all, always, none and never often introduce ambiguity
and should be avoided.
11. Words such as only, just, merely, and others of similar nature should be used with care and
moderation in writing statements.
12. Whenever possible, statements should be in the form of simple statements rather than in the
form of compound or complex sentences.
13. Avoid the use of words that may not be understood by those who are to be given the completed
scale.
14. Avoid the use of double negatives.
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CRITERIA TO CONSIDER IN CONSTRUCTING GOOD TESTS
VALIDITY - the degree to which a test measures what is intended to be measured. It is the usefulness
of the test for a given purpose. It is the most important criteria of a good examination.
FACTORS influencing the validity of tests in general

 Appropriateness of test – it should measure the abilities, skills and information it is supposed to
measure
 Directions – it should indicate how the learners should answer and record their answers
 Reading Vocabulary and Sentence Structure – it should be based on the intellectual level of
maturity and background experience of the learners
 Difficulty of Items- it should have items that are not too difficult and not too easy to be able to
discriminate the bright from slow pupils
 Construction of Items – it should not provide clues so it will not be a test on clues nor should it be
ambiguous so it will not be a test on interpretation
 Length of Test – it should just be of sufficient length so it can measure what it is supposed to
measure and not that it is too short that it cannot adequately measure the performance we want to
measure
 Arrangement of Items – it should have items that are arranged in ascending level of difficulty such
that it starts with the easy ones so that pupils will pursue on taking the test
 Patterns of Answers – it should not allow the creation of patterns in answering the test
WAYS of Establishing Validity

 Face Validity – is done by examining the physical appearance of the test
 Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of the test so
that it reflects the curricular objectives
 Criterion-related validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by a
test is correlated with scores obtained in another external predictor or measure. Has two purposes:
of scores obtained
Concurrent Validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the sets
from two measures given concurrently
sets of scores obtained
Predictive Validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating the
from two measures given at a longer time interval
 Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors that

influence scores in a test, e.g. verbal, numerical, spatial, etc.
 Convergent Validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait other
than what it intended to measure (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative Thinking
Test)
 Divergent Validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait
and not other traits (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading Comprehension
Test)
RELIABILITY – it refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested using
the same instrument or one that is parallel to it.
FACTORS affecting Reliability

 Length of the test – as a general rule, the longer the test, the higher the reliability. A longer
test provides a more adequate sample of the behavior being measured and is less distorted by chance
of factors like guessing.
 Difficulty of the test – ideally, achievement tests should be constructed such that the average
score is 50 percent correct and the scores range from zero to near perfect. The bigger the spread of
scores, the more reliable the measured difference is likely to be. A test is reliable if the coefficient of
correlation is not less than 0.85.
 Objectivity – can be obtained by eliminating the bias, opinions or judgments of the person who
checks the test.
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 Administrability – the test should be administered with ease, clarity and uniformity so that
scores obtained are comparable. Uniformity can be obtained by setting the time limit and oral
instructions.
 Scorability – the test should be easy to score such that directions for scoring are clear, the scoring
key is simple, provisions for answer sheets are made
 Economy – the test should be given in the cheapest way, which means that answer sheets must be
provided so the test can be given from time to time
 Adequacy - the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine the educational
outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the
areas measured
Type of Reliability
Method Procedure Statistical Measure
Measure
Give a test twice to the same group

Test-Retest Measure of stability with any time interval between sets Pearson r
from several minutes to several years
Measure of Give parallel forms of test at the same

Equivalent Forms Pearson r
equivalence time between forms
Give parallel forms of test with

Test-Retest with Measure of stability
increased time intervals between Pearson r
Equivalent Forms and equivalence
forms
Give a test once. Score equivalent Pearson r and

Split Half halves of the test (e.g. odd-and even Spearman-Brown
numbered items) Formula
Give the test once, then correlate the

Kuder-Richardson
Kuder-Richardson Measure of Internal proportion/percentage of the students
Formula 20 and 21
Consistency passing and not passing a given item
Give a test once. Then estimate

Cronbach reliability by using the standard Kuder-Richardson
Coefficient Alpha deviation per item and the standard Formula 20
deviation of the test scores
ITEM ANALYSIS
STEPS:
1. Score the test. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest.
2. Get the top 27% (upper group) and below 27% (lower group) of the examinees.
3. Count the number of examinees in the upper group (PT) and lower group (PB) who got each
item correct.
4. Compute for the Difficulty Index of each item.
(PT + PB)
Df = N = the total number of examinees

N
5. Compute for the Discrimination Index.

(PT - PB)
Ds = n = the number of examinees in each group

n
INTERPRETATION
Difficulty Index (Df) Discrimination Index (Ds)
0.76 – 1.00 → very easy 0.40 – above → very good

0.25 – 0.75 → average 0.30 – 0.39 → reasonably good
0.00 – 0.24 → very difficult 0.20 – 0.29 → marginal item
0.19 – below → poor item
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SCORING ERRORS AND BIASES
 Leniency error: Faculty tends to judge better than it really is.

 Generosity error: Faculty tends to use high end of scale only.
 Severity error: Faculty tends to use low end of scale only.
 Central tendency error: Faculty avoids both extremes of the scale.
 Bias: Letting other factors influence score (e.g., handwriting, typos)
priorHalowork)
effect: Letting general impression of student influence rating of specific criteria (e.g., student’s
factorsContamination effect: Judgment is influenced by irrelevant knowledge about the student or other
that have no bearing on performance level (e.g., student appearance)
(e.g.,Similar-to-me effect: Judging more favorably those students whom faculty see as similar to themselves
expressing similar interests or point of view)
opening
First-impression effect: Judgment is based on early opinions rather than on a complete picture (e.g.,
paragraph)
and Contrast
standards
effect: Judging by comparing student against other students instead of established criteria
 Rater drift: Unintentionally redefining criteria and standards over time or across a series of
scorings (e.g., getting tired and cranky and therefore more severe, getting tired and reading more
quickly/leniently to get the job done)
FOUR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Measurement Characteristics Examples
Nominal Groups and labal data Gender (1-male; 2-female)
Rank data
Ordinal Income (1-low, 2-average, 3-high)
Distance between points are indefinite
Distance between points are equal Test scores

Interval
No absolute zero Temperature
Height
Ratio Absolute zero
Weight
SHAPES OF FREQUENCY POLYGONS
1. Normal / Bell-Shaped / Symmetrical

2. Positively Skewed – most scores are below the mean and there are extremely high scores
3. Negatively Skewed – most scores are above the mean and there are extremely low scores
4. Leptokurtic – highly peaked and the tails are more elevated above the baseline
5. Mesokurtic – moderately peaked
6. Platykurtic – flattened peak
7. Bimodal Curve – curve with 2 peaks or modes
8. Polymodal Curve – curve with 3 or more modes
9. Rectangular Distribution – there is no mode
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DESCRIBING AND INTERPRETING TEST SCORES
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY
ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USED APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS
MEASURES OF CENTRAL
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
TENDENCY
(describes the degree of spread or
(describes the representative
dispersion of a set of data)
value of a set of data)
 When the frequency

distribution is regular or Mean – the arithmetic average Standard Deviation – the root-
symmetrical (normal) mean-square of the deviations
 Usually used when data are from the mean
numeric (interval or ratio)
 When the frequency

distribution is irregular or Median – the middle score in a Quartile Deviation – the average
skewed group of scores that are ranked deviation of the 1st and 3rd
 Usually used when the data is quartiles from the median
ordinal
 When the distribution of

scores is normal and quick Mode – the most frequent score Range – the difference between
answer is needed the highest and the lowest score
 Usually used when the data in the distribution
are nominal
How to Interpret the Measures of Central Tendency

 The value that represents a set of data will be the basis in determining whether the group is
performing better or poorer than the other groups.
How to Interpret the Standard Deviation

 The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not.
= give the limits of an average ability  The result will also help you
determine the number of students that
fall below and above the average performance.
Points above Mean + 1SD = range of above average

Mean + 1SD
Mean - 1SD
Points below Mean – 1SD = range of below average
How to Interpret the Quartile Deviation

 The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not.
 The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the
average performance.

Points above Median + 1QD = range of above average
Median + 1QD
= give the limits of an average ability
Median – 1QD
Points below Median – 1QD = range of below average
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MEASURES OF CORRELATION
Pearson r
 XY  X  Y  Where:
X – scores in a test
    Y – scores in a retest
N  N  N 
N – number of examinees
r 
 X2  X 2  Y2  
   N  
N  N   N
Spearman Brown Formula

2roe Where:
reliability of the whole test = 1 roe – reliability coefficient using
roe split-half or odd-even
procedure
Where:
K   K – number of items of a test
p – proportion of the examinees
KR20  1
who got the item right
K1  S
q – proportion of the examinees
who got the item wrong
2
S – variance or standard deviation
squared
Where:
X
 pK
K
q=1-p
KR21  1
K1  S
INTERPRETATION OF THE Pearson r

Correlation value
1 ----------- Perfect Positive Correlation

for Validity:
high positive correlation computed r should be at least 0.75
to be significant
0.5 ----------- Positive Correlation
low positive correlation for Reliability:
computed r should be at least 0.85
0 ----------- Zero Correlation
to be significant
low negative correlation
-0.5 ----------- Negative Correlation
high negative correlation
-1 ----------- Perfect Negative Correlation
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STANDARD SCORES
 Indicate the pupil’s relative position by showing how far his raw score is above or below average
 Express the pupil’s performance in terms of standard unit from the mean
 Represented by the normal probability curve or what is commonly called the normal curve
 Used to have a common unit to compare raw scores from different tests
PERCENTILE
 tells the percentage of examines that lies below one’s score
Example:
P85 = 70 (This means the person who scored 70 performed better than 85% of the
examinees)
 85%N  CFb
Formula: P  LL  i
85 
F
 P85
Z-SCORES
 tells the number of standard deviations equivalent to a given raw score
XX Where:
Formula: Z 
X – individual’s raw score
SD
X – mean of the normative group
SD – standard deviation of the
normative group
Example:
Mean of a group in a test: X = 26

SD=2
Joseph’s Score: X=27 John’s Score: X=25
X X 2726 1 X X 2526 1
Z   Z   
SD 2 2 SD 2 2
Z=0.5 Z = -0.5
15
T-SCORES
 it refers to any set of normally distributed standard deviation score that has a mean of 50 and
a standard deviation of 10
 computed after converting raw scores to z-scores to get rid of negative values
Formula: T  score  50  10(Z)
Example:
Joseph’s T-score = 50 + 10(0.5) John’s T-score = 50 + 10(-0.5)
=50+5 = 50 – 5
= 55 = 45
ASSIGNING GRADES / MARKS / RATINGS

Marking or Grading is a way to report information about a student’s performance in a subject.
GRADING/REPORTING
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
SYSTEM
 can be recorded and processed  might not actually indicate

quickly
Percentage 
mastery of the subject equivalent
provides a quick overview of
(e.g. 70%, 86%) to the grade
student performance relative to
 too much precision
other students
 a convenient summary of  provides only a general

Letter student performance indication of performance
(e.g. A, B, C, D, F)  uses an optimal number of  does not provide enough
categories information for promotion
 encourages students to broaden  reduces the utility of grades

Pass – Fail
their program of studies  has low reliability

 more adequate in reporting
Checklist process
student achievement 
can be misleading at times
 might show inconsistency
Written Descriptions  can include whatever is relevant between reports
about the student’s performance  time-consuming to prepare and
read
Parent-Teacher  direct communication between  unstructured

Conferences parent and teacher  time-consuming
GRADES:
a. Could represent:
 how a student is performing in relation to other students (norm-referenced grading)
 the extent to which a student has mastered a particular body of knowledge (criterion-
referenced grading)
 how a student is performing in relation to a teacher’s judgment of his or her potential
b. Could be for:
 Certification that gives assurance that a student has mastered a specific content or
achieved a certain level of accomplishment
 Selection that provides basis in identifying or grouping students for certain educational paths
or programs
 Direction that provides information for diagnosis and planning
 Motivation that emphasizes specific material or skills to be learned and helping students to
understand and improve their performance
16
c. Could be based on:
 examination results or test data  reports, themes and research
 observations of student works papers
 group evaluation activities  discussions and debates
 class discussions and recitations  portfolios
 homeworks  projects
 notebooks and note taking  attitudes, etc.
d. Could be assigned by using:

 Criterion-Referenced Grading – or grading based on fixed or absolute standards where
grade is assigned based on how a student has met the criteria or a well-defined objectives of a
course that were spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade he or she wants
to receive regardless of how other students in the class have performed. This is done by transmuting
test scores into marks or ratings.
 Norm-Referenced Grading – or grading based on relative standards where a student’s

grade reflects his or her level of achievement relative to the performance of other students in the
class. In this system, the grade is assigned based on the average of test scores.
 Point or Percentage Grading System whereby the teacher identifies points or

percentages for various tests and class activities depending on their importance. The total of these
points will be the bases for the grade assigned to the student.
 Contract Grading System where each student agrees to work for a particular grade
according to agreed-upon standards.
GUIDELINES IN GRADING STUDENTS
1. Explain your grading system to the students early in the course and remind them of the grading
policies regularly.
2. Base grades on a predetermined and reasonable set of standards.
3. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible.
4. Base grades on the student’s attitude as well as achievement, especially at the elementary and
high school level.
5. Base grades on the student’s relative standing compared to classmates.
6. Base grades on a variety of sources.
7. As a rule, do not change grades, once computed.
8. Become familiar with the grading policy of your school and with your colleague’s standards.
9. When failing a student, closely follow school procedures.
10. Record grades on report cards and cumulative records.
11. Guard against bias in grading.
12. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class.
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PART II: Test Practice
Directions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Then, choose the best answer to each question.
1. How does measurement differ from evaluation?

A. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving
meaning to the numerical value of the trait.
B. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of
organizing data.
C. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of
testing.
D. Measurement is gathering data while assessment is quantifying the data gathered.
2. Miss del Sol rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory equipment
and measurement tools and if they are able to follow the specified procedures. What
mode of assessment should Miss del Sol use?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Traditional Assessment
B. Journal Assessment D. Performance-Based Assessment
3. Who among the teachers below performed a formative evaluation?

A. Ms. Olivares who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who
among her students understood what she was trying to stress.
B. Mr. Borromeo who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine the
outcome of instruction.
C. Ms. Berces who gave a ten-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students
failed to understand.
D. Mrs. Corpuz who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils.
4. St. Andrews School gave a standardized achievement test instead of giving a teacher-made test to
the graduating elementary pupils. Which could have been the reason why this was the kind of test
given?
A. Standardized test has items of average level of difficulty while teacher-made test has
varying levels of difficulty.
B. Standardized test uses multiple-choice format while teacher-made test uses the essay test
format.
C. Standardized test is used for mastery while teacher-made test is used for survey.
D. Standardized test is valid while teacher-made tests is just reliable.
5. Which test format is best to use if the purpose of the test is to relate inventors and their inventions?
A. Short-Answer C. Matching Type
B. True-False D. Multiple Choice
6. In the parlance of index of test construction, what does TOS mean?

A. Table of Specifics C. Table of Scopes
B. Terms of Specifications D. Table of Specifications
7. Here is the item:

“From the data presented in the table, form generalizations that are supported by the data.”
Under what type of question does this item fall?

A. Convergent B. Evaluative C. Application D. Divergent
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8. The following are synonymous to performance objectives EXCEPT:
A. Learner’s objective C. Teacher’s objective
B. Instructional objective D. Behavioral objective
9. Which is (are) (a) norm-referenced statement?

A. Danny performed better in spelling than 60% of his classmates.
B. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly.
C. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly and spelled 35 words out of 50
correctly.
D. Danny spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly.
10. Which guideline in test construction is NOT observed in this test item?
EDGAR ALLAN POE WROTE ________________________.
A. The length of the blank suggests the answer.

B. The central problem is not packed in the stem.
C. It is open to more than one correct answer.
D. The blank is at the end of the question.
11. Which does NOT belong to the group?

A. Completion C. Multiple Choice
B. Matching D. Alternate Response
12. A test is considered reliable if

A. it is easy to score
B. it served the purpose for which it is constructed
C. it is consistent and stable
D. it is easy to administer
13. Which is claimed to be the overall advantage of criterion-referenced over norm-referenced

interpretation?
A. An individual’s score is compared with the set mastery level.
B. An individual’s score is compared with that of his peers.
C. An individual’s score is compared with the average scores.
D. An individual’s score does not need to be compared with any measure.
14. Teacher Liza does norm-referenced interpretation of scores. Which of the following does she do?
A. She uses a specified content as its frame of reference.
B. She describes group of performance in relation to a level of master set.
C. She compares every individual student score with others’ scores.
D. She describes what should be their performance.
15. All examinees obtained scores below the mean. A graphic representation of the score distribution
will be ________________.
A. negatively skewed C. leptokurtic
B. perfect normal curve D. positively skewed
16. In a normal distribution curve, a T-score of 70 is

A. two SDs below the mean. C. one SD below the mean
B. two SDs above the mean D. one SD above the mean
17. Which type of test measures higher order thinking skills?

A. Enumeration C. Completion
B. Matching D. Analogy
19
Who is the best admired for outstanding contribution to world peace?
A. Kissinger C. Kennedy
B. Clinton D. Mother Teresa
18.
What is WRONG with this item?
A. Item is overly specific. C. Test item is opinion- based
B. Content is trivial. D. There is a cue to the right answer.
19. The strongest disadvantage of the alternate-response type of test is

A. the demand for critical thinking C. the encouragement of rote memory
B. the absence of analysis D. the high possibility of guessing
20. A class is composed of academically poor students. The distribution will most likely to be
A. leptokurtic. C. skewed to the left
B. skewed to the right D. symmetrical
21. Of the following types of tests, which is the most subjective in scoring?
A. Enumeration C. Essay
B. Matching Type D. Multiple Choice
22. Tom’s raw score in the Filipino class is 23 which is equal to the 70th percentile. What does this
imply?
A. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score lower than 23.
B. Tom’s score is higher than 23% of his classmates.
C. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score above 23.
D. Tom’s score is higher than 23 of his classmates.
23. Test norms are established in order to have a basis for

A. establishing learning objectives C. planning effective instructional
B. identifying pupil’s difficulties devices
D. comparing test scores
24. The score distribution follows a normal curve. What does this mean?
A. Most of the scores are on the -2SD
B. Most of the scores are on the +2SD
C. The scores coincide with the mean
D. Most of the scores pile up between -1SD and +1SD
25. In her conduct of item analysis, Teacher Cristy found out that a significantly greater number from
the upper group of the class got test item #5 correctly. This means that the test item
A. has a negative discriminating power C. is easy
B. is valid D. has a positive discriminating power
26. Mr. Reyes tasked his students to play volleyball. What learning target is he assessing?
A. Knowledge C. Products
B. Skill D. Reasoning
27. Martina obtained an NSAT percentile rank of 80. This indicates that
A. She surpassed in performance 80% of her fellow examinees
B. She got a score of 80
C. She surpassed in performance 20% of her fellow examinees
D. She answered 80 items correctly
28. Which term refers to the collection of student’s products and accomplishments for a period for
evaluation purposes?
A. Anecdotal Records C. Observation Report
B. Portfolio D. Diary
20
29. Which form of assessment is consistent with the saying “The proof of the pudding is in the eating”?
A. Contrived B. Authentic C. Traditional D. Indirect
30. Which error do teachers commit when they tend to overrate the achievement of students identified
by aptitude tests as gifted because they expect achievement and giftedness to go together?
A. Generosity error C. Severity Error B. Central Tendency Error D.

Logical Error
31. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based?

A. Portfolio assessment is dynamic assessment.
B. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge.
C. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score.
D. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score.
32. Which is a valid assessment tool if I want to find out how well my students can speak
extemporaneously?
A. Writing speeches
B. Written quiz on how to deliver extemporaneous speech
C. Performance test in extemporaneous speaking
D. Display of speeches delivered
33. Teacher J discovered that her pupils are weak in comprehension. To further determine which
particular skill(s) her pupils are weak in, which test should Teacher J give?
A. Standardized Test C. Diagnostic B. Placement D. Aptitude Test
34. “Group the following items according to phylum” is a thought test item on _______________.
A. inferring C. generalizing B. classifying D. comparing
35. In a multiple choice test, keeping the options brief indicates________.

A. Inclusion in the item irrelevant clues such as the use in the correct answer
B. Non-inclusion of option that mean the same
C. Plausibility & attractiveness of the item
D. Inclusion in the item any word that must otherwise repeated in each response
36. Which will be the most authentic assessment tool for an instructional objective on working with and
relating to people?
A. Writing articles on working and relating to people
B. Organizing a community project
C. Home visitation
D. Conducting a mock election
37. While she is in the process of teaching, Teacher J finds out if her students understand what she is
teaching. What is Teacher J engaged in?
A. Criterion-referenced evaluation C. Formative Evaluation
B. Summative Evaluation D. Norm-referenced Evaluation
38. With types of test in mind, which does NOT belong to the group?
A. Restricted response essay C. Multiple choice
B. Completion D. Short Answer
39. Which tests determine whether the students accept responsibility for their own behavior or pass on
responsibility for their own behavior to other people?
A. Thematic tests C. Stylistic tests
B. Sentence completion tests D. Locus-of-control tests
21
40. When writing performance objectives, which word is NOT acceptable?
A. Manipulate C. Comprehend
B. Delineate D. Integrate
41. Here is a test item: _____________ is an example of a mammal.
What is defective with this test item?

A. It is very elementary.
B. The blank is at the beginning of the sentence.
C. It is a very short question.
D. It is an insignificant test item.
42. “By observing unity, coherence, emphasis and variety, write a short paragraph on taking
examinations.” This is an item that tests the students’ skill to _________.
A. evaluate C. synthesize
B. comprehend D. recall
43. Teacher A constructed a matching type of test. In her columns of items are a combination of
events, people, circumstances. Which of the following guidelines in constructing matching type of test
did he violate?
A. List options in an alphabetical order C. Make list of items heterogeneous
B. Make list of items homogeneous D. Provide three or more options
44. Read and analyze the matching type of test given below:
Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Write only the letter of your answer on the blank of the left column.
Column A Column B
th
___ 1. Jose Rizal A. Considered the 8 wonder of the world
___ 2. Ferdinand Marcos B. The national hero of the Philippines
___ 3. Corazon Aquino C. National Heroes’ Day
___ 4. Manila D. The first woman President of the Philippines
___ 5. November 30 E. The capital of the Philippines
___ 6. Banaue Rice Terraces F. The President of the Philippines who served several terms
Question: What does the test lack?

A. Premise C. Distracter
B. Option D. Response
45. A number of test items in a test are said to be non-discriminating. What conclusion/s can be
drawn?
I. Teaching or learning was very good.
II. The item is so easy that anyone could get it right.
III. The item is so difficult that nobody could get it.
A. I only B. I and III C. II only D. II and III
46. Measuring the work done by a gravitational force is a learning task. At what level of cognition is it?
A. Comprehension C. Evaluation B. Application D. Analysis
47. Which improvement/s should be done in this completion test item: An example of a mammal is
________.
A. The blank should be longer to accommodate all possible answers.
B. The blank should be at the beginning of the sentence.
C. The question should have only one acceptable answer.
D. The item should give more clues.
22
48. Here is Teacher D’s lesson objective: “To trace the causes of Alzheimer’s disease.” Which is a
valid test for this particular objective?
A. Can an Alzheimer’s disease be traced to old age? Explain.
B. To what factors can Alzheimer’s disease be traced? Explain.
C. What is an Alzheimer’s disease?
D. Do young people also get attacked by Alzheimer’s disease? Support your answer?
49. What characteristic of a good test will pupils be assured of when a teacher constructs a table of
specifications for test construction purposes?
A. Reliability C. Construct Validity
B. Content Validity D. Scorability
50. Study this test item.A test is valid when _____________________.

a. it measures what is purports to measure
b. covers a broad scope of subject matter
c. reliability of scores
d. easy to administer
How can you improve this test item?

A. Make the length of the options uniform.
B. Pack the question in the stem.
C. Make the options parallel.
D. Construct the options in such a way that the grammar of the sentence remains
correct.
51. In taking a test, one examinee approached the proctor for clarification on what to do. This implies a
problem on which characteristic of a good test?
A. Objectivity C. Scorability
B. Administrability D. Economy
52. Teacher Jane wants to determine if her students’ scores in the second grading is reliable. However, she
has only one set of test and her students are already on their semestral break. What test of
reliability can she use?
A. Test-retest C. Equivalent Forms
B. Split-half D. Test-retest with equivalent forms
53. Mrs. Cruz has only one form of test and she administered her test only once. What test of reliability
can she do?
A. Test of stability C. Test of correlation
B. Test of equivalence D. Test of internal consistency
Use the following table to answer items 54 – 55.

Class Limits Frequency
50–54 9
45–49 12
40–44 16
35–39 8
30-34 5
54. What is the lower limit of the class with the highest frequency?
A. 39.5 B. 40 C. 44 D. 44.5
55. What is the crude mode?

A. 40 B. 42 C. 42.5 D. 44
56. About what percent of the cases falls between +1 and -1 SD in a normal curve?
23
A. 43.1% B. 95.4% C. 99.8% D. 68.3%
57. Study this group of test which was administered to a class to whom Peter belongs, then answer the
question:
SUBJECT MEAN SD PETER’S SCORE
Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109
In which subject(s) did Peter perform most poorly in relation to the group’s mean performance?
A. English C. English and Physics
B. Physics D. Math
58. Based on the data given in #57, in which subject(s) were the scores most widespread?
A. Math C. Cannot be determined
B. Physics D. English
59. A mathematics test was given to all Grade V pupils to determine the contestants for the Math Quiz
Bee. Which statistical measure should be used to identify the top 15?
A. Mean Percentage Score C. Percentile Rank
B. Quartile Deviation D. Percentage Score
60. A test item has a difficulty index of .89 and a discrimination index of .44. What should the teacher
do?
A. Make it a bonus item. C. Retain the item.
B. Reject the item. D. Make it a bonus and reject it.
61. What is/are important to state when explaining percentile-ranked tests to parents?
I. What group took the test
II. That the scores show how students performed in relation to other students.
III. That the scores show how students performed in relation to an absolute measure.
A. II only B. I & III C. I & II D. III only
62. Which of the following reasons for measuring student achievement is NOT valid?
A. To prepare feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process
B. To certify the students have attained a level of competence in a subject area
C. To discourage students from cheating during test and getting high scores
D. To motivate students to learn and master the materials they think will be covered by the
achievement test.
63. The computed r for English and Math score is -.75. What does this mean?
A. The higher the scores in English, the higher the scores in Math.
B. The scores in Math and English do not have any relationship.
C. The higher the scores in Math, the lower the scores in English.
D. The lower the scores in English, the lower the scores in Math.
64. Which statement holds TRUE to grades?

Grades are _________________.
A. exact measurements of intelligence and achievement
B. necessarily a measure of student’s intelligence
C. intrinsic motivators for learning
D. are a measure of achievement
65. What is the advantage of using computers in processing test results?

A. Test results can easily be assessed.
B. Its statistical computation is accurate
24
C. Its processing takes a shorter period of time
D. All of the above
1. Which of the following steps should be completed first in planning an achievement test?
A. Set-up a table of specifications. C. Determine the length of the test.
B. Go back to the instructional D. Select the type of test items to use.
objectives.
__________________ is an example of a leafy vegetable.
2.
Why is this test item poor?

I. The test item does not pose a problem to the examinee.
II. There is a variety of possible correct answers to this item.
III. The language used in the question is not precise.
IV. The blank is near the beginning of a sentence.
A. I and III B. II and IV C. I and IV D. I and II
3. On the first day of class after introductions, the teacher administered a

Misconception/Preconception Check. She explained that she wanted to know what the class as a
whole already knew about the Philippines before the Spaniards came. The
Misconception/Preconception Check is a form of a
A. diagnostic test C. criterion-referenced test
B. placement test D. achievement test
4. A test item has a difficulty index of .81 and discrimination index of .13. What should the test
constructor do?
A. Retain the item. C. Revise the item.
B. Make it a bonus item. D. Reject the item.
5. If a teacher wants to measure her students’ ability to discriminate, which of these is an appropriate
type of test item as implied by the direction?
A. “Outline the chapter on The Cell”.
B. “Summarize the lesson yesterday”.
C. “Group the following items according to shape.”
D. “State a set of principles that can explain the following events.”
6. A positive discrimination index means that

A. the test item could not discriminate between the lower and upper groups
B. more from the upper group got the item correctly
C. more from the lower group got the item correctly
D. the test item has low reliability
7. Teacher Ria discovered that her pupils are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have helped
her discover her pupil’s strength?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Journal Entry
B. Performance Assessment D. Pen-and-paper Test
8. Which among the following objectives in the psychomotor domain is highest in level?
A. To contract a muscle C. To distinguish distant and close
B. To run a 100-meter dash sounds
D. To dance the basic steps of the waltz
25
9. If your LET items sample adequately the competencies listed in education courses syllabi, it can be
said that LET possesses _________ validity.
A. Concurrent B. Construct C. Content D. Predictive
10. In the context on the theory on multiple intelligences, what is one weakness of the pen-and-paper
test?
A. It is not easy to administer.
B. It puts the non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage.
C. It utilizes so much time.
D. It lacks reliability.
11. Which test has broad sampling of topics as strength?

A. Objective Test C. Essay
B. Short Answer Test D. Problem Type
12. Quiz is to formative as periodic is to ____________.

A. criterion-referenced C. norm-referenced
B. summative test D. diagnostic test
13. What does a negatively skewed score distribution imply?

A. The score congregate on the left side of the normal distribution curve.
B. The scores are widespread.
C. The students must be academically poor.
D. The scores congregate on the right side of the normal distribution.
14. The criterion of success in Teacher Lyn’s objective is that “the pupils must be able to spell 90% of
the words correctly”. Ana and 19 others correctly spelled 40 words only out of 50. This means that
Teacher Lyn:
A. attained her objective because of her effective spelling drill
B. attained her lesson objective
C. failed to attain her lesson objective as far as the twenty pupils are concerned
D. did not attain her lesson objective because of the pupil’s lack of attention
15. In group norming, percentile rank of the examinee is:

A. dependent on his batch of examinees. C. unaffected by skewed distribution.
B. independent on his batch of examinees. D. affected by skewed distribution.
16. When a significantly greater number from the lower group gets a test item correctly, this
implies that the test item
A. is very valid C. is not highly reliable
B. is not very valid D. is highly reliable
17. Which applies when there are extreme scores?

A. The median will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency.
B. The mode will be the most reliable measure of central tendency.
C. There is no reliable measure for central tendency.
D. The mean will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency.
18. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE?

A. They emphasize merely process.
B. They stress on doing, not only knowing.
C. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments.
D. They accentuate on process as well as product.
19. If the scores of your test follow a negatively skewed distribution, what should you do?
Find out_________________.
A. Why your items were easy B. Why most of the scores are high
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C. Why most of the scores are low D. Why some pupils scored high
20. Median is to point as standard deviation is to __________.

A. Area B. Volume C. Distance D. Square
21. Referring to assessment of learning, which statement on the normal curve is FALSE?
A. The normal curve may not necessarily apply to homogeneous class.
B. When all pupils achieve as expected their learning, curve may deviate from the normal
curve.
C. The normal curve is sacred. Teachers must adhere to it no matter what.
D. The normal curve may not be achieved when every pupil acquires targeted competencies.
22. Aura Vivian is one-half standard deviation above the mean of his group in arithmetic and one
standard deviation above in spelling. What does this imply?
A. She excels both is arithmetic and spelling.
B. She is better in arithmetic than in spelling.
C. She does not excel in spelling nor in arithmetic.
D. She is better in spelling than in arithmetic.
23. You give a 100-point test, three students make scores of 95, 91 and 91, respectively, while the other 22
students in the class make scores ranging from 33 to 67. The measure of central tendency
which is apt to best describe for this group of 25 is
A. the mean C. an average of the median & mode
B. the mode D. the median
24. NSAT and NEAT results are interpreted against a set of mastery level. This means that NSAT
and NEAT fall under
A. criterion-referenced test C. aptitude test
B. achievement test D. norm-referenced test
25. Which of the following is the MOST important purpose for using achievement test? To measure
the_______.
A. Quality & quantity of previous C. Educational & vocational aptitude
learning D. Capacity for future learning
B. Quality & quantity of previous teaching
26. What should be AVOIDED in arranging the items of the final form of the test?
A. Space the items so they can be read easily
B. Follow a definite response pattern for the correct answers to insure ease of scoring
C. Arrange the sections such that they progress from the very simple to very complex
D. Keep all the items and options together on the same page.
27. What is an advantage of point system of grading?

A. It does away with establishing clear distinctions among students.
B. It is precise.
C. It is qualitative.
D. It emphasizes learning not objectivity of scoring.
28. Which statement on test result interpretation is CORRECT?

A. A raw score by itself is meaningful.
B. A student’s score is a final indication of his ability.
C. The use of statistical technique gives meaning to pupil’s scores.
D. Test scores do not in any way reflect teacher’s effectiveness.
29. Below is a list of method used to establish the reliability of the instrument. Which method is
questioned for its reliability due to practice and familiarity?
A. Split-half C. Test-retest
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B. Equivalent Forms D. Kuder Richardson Formula 20
30. Q3 is to 75th percentile as median is to _______________.

th th
A. 40 percentile C. 50 percentile
th th
B. 25 percentile D. 49 percentile
31. What type of test is this:

Knee is to leg as elbow is to _____________.
A. Hand B. Fingers C. Arm D. Wrist
A. Analogy C. Short Answer Type

B. Rearrangement Type D. Problem Type
32. Which statement about standard deviation is CORRECT?

A. The lower the SD the more spread the scores are.
B. The higher the SD the less spread the scores are.
C. The higher the SD the more spread the scores are.
D. It is a measure of central tendency.
33. Which test items do NOT affect variability of test scores?

A. Test items that are a bit easy.
B. Test items that are moderate in difficult.
C. Test items that are a bit difficult.
D. Test items that every examinee gets correctly.
34. Teacher B wants to diagnose in which vowel sound(s) her students have difficulty. Which tool is
most appropriate?
A. Portfolio Assessment C. Performance Test
B. Journal Entry D. Paper-and-pencil Test
35. The index of difficulty of a particular test is .10. What does this mean? My students ____________.
A. gained mastery over the item.
B. performed very well against expectation.
C. found that the test item was either easy nor difficult.
D. find the test item difficult.
36. Study this group of test which was administered with the following results, then answer the question
that follows.
Subject Mean SD Ronnel’s Score
Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109
In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform best in relation to the group’s performance?
A. Physics and Math C. Math
B. English D. Physics
37. Which applies when the distribution is concentrated on the left side of the curve?
A. Bell curve C. Leptokurtic
B. Positively skewed D. Negatively Skewed
38. Standard deviation is to variability as _________ is to central tendency.

A. quartile B. mode C. range D. Pearson r
39. Danny takes an IQ test thrice and each time earns a similar score. The test is said to possess
____________.
A. objectivity B. reliability C. validity D. scorability
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40. The test item has a discrimination index of -.38 and a difficulty index of 1.0. What does this imply to
test construction? Teacher must__________.
A. recast the item C. reject the item
B. shelve the item for future use D. retain the item
41. Here is a sample TRUE-FALSE test item: All women have a longer life-span than men. What is
wrong with the test item?
A. The test item is quoted verbatim from a textbook.
B. The test item contains trivial detail.
C. A specific determiner was used in the statement.
D. The test item is vague.
42. In which competency do my students find greatest difficulty? In the item with the difficulty index of
A. 1.0 B. 0.50 C. 0.90 D. 0.10
43. “Describe the reasoning errors in the following paragraph” is a sample though question on
_____________.
A. synthesizing B. applying C. analyzing D. summarizing
44. In a one hundred-item test, what does Ryan’s raw score of 70 mean?
A. He surpassed 70 of his classmate in terms of score.
B. He surpassed 30 of his classmates in terms of score.
C. He got a score above the mean.
D. He got 70 items correct.
45. Study the table on item analysis for non-attractiveness and non-plausibility of distracters based on
the results of a multiple choice tryout test in math. The letter marked with an asterisk in the correct
answer.
A* B C D
Upper 27% 10 4 1 1
Lowe 27% 6 6 2 0
Based on the table which is the most effective distracter?

A. Option A B. Option C C. Option B D. Option D
46. Here is a score distribution:

98, 93, 93, 93, 90, 88, 87, 85, 85, 85, 70, 51, 34, 34, 34, 20, 18, 15, 12, 9, 8, 6, 3, 1.
Which is a characteristic of the score distribution?

A. Bi-modal C. Skewed to the right
B. Tri-modal D. No discernible pattern
47. Which measure(s) of central tendency is (are) most appropriate when the score distribution is badly
skewed?
A. Mode C. Median
B. Mean and mode D. Mean
48. Is it wise to practice to orient our students and parents on our grading system?
A. No, this will court a lot of complaints later.
B. Yes, but orientation must be only for our immediate customers, the students.
C. Yes, so that from the very start, students and their parents know how grades are derived.
D. No, grades and how they are derived are highly confidential.
49. With the current emphasis on self-assessment and performance assessment, which is
indispensable?
A. Numerical grading C. Transmutation Table
29
B. Paper-and-Pencil Test D. Scoring Rubric
50. “In the light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen when …?” is a sample thought
question on ____________.
A. inferring B. generalizing C. synthesizing D. justifying
51. With grading practice in mind, what is meant by teacher’s severity error?
A teacher ___________.
A. tends to look down on student’s answers
B. uses tests and quizzes as punitive measures
C. tends to give extremely low grades
D. gives unannounced quizzes
52. Ms. Ramos gave a test to find out how the students feel toward their subject Science. Her first item
was stated as “Science is an interesting _ _ _ _ _ boring subject”. What kind of instrument was
given?
A. Rubric C. Rating Scale
B. Likert-Scale D. Semantic Differential Scale
53. Which holds true to standardized tests?

A. They are used for comparative purposes.
B. They are administered differently.
C. They are scored according to different standards.
D. They are used for assigning grades.
54. What is simple frequency distribution? A graphic representation of

A. means C. raw scores
B. standard deviation D. lowest and highest scores
55. When points in scattergram are spread evenly in all directions this means that:
A. The correlation between two variables is positive.
B. The correlation between two variables is low.
C. The correlation between two variables is high.
D. There is no correlation between two variables.
56. Which applies when skewness is 0?

A. Mean is greater than the median. C. Scores have 3 modes.
B. Median is greater than the mean. D. Scores are normally distributed.
57. Which process enhances the comparability of grades?

A. Determining the level of difficulty of the test
B. Constructing departmentalized examinations for each subject area
C. Using table of specifications
D. Giving more high-level questions
58. In a grade distribution, what does the normal curve mean?

A. All students having average grades.
B. A large number of students with high grades and very few low grades.
C. A large number of more or less average students and very few students receiving low
and high grades
D. A large number of students receiving low grades and very few students with high grades
59. For professional growth, which is a source of teacher performance?

A. Self-evaluation C. Student’s evaluation
B. Supervisory evaluation D. Peer evaluation
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60. The following are trends in marking and reporting system, EXCEPT:
A. indicating strong points as well as those needing improvement
B. conducting parent-teacher conferences as often as needed
C. raising the passing grade from 75 to 80
D. supplementing subject grade with checklist on traits
GOODLUCK FUTURE TEACHERS
31
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: Professional Education
Facilitating Learning
LET Competencies:
1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and socio-cultural factors that affect
learning
2. Organize the learning environment that promotes fairness regardless of culture, family
background and gender, responsive to learner’s needs and difficulties
PREPARED BY: Aggarao, Marivilla Lydia B.

Basic Concepts
Schema - Prior knowledge
Principle - Universal truths/facts
Theory
Public pronouncement of what a scientist or an independent/group of minds that have done
something and is subject for further studies/research.
Concepts/propositions that help to describe and explain observations that one has made.
Learning
- involves acquisition of new elements of knowledge, skills, beliefs and specific behavior
- - may mean one or
- more of all these things:
the act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the knowledge gained by virtue of that act
(that which is known) the process of gaining knowledge (learning how). -Banner and
Cannon, 1997
LEARNING - It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment,
assimilation of new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior
knowledge. Adaptation - to become adjusted to new or different conditions
Assimilation - to make or become similar; to become absorbed, as knowledge
Accommodation - to settle; reconcile, adapt, adjust
Learning
- is characterized by:
a change in behavior or the capacity to change one’s behavior in the future
a relatively permanent observable/demonstrable change in the behavior of a person as a
result of interaction of the environment
occurring through practice or experience
it is not being the same as thinking as its focus is on manifest behavior rather than simply
on
thoughts
Principles/Conditions of Learning
1. Learning is an active, continuous process: it involves more than acquiring information.
2. Styles and rates of learning vary: learners may be auditory, visual, or tactile/kinesthetic.
3. Readiness affects motivation and desire to learn.
4. Learning is very effective when there is immediate application of what is being taught.
5. Life experiences influence learning.
6. Learning is facilitated when learners have knowledge of their progress towards a goal.
7. Repetition (practice) helps perfect learning.
8. Principle of effect: learning is strengthened when accompanied by satisfying feeling.
9. Principle of primacy: what is taught must be taught right at the first time.
10. Principle of intensity: teaching requires provision of vivid, exciting learning of experiences.
11. Principle of recency: the things most recently learned are the best remembered.
Learning Theories
They are sets of conjectures and hypothesis that explain the process of learning or how learning
takes place
Conjectures -to conclude or suppose from incomplete evidence; guess; an indecisive opinion
Hypothesis - a set of assumptions, provisionally accepted as a basis of reasoning or
unsupported or ill supported theory
A. Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory

It operates on a principle of “Stimulus-Response”
Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’sClassical Conditioning
 Classical means “in the established manner”
 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned
stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
Ex. stern teacher
2. Discrimination – a process by which one
learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an
identical manner because of previous
experiences.
3. Extinction – a process by which a
conditioned response is lost.
Ex. anxiousness
Feature of Classical Conditioning
1. Stimulus – Generalization – a
process by which the conditioned response
transfers to other stimuli that is similar to the
original conditioned
stimulus.
• A child should be convinced that not all
teachers in school are bad or anything that
associates to school matters are bad.
• Help the child to distinguish the difference

between two or three identical stimuli or to
discriminate their distinct differences.
• Fear of anxiety towards a terror teacher
gradually vanishes if in the succeeding days you
Classroom Implications experience pleasant treatment with the teacher.
Classroom Application
Relate learning activities with pleasant events.
Build positive associations between teaching and learning activities.
Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism

Connectionism means learning by selecting and
connecting
Thorndike Theory of Learning Classroom Implications
1. Multiple response – variation of
responses that would lead to conclusion or
✓ A child tries multiple responses to
solve a certain problem.
arrival of an answer
2. Law of Set and Attitude – attitude means
“disposition”, “pre-judgment”, and
✓ Giving of homework, advanced
reading affects learning
prior instruction/experience affects
towards a given task.
3. Law of Readiness – interfering with oral b. Law of disuse – connections between
directed behavior causes frustration, causing a stimulus and response are weakened when
someone to do something they do not want to practice is discontinued.
do is also frustrating. 5. Law of Effect – reward increases the
a. When someone is ready to perform strength of a connection whereas punishment
some act, to do is satisfying. does nothing.
b. When someone is ready to perform
some act, not to do is annoying.
c. When someone is not ready to
perform some act and is forced to do, it is
annoying.
4. Law of Exercise – the organism learns by
doing and forgets by not doing.
a. Law of use – connections between
stimulus and response are strengthened as
they are used.
✓ Asking a child to write the alphabets ✓ Provide varied enhancement
activities/exercises, seatwork.
when he/she did not learn the basic strokes of
writing gets frustrated and annoyed.
✓ Praise students’ achievements;

encourage those low performing students to
do better.
✓ Practice makes perfect
Do not force the child to go to school if he/she is not yet ready. Indications of readiness:
sustained interest, improved performance (Ex. Writing, reading)
Practice what has been learned
Consider individual differences.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning - using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of
behavior.
Reinforcers– any consequence that strengthen a behavior
❖ Primary reinforcer– related to basic needs. Ex. food
❖ Secondary reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with
primary reinforcer. Ex. money to buy food
❖ Positive reinforcer– consequence given to strengthen a behavior
❖ Negative reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior.
Reinforcement –it is a key element to explain why and how learning occurs.
❖ Verbal – praise, encouragement
❖ Physical – touch, pats, hugs
❖ Non-verbal – smiles, winks, warm looks
❖ Activity – games, enjoyments
❖ Token – points, stars
❖ Consumable – cookies
Punishment – any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior
Teachers may use pleasant or unpleasant consequence to control the occurrence of behavior
Act on a situation right away. Be sure to make students understand why they are being
reinforced or punished
B. Cognitive and Metacognition

Main focus is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information)
Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
Believe in the non-observable behavior
Basic Concepts:
1. Perception - a person’s interpretation of stimuli.
2. Encoding – putting information in memory
3. Storage – changing the format of new information as it is being stored in memory
4. Rehearsal – mental repetition of information
5. Dual Coding – holds the complex networks or verbal representations and images to promote
long term retention.
6. Retrieval – finding information previously stored in memory; recalling
Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already
knows.
May occur through:
➢ reception
➢ rote learning
➢ discovery learning
David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory

Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already
knows.
May occur through:
➢ reception
➢ rote learning
➢ discovery learning
Two Dimensions of Learning Processes:

The first dimension relates to the two ways The second dimension relates to the two
by which knowledge to be learned is made ways by which the learner incorporate
available to the learner new information into his existing cognitive
structure
1. Meaningful Reception Learning 3. Meaningful Discovery Learning
2. Rote Reception Learning 4. Rote Discovery Learning
Meaningful Reception Learning

material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and relates it to his/her existing
knowledge
Rote Reception Learning
material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and is memorized
Meaningful Discovery Learning
learner arrives at the solution to a problem or other outcome independently and relates it to
his/her existing knowledge.
Rote Discovery Learning
the solution is arrived at independently but is committed to memory
Teachers to take note that before actual learning is expected, the teachers may use
advance organizers
Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory

or Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction
Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to discover on
their own the relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a solution to a problem
An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring
and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments.
The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own.
Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”
Scaffolding
Teachers must strive to see a problem as the learner sees it and provide information that
is consistent with learner’s perspective.
Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/Problem – Solving Theory

Insight – the capacity to discern the true nature of situation
- imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
• Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring
perception until a solution is arrived at.
The more intelligent a person and the more experiences he has, the more capable he will be
for gaining insight.
Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between objects and
events and act accordingly to achieve their needs.
The power of looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution
Allow students to go through trial and error method especially in doing laboratory
experiments and in solving mathematical equations
Teachers should help students in gaining insights by giving/presenting activities/situations to do
so, they will be able to solve their problems.
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism

➢ It emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of
information.
➢ It is about how the individual learner understands things, in terms of developmental stages
and learning styles
Two major parts:
1. Ages – what children can and cannot understand at different ages
2. Stages – how children develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages
Developmental Stages - it is a distinct period in the life cycle characterized by a particular sets
of abilities, motives, behavior and emotion that occur together and form a coherent pattern.
Consider the developmental stages and learning styles of learners in presenting ideas
Teachers should provide necessary resources and rich environment filled with interesting
things to explore, thus become active instructor of their own knowledge
Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory

The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs
operation in it, stores the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval)
Memory – the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time.
Stages of Human Memory

1. Sensory Memory – utilizes sense organs such as visual, auditory; lasts less than a second Ex.
color, shape, blowing of horn
2. Short Term Memory (STM) – selected by attention; lasts up to 13-30 seconds
3. Long Term Memory (LTM) – lasting retention of information

- Minutes to lifetime
- Information on The LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten through trace decay
Three components:
Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular times and places and a storage
place for many personal experiences.
Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to “knowing that”
Semantic Memory – knowledge of general facts, principles and concepts that are not
connected to particular times and places.Organized in networks of connected ideas or
relationships referred grouped under larger more generic categories.
Forgetting
To be unable to recall (something previously known) to the mind
Causes of Forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure- forgetting is due to inability to recall the information.
2. Decay Theory – information stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not used.
3. Interference Theory – forgetting in LTM is due to the influence of other learning
Retention- the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced.
Interference – the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing or impeding.
Hold learner’s attention in all cognitive tasks.
Assist learner to assess materials considered most important to learn
Employ interesting rehearsal activities
Organize information to be learned
Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning

Learning skills are hierarchically arranged
Progression from stimulus-response associations to concepts, principles and problem solving.
7 Levels of Learning
1. Signal Learning – involuntary responses are learned Ex. hot surface touched
2. Stimulus-response Learning – voluntary responses are learned. Ex. Getting ready to move at
the sound of a fire alarm
3. Chaining/Motor – two or more separate motor/verbal responses maybe combined or chained
to develop a more complex shell
Ex. house + wife = housewife
4. Discrimination Learning – learner selects a response which applies to stimuli.
Ex. sound of fire engine is different from other sounds/sirens
5. Concept Learning – involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain meaningful
concepts
Ex. Concept of “triangle”, discriminate triangle from other shapes and
deduce commonality among different shapes
6. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) – involves combining and relating concepts to form
rules
Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes
7. Problem Solving – considered the most complex condition: involves applying rules to
appropriate problem situations
Ex. Solving mathematical problems using a given formula (find the area
of a square A = 1xW)
Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)

Transfer – to convey or cause to pass from
one place, person or things to another; direct
(a person) elsewhere for help or information.
Transfer of Learning
Types:
1. Lateral transfer – occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the
same level. (e.g. solving word problems given in text and later solving a similar problem on the
board)
2. Vertical transfer – occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced/complex skills
(e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and write)
Observe strictly sequence in teaching in terms of level of learning skills and
capabilities required.
Check students’ capabilities in each level before moving to the next level.
Make sure that pre-requisite learning is required before proceeding to the target level.
Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
➢ Known for the terms: “life space” (reality, need, aspirations, desires, goals) and “field
theory” (forces-social environment; function of both the person and environment
➢ “Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process”
In a classroom for instance teachers must try to suit the goals of the activities of the lessons to
the learner’s needs along with his environment.
C. Socio-cultural Concepts:
Learning involves participation in a community of practice
Society and culture affects learning
Social learners become involved in a community of practice, which embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired; social interaction.
Culture and Learner Diversity

Relationship of culture and learning style affect students’ learning/achievement.
* student’s color, “way of life” vs. cultural values, beliefs and norms of schools
Teacher’s cultures
- teacher’s own cultural orientations impede successful learners guided by another
cultural orientation.
Albert Bandura’s Social / Observational Learning Theory

Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment
People learn through observation, simulation, modeling which means watching
(observing), another called a model and later imitating the model’s behavior.
Concentrates on the power of example
Models are classified as:

Real life– exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others
Symbolic – presented through oral/written symbols, e.g. books
Representational– presented through audio-visual measures, e.g. films
Concepts in Social Learning Theory

1. Vicarious Learning – learning is acquired from observing the consequences of other’s
behavior.
2. Self – regulated Learning – occurs when individuals observe, assess and judge their own
behavior against their own standards, and subsequently reward or punish themselves.
4 Phases of Observational Learning
1. Attention – mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend to
recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response.
2. Retention –reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that
observed behavior
3. Motor Reproduction Process– after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed
for reproduction of the behavior learned.
4. Motivation al Process– although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled
behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable
Classroom application:
Model desirable behaviors, making sure that the students are paying attention while doing so
Make sure that the students are physically capable of doing the modeled behavior and that
they know why they should demonstrate this behavior Expose students to a variety of
exemplary models
Situated Learning by Jean Lave and Wenger

Concepts
The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process of learning.
Learning involves social relationships – situations of co-participation.
Learning is in the relationships between people.
Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations they
share. Classroom Application
Engage students in group activities/participatory works
Allow students to do/participate in community – based
activities Relate teaching- learning to real life situations
UrieBrofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory/Environmental

Contexts Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in.
Learners are understood within the context of their environment.
These environmental contexts are interrelated.
Environmental Contexts: Major Levels

1. Microsystem – innermost level
- contains the structure that has direct contact with child
2.Mesosystem– connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
rd
3.Exosystem – 3 level
- social system which the child does not function directly 4.Macrosystem– outermost
level
- values, customs, laws, beliefs and resources of a culture/society
5 . Chronosystem–
If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to
explore other parts of his environment resulting to behavioral deficiencies. Learning tends to
regress / slow down when the environment of the child is in turmoil
School and teachers should work to support primary needs of the learner to create an
environment that welcomes and nurtures school – home relationship through: parent-
teacher conferencing, home visitation, telephone brigade, family day
Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

It emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - gap between actual and potential development
*Actual development – what children can do on their own * Potential development – what
children can do with help
Scaffolding –
 competent assistance or support through mediation of the environment (significant
others) in which cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral development can
occur. Classroom Application
Engage students in group activities and let them share their schema on a particular subject
within the groups (small groups) and synthesize it in the big group
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Intelligence

– refers to general mental ability of a person
- capacity to resolve problems or to fashion products that are valued in a more
cultural setting
Achievements – refers to the previous learning of a person in a certain subject area.
Multiple Intelligence – capacity of a person to possess and adapt two or more
intelligences.
Intelligence Competence Examples
1. Linguistic – sensitivity to spoken - Ability to learn ▪ Writers, poets,

and written language language lawyers, speakers
- Capacity to use
language to accomplish
certain goals
2.Logical/mathematical – analyzes - Ability to detect ▪ Scientists,
problems logically, carry out patters, reason mathematicians
mathematical operations, and deductively and think
investigate issues scientifically. logically.
3. Musical – skill in the performance, - Capacity to recognize ▪ Musicians,
composition and appreciation of and compose musical composers
musical patterns. pitches, tones and
rhythms.
4. Bodily kinesthetic – using one’s - Ability to use mental ▪ Athletes, dancers
whole body or body parts to solve abilities to coordinate
and convey ideas. bodily movements.
5. Spatial – recognize and use Capacity to understand, • Engineers
patterns of wide space and more appreciate and
confined areas. maximize the use of
spaces
6. Interpersonal – working effectively - Capacity to ▪ Educators, sales

with others. understand the people, religious
intentions, motivations counselors,
and desires of other politicians
people.
7. Intrapersonal – working effectively - Capacity to
with oneself understand oneself,
appreciate one’s
feelings, fears and
motivations
8. Naturalist – appreciation of the - Ability to recognize, ▪ Nature lover,
environment/nature. categorize and grow environmentalist
upon certain features of
the environment
Make use of various activities which will address the different intelligences of your students
in the class (e.g. art activities to accommodate art inclined students, song writing for musically
inclined, etc)
Robert Sternberg Triarchic Intelligence (1988), focuses on three main components

of intelligence:
Practical intelligence--the ability to do well in informal and formal educational settings;

adapting to and shaping one's environment; street smarts.
Experiential intelligence--the ability to deal with novel situations; the ability to
effectively automate ways of dealing with novel situations so they are easily handled in the
future; the ability to think in novel ways.
Componential intelligence--the ability to process information effectively.Includes
metacognitive, executive, performance, and knowledge-acquisition components that help to steer
cognitive processes.
Engage students in practical, experiential and classroom-based activities.
Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Highlights the role of emotion in the success or happiness of an individual which eventually
affects behavior or learning.
Surface the emotions manifested by students in a certain situation. Don’t suppress it.
William Glasser’s Control Theory

Behavior is inspired by what satisfies a person’s want at any given time.
Make schoolwork relevant to student’s basic human needs.
David Kolb’s Learning Styles

Learning Styles – are tools utilized by learners to cope and adjust to the learning environment
Four learning styles

Learning Styles Educational Implications
1. Convergers– rely on abstract
conceptualizing and experimenting -
▪ Teacher should provide learning tasks that have
specific answers like numbers and figures/units.
they like to find specific, concrete
answers and move quickly to solution
- unemotional, since they prefer to deal
with things rather than with people. Ex.
physical sciences and engineering
2. Assimilators – rely most on abstract ▪ Teacher should provide learning tasks that call
for integration of materials/situational activities
conceptualizing and reflective
observation
- interested in theoretical concerns than
in applications.
Ex. research and planning
3. Divergers – rely on concrete
experience and active participation
▪ Teacher should provide group activities since
learners enjoy working in groups.
- generate ideas and enjoy working with
people.
Ex. counseling and consulting
4. Accommodators – rely on concrete
experience and active experimentation -
▪ Teacher should provide learning tasks that call
for hands-on approach.
risk – taking, action oriented, adoptable
in new situations.
Ex. marketing, business, sales
Types of Learners
Types of Learners/Perceptual Educational Implications/Learning
Channel Preferences
1. Auditory learners – prefer to learn

by listening/auditory perceptual
▪ Lecturing is the teaching approach that works best
for them.
channel.
▪ Songs/poems are useful and effective learning tools.
2. Visual learners – prefer print
materials/visual perceptual channel
3. Tactile learners – like to
manipulate objects/tactile perceptual
▪ Reading/responding to visual cues, such as the
chalkboard or transparencies
channel
▪ Textbooks and pictures are useful and effective
learning tools.
4. Kinesthetic or whole body ▪ Hands-on or laboratory methods of learning are
learners – like to learn through most appropriate for learners.
experiential activities/kinesthetic ▪ Tracing diagrams or using texture examples.
perceptual channel.
▪ Simulations, exploratory activities and problem-
solving approach of teaching.
▪ Pacing or dancing while learning new material.
Part II
MOTIVATION
What is meant by Motivation?

An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that serves to
activate or energize behavior and give it direction.
Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior we ordinarily refer
to as ability. Ability refers to what a person wants to do.
In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to understand that motivation comes in two forms.
Two Kinds of Motivation:
Extrinsic Motivation
– When students work hard to win their parents’ favour, gain teachers’ praise or earn high
grades; their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves.
- Is fuelled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from an external source
Intrinsic Motivation
– when students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the
praise won or grades earned; the reasons for learning reside primarily inside themselves
- Fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions
Principles of Motivation
The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned.
Incentives motivate learning
Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self – directive than is external motivation, which
must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.
Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is when one want to
know something.
Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.
Theories of Motivation
1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull)

• Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that motivates behavior
• Drives most typically have been considered to involve physiological survival needs;
hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, sex.
• A drive results from the activation of a need
• Need – a physiological deficiency that creates condition of disequilibrium in the
body
2.Self – Efficacy (Albert Bandura)

Self – efficacy – it is the belief that one has capabilities to execute the courses of actions required
to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in
essence competence) self – efficacy is the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has the power
to produce that effect.
Self – efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his/her ability to reach a goal while, self –
esteem relates to a person’s sense of self – worth.
3. Self – Determination (E. Deci)

Self – determination – comes from the sense of autonomy that a person has when it comes to
things that he does and the choices he makes.
4. Theory of Achievement Motivation (Atkinson)

 Motivation to perform is affected by two variables
 Expectancy – people must believe than they can accomplish a task, that is, they should
have expectancy about what they want to achieve.
 Value – they should place an importance or value in what they are doing.
5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)

People’s various explanations for successes and failures – their beliefs about what causes
attributions.
Dimensions underlying people’s attribution. People can explain events in many different ways.
For example, a tennis player may attribute his/her wins and successes in matches to things like –
luck, health, effort, mood, strengths and weaknesses of his/her opponents, climate, his/her fans
etc.
TECHNIQUES IN MOTIVATING LEARNERS

Challenge them - offer student’s opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them
to take intellectual risks.
Build on strengths first - Opportunity to use their talents to achieve success.
Offer choices - offering choices develop ownership. When child makes decisions he/she is
more likely to accept ownership and control of the results.
Provide a secure environment which permits children to fail without penalty. Learning how
to deal with failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning.
III. ACHIEVING LEARNING OUTCOMES
A. Definitions
- Learning outcomes specify what a learner is expected to know, understand or to be able to do as a
result of a learning process.
- Measuring learning outcomes provides information on what particular knowledge (cognitive); skill or
behavior (psychomotor and affective). Students have gained after instruction is completed.
B. Importance
• Communicate expectations to learners
• Review curriculum and content
• Design appropriate assessment
• Evaluate the effectiveness of learning
C. Three learning domains (KSA)
– development of knowledge and intellectual skills

- mental skills (knowledge)
Basic Concepts: Cognitive Learning

1.Fact – something that is true, something that actually exists
2. Concept – basically the main idea
3. Generalization –the formation of a general notion by putting together general concepts
4. Thinking – rational; reasoning
Types of Thinking
1 Problem Solving – process involved in the solution of a problem.
2. Critical Thinking
a. Careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, suspend judgement on a
claim
b. Reasonable reflective thinking that is focused in deciding whether to believe or do
c. Comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use to solve
problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts
3. Creative Thinking
 Involves the ability to produce new forms in an art or mechanics or to solve problems by novel
methods
 Creativity consist in coming up with a new and relevant ideas
 Creativity has two kinds
b. Cognitive – involved in problem solving
c. Aesthetic – relating to artistic creation
4. Metacognition
-meta– after; beyond; higher
-cognition– way of thinking; perceiving; knowing
➢ Refers to the idea of “knowing about knowing”, involves the study of how we think about our
own thinking in order to develop strategies for learning.
➢ Is the capacity to monitor and regulate one’s own thinking or mental capacity.
➢ From of thinking in which an individual develops an awareness of his characteristics, attitudes,
beliefs, and actions.
Principles in Achieving Cognitive Learning and Their Classroom Implications

 Content: Teach tacit heuristic knowledge as well as textbook knowledge.
 Situated Learning: Teach knowledge and skills that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful
in real life.
 Modeling and Explaining: Show how a process unfolds and tell reasons why it happens that way.
 Coaching and Feedback: Pay personalized attention to performance, coupled with appropriate
hints, helps, and encouraging feedback.
 Articulation and Reflection: make students think about and give reasons for their actions/own
performance.
 Exploration: Encourage students to try out different strategies and observe their effects.
 Sequence: Proceed in an order from simple to complex, with increasingly diversity.
C.2. Affective Learning Domain

(Krathwol)
- deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate
- valuing what is being learned
- incorporating the values of a discipline as a way of life
- growth in feeling or emotional areas (attitude)
Basic Concepts: Affective Learning

 Beliefs – an accepting of something or someone as true or reliable without asking for proof.
 Attitudes – a particular feeling or way of thinking about something.
 Values – important and enduring beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good
or desirable and what is not.
Principles in Achieving the Development of Attitudes and Values and Their Classroom Implications
 Every interaction with children provides an opportunity to teach values.
 Children learn about our values through daily interaction with us.
 Children learn through our example
 Children learn values through the way we do things as a family.
 Children learn values and beliefs through their exposure to the larger world.
 Children learn values through our explanations of the world.
C.3 Psychomotor Learning Domain

(Anita J. Harrow)
Includes physical movement that involves coordination of the mind and body
Manual of physical skills
Basic Concepts: Psychomotor Learning

Capacity – the facility or power to produce, perform or deploy.
Ability – competence in an activity or occupation because of ones’ skill, training, or other
qualification. Skill – learned capacity to carry out predetermined results often with the minimum
outlay of time, energy, or both.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN ACHIEVING PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING AND THEIR CLASSROOM

IMPLICATIONS
1. The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face to face situation.
2. It focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of motor operations for a
child of given age.
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.
5. Psychomotor learning is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners to
perform.
Acknowledgement goes to various authors

/mlba

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Professional Education: Foundations of Education

Mr. Gerry C. Areta

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

PREPARED BY: Mr. Gerry C. Areta

PART I: Content Update

THE NATURE OF A SCHOOL

THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS (Bago, 2008)

SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF SCHOOLS

A. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

PERIOD INFLUENCES PIONEER/S

- Monasticism Education as a religious discipline

2|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

- Reformation - Religious moralism - Martin Luther King – Father of

- Jean Jacques Rousseau – man at birth is

- Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi – use of

3|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

- John Dewey – Developed the pragmatic

PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

- Educational aims: training for self-government and provision of English as a

- Re-orientation of educational plans and policies to carry out the educational

4|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

- Service eligibility of teachers was made permanent

5|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

B. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION Nature of Philosophy

COMPARISONS OF EASTERN AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

• Founded by Siddharta Gautama

8|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

• Its origin traced to Plato’s doctrine of ideas and 1. Socrates – used

• School of thought attributed to Aristotle. This 1. Aristotle – the union of forms

9|Page Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

• Existentialism is a kind of philosophizing that

10 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

12 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

C. THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Why Teaching is a Profession

4. As a Pioneer in the World of Ideas

15 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

9. As a Model for the Youth

10. As a Person of Culture

11. As a Community Link

12. As a Mediator of Culture

D. LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

I. Article XIV, 1987 Philippine Constitution The mandates are as follows:

16 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

• Rights, duties and responsibilities of parents and students in school

17 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

V. R.A. 9293 – An Act Amending Certain Sections of RA 7836

VI. R.A. 9155 – Government of Basic Education Act of 2001

18 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

The Teacher and the State

The Teacher and the Community

The Teacher and the Profession

The Teacher and the Teaching Community

The Teacher and the Higher Authorities in the Profession

19 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

The Teachers and the Learners

The Teachers and the Parents

The Teacher and Business

The Teacher as a Person

20 | P a g e Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

5. The Constitutional provision on language has the following aims EXCEPT:

11. The main function of a philosophy of education is to: