http://clipart-library.com/clipart/23866.

htm

Chemistry
for Engineers
CHEM 1800

Chapter 2
Atoms,
Molecules, and
Ions
 Properties of Matter
The properties of matter can be divided into
physical and chemical properties
Physical Properties
• Characteristics observed or measured that do
not change the composition of the substance
• Examples: mass, odor, colour, temperature,
hardness, conductivity
Chemical Properties
• Characteristics observed or measured that
change the chemical identity of the substance
• Example: flammability, toxicity, tarnishing,
2020 Fall
combustion, corrosion
Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-2
 Properties of Matter
Physical properties can be extensive or intensive

Extensive
• Properties are dependent of sample size
• Examples: length, volume, mass, resistance
Intensive
• Properties are independent of the sample size
• Examples: temperature, density, boiling point,
melting point, yield stress

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-3

 Classifying Matter
All matter is either a pure substance of a mixture

copper

Heterogeneous Homogeneous
water
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-4
 Periodic Table of Elements
Elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals,
or metaloids (semimetals) based on their position
in the periodic table

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-5

 Properties of Elements
Substance Metals Non-metals
Physical Solid at room Solid or gas at room
State temperature temperature
Appearance Shiny Dull
Malleability Ductile, malleable Brittle
Conducts heat and Does not conduct
Conductivity
electricity heat or electricity
Density High Low
Melting Point High Low
Chemical Reacts with non- Reacts with metals
Reactivity metals and other non-metals
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-6
 Periods
Elements with similar chemical properties are found
in horizontal rows called periods

Period 5

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-7

 Groups
Elements with similar chemical properties are found
in vertical columns called groups

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-8

 Groups – Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are the elements found in group 1

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-9

 Reactivity of Alkali Metals

Alkali metals react vigorously with water

Watch Video

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-10

 Groups – Alkali Earth Metals
Alkali earth metals are elements found in group 2

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-11

 Groups – Halogens
Halogens are elements found in group 17

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-12

 Groups – Halogens
Nobel gases are elements found in group 18

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-13

 Periodic Table
1. What group and period does magnesium belong to?

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-14

 Periodic Table
1. Which element is located in group 14 and period 6?

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-15

 Discovery of the Electron
The cathode ray tube experiment
J.J. Thompson (in 1897) used a
cathode ray tube to show the
presence of electrons in atoms
A current flowing from the
anode to the cathode created a
visible glow

The cathode ray is deflected

towards the positive end of a
charge plate suggesting the
cathode ray consists of negatively
charged particles called electrons
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-16
 Electron Charge and Mass
Thompson was able to calculate the ratio of the
electron charge (e) to its mass (m) by measuring
the deflection caused by electric and magnetic
fields

Thompson
Millikan
The mass of the electron was determined later by
Robert Millikan (in 1913) who measured the charge
of an electron from oil droplets in charged plates
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-17
 Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

When the voltage is adjusted on the plate, the electrostatic

force on the drop is balanced with the gravitational force
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-18
 Model of the Atom
The Plum Pudding Model
Thompson proposed a model for an atom to explain
the separate charges
https://www.ck12.org/c/physical-science/thomsons-atomic-model/lesson/Thomsons-Atomic-
Model-MS-PS/

https://www.ck12.org/c/physical-science/thomsons-atomic-
model/lesson/Thomsons-Atomic-Model-MS-PS/

The atom was organized like a plum pudding with the

raisins (the electrons) distributed in a seal of uniform
positive charge (the cake)
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-19
 Atomic Structure: Protons and Neutrons
Atomic Nucleus:
Ernest Rutherford bombarded gold foils with alpha
particles.
Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil
undeflected, but approximately 1 in every 20,000
particles was deflected.
A fraction of those particles were deflected back at
an extreme angle.

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-20

 Discovery of the Nucleus
The Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherford proposed that the atom must consist

mainly of empty space, with the mass concentrated
in a tiny central core—the nucleus.
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-21
 Atomic Structure: Protons and Neutrons

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-22

 Atomic Structure

• An atom in an element is
made up of three small
particles: protons, neutrons,
and electrons
• Protons are positively
charged particles that are
located in the core of the
atom, known as the nucleus
• Neutrons are neutral
particles that are located in
the nucleus

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-23

 Atomic Structure
Bohr Model of the atom

Electrons are negatively charged particles Bohr

that are located outside the nucleus

Electrons move rapidly

in an orbit surrounding
the nucleus

The atomic structure of electrons orbiting around the

nucleus resembles planets orbiting around the sun
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-24
 Subatomic Particles
Protons, neutrons, and electrons are called:
subatomic particles
Characteristics
Common Charge Mass Mass
Particle Location
Symbols (±) (g) (u)
Outside
Electron e- 1- 9.07x10-28 1/1836
nucleus
Inside
Proton p, p+, H+ 1+ 1.67x10-24 1
nucleus
inside
Neutron n 0 1.67x10-24 1
nucleus

Notice how much heavier the proton and

neutron are compared to the electron
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-25
 Notation of Subatomic Particles
Mass number
Total number of neutrons
1 and protons (mass, u)
Neutron: 0n
Charge
1
Proton: 1p

0
Electron: −1e

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-26

 Strong Nuclear Force
Protons are positive charge particles
they repel each other

What keeps the

nucleus together?

Electrostatic force Nuclear force

causes repulsion counters the
between protons electrostatic force

The strong nuclear force of attraction

counters the electrostatic force of repulsion
to hold the nucleus together
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-27
 Atomic and Mass Numbers
Every element is characterized by two numbers:
its atomic mass and its mass number
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an atom’s
nucleus,
equivalent to the number of electrons around
an atom’s nucleus
(charge must be equal for a neutral atom)
Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of protons
and the number of neutrons in an
atom’s nucleus
Isotope: Atoms with identical atomic numbers, but
different mass numbers
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-28
 Element Symbols
Element symbols have the form:
A
o Z is the atomic number Z E
o A is the mass number
o E is the element symbol
On the Periodic Table, carbon would look like:

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-29

 Element Symbols

Converting this shorthand to a written form

𝐴 12
𝑍𝐸 ⟶ 6𝐶

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-30

 Element Symbols

For a Fluorine atom, how many

Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-31

 Element Symbols
The atomic mass and the mass number are not
the same
The atomic mass for an element generally is not a
whole number

The atomic mass is an average mass for over all

isotopes of a particular element
Isotopes are chemical elements that have the
same number of protons, but a different
number of neutrons
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-32
 Isotopes
Cl-35 and Cl-37 are examples of isotopes of chlorine
Mass number 37
35 37
17Cl 𝑎𝑛𝑑 17Cl
Mass number 35

Different

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-33

 Isotopes
Write the following isotopes in elemental notation and
determine the number of neutrons in each isotope

1. Oxygen-18

2. Phosphorus-33

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-34

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-35
 Isotopes
Write the following isotopes in elemental notation and
determine the number of neutrons in each isotope

1. Oxygen-18

2. Phosphorus-33

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-36

 Atomic Mass Units
The mass of an atom is too small to deal with
The mass of a uranium-235 atom is about 3.90x10-22 g!
and this is a heavy atom.
We need a better measurement unit
Carbon-12 is used as
The mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 the standard because
is defined to be 12 u (or 12 amu) it’s mass has been
accurately measured
many times

Why is this not 12?

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-37
 Isotopes of Carbon

The isotopes of carbon include

12C 13C 14C

The average atomic mass These are naturally

for carbon is 12.01 u occurring isotopes
The average of the isotopic
masses is 12 + 13 + 14
= 13
3
Is this average wrong?

Yes!
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-38
 Isotopes of Carbon
Simple averaging assumes that all events occur
equally
This means that 1/3 of the isotopes are C-12, C-13,
and C-14

However, the isotopes occur in varying abundance

 C-12 at 98.9%
 C-13 at 1.10%
 C-14 at 0.001 ppb (part per trillion, negligible)

The average must weigh, using the abundance,

each of the atomic masses to give the true
atomic mass
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-39
 Isotopes of Carbon
The average must weigh, using the abundance,
each of the atomic masses to give the true
atomic mass
 C-12 at 98.9%
 C-13 at 1.10%
 C-14 at 0.001 ppb
(part per billion, negligible)
% 12𝐶 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12𝐶 + % 13𝐶 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 13𝐶 + % 14𝐶 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 14𝐶
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
100

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-40

 Calculating Atomic Mass

Practice Problem
Silver (Ag) has two stable isotopes:
107Ag, 106.90 amu

109Ag, 108.90 amu

If the average atomic mass of silver is 107.87 amu,

what is the natural abundance of each isotope.

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-41

 Radioactivity

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-42

 Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Equation: A reaction that changes an

atomic nucleus

Carbon-14 is a radioisotope (radioactive isotope) of

carbon and undergoes beta decay (b-decay)
beta particle
14C ⟶ 14N + 0e
6 7 −1
Half life is 5730 years
Half life is the time for half of the
radioisotopes in the sample to decay
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-43
 Carbon-14 Radioactive Dating
Although there is only a
small amount of C-14 in the
environment, this isotope is
used for radioactive dating
While alive, C-14 is taken
into an organism, and it
stops when it dies
Can date bones, wood, fibers
Carbon-14 dating is a
method for determining the
age of certain archeological
artifacts that are up to
50000 years old
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-44
 Alpha Radiation
An alpha (α) particle is a helium-4 nucleus
(2 protons and 2 neutrons).
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

Alpha particle, α

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-45

 Gamma Radiation
Gamma (g) radiation involves the emission of a
high energy photon, not a discrete particle
It is similar to X-rays

A gamma decay generally does not alter the

atomic number or mass number of the nucleus

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-46

 Compounds
Compounds are substances made of
two or more atoms
Water and Table salt (NaCl) are compounds
H H H H
O
O

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-47

 Chemical Formula
The number of atoms in a molecule or compound
are represented using a chemical formula

The number of atoms of an element in a

molecule is shown by a subscript value placed
after the element symbol

Examples:
1 Oxygen 2 Oxygen 2 Oxygen
atom atoms atoms
𝐻2 𝑂 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝐶𝑂2
2 Hydrogen 2 Hydrogen 1 Carbon
atoms atoms atom
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-48
 Law of Definite Proportions

Different samples of a pure chemical

substance always contain the same
proportion of elements by mass

Example CO2 C: 12.01 u and Ox2: 32.00 u

Mass of C Mass of O Ratio of O:C

12 g 32 g 32/12 =2.67
24 g 2.67
36 g 2.67

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-49

 Law of Definite Proportions
Example

A pure sample of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains

42 g of sodium. What is the mass of chlorine in
the sample?

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-50

 Law of Multiple Proportions
Law of Multiple Proportions
Elements can combine in different ways to form
different substances, whose mass ratios are
small whole-number multiples of each other.
Nitrogen monoxide
Atoms of N and
O can combine
7 grams nitrogen per 8 grams oxygen in specific
proportions to
Nitrogen dioxide form:
NO and NO2

7 grams nitrogen per 16 grams oxygen – twice as much

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-51
 Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction

3.25 g + 3.32 g = 6.57 g

Hg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

4.55 g + 2.02 g = 6.57 g © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-52
 Challenge Problem
If 2.0 g of hydrogen reacts with 18.0 g of fluorine to
form hydrogen fluoride (HF), determine the mass of
HF produced and the fraction (%) of hydrogen
formed in the compound.

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-53

 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The Law of Definite Proportions, the Law of Multiple
Proportions, and the Law of Conservation of Mass
are combined to form Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms.
• Each element is characterized by the mass of its atoms.
• Atoms of the same element have the same mass, but
atoms of different elements have different masses.
• The chemical combination of elements to make different
chemical compounds occurs when atoms join in small
whole number ratios.
• Chemical reactions only rearrange how atoms are
combined in chemical compounds; the atoms themselves
do not change. The total mass does not change.
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-54
 Compound Formation
Atoms come together to form molecules through
chemical bonding.
There are two main types of chemical bonds:
ionic and covalent

ionic covalent
• occurs between a metal • occurs between two
and a non-metal non-metals
• involves a transfer of • involves a sharing of
electrons electrons
• example: table salt (NaCl) • example: water (H2O)

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-55

 Periodic Table of Elements
Elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals,
or metaloids (semimetals) based on their position
in the periodic table

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-56

 Binary Ionic Compounds
Substances that consist of two atoms are
binary compounds
Substances that consist of atoms that are
ionically bonded (electrostatic forces) are
ionic compounds

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-57

 Interaction of Ions
Ionic Compound
A neutral compound in which the total
number of positive charges must equal
the total number of negative charges.

Positive ions (cations) are attracted to negative ions (anions)

Opposites
+ - + - attract

Like charges repel one another

+ + + +

- - - -
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-58
 Binary Ionic Compound Formulas
We represent ionic compounds using ionic formulas

Steps for writing binary ionic compound formulas

1. Write down the atomic symbol of the cation
and anion with the charge above the symbol
2. Cross the charge of the anion and cation
3. Write the atomic symbols with charges as
superscripts
4. Reduce to the lowest terms where necessary
The total positive charge must equal the total negative
charge for a neutral ionic compound
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-59
 Charge on Monoatomic Ion
Cation Charges for Anion Charges for
Typical Main-Group Typical Main-Group
Ions 1+ 2+ Ions
3+
3– 2– 1–

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-60

 Binary Ionic Compound Formulas
We represent ionic compounds using ionic formulas

Steps for writing binary ionic compound formulas

1. Write down the atomic symbol of the cation
and anion with the charge above the symbol
3+ 1-
Al Cl
2. Cross the charge of the anion and cation

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-61

 Binary Ionic Compound Formulas
We represent ionic compounds using ionic formulas

Steps for writing binary ionic compound formulas

1. Write down the atomic symbol of the cation
and anion with the charge above the symbol
2. Cross the charge of the anion and cation
3. Write the atomic symbols with charges as
superscripts
AlCl3

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-62

 Binary Ionic Compound Formulas

Write the formula for the following binary ionic compounds

1. Calcium and Phosphorous

2. Gallium and Nitrogen

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-63

 IUPAC Nomenclature
A systematic convention for naming compounds
has been developed by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
A lot of rules for naming
The IUPAC convention is the standard method for
nomenclature in chemistry

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-64

 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Binary ionic compounds are named using the pattern
metal + non-metal stem + ide
Common Non-metal stems
Example Element Stem Formula of Ion
Bromine brom- Br-
MgF2
Chlorine chlor- Cl-
Fluorine fluor- F-
Magnesium Fluoride Iodine iod- I-
Nitrogen nitr- N3-
Oxygen ox- O2-
Phosphorus phosph- P3-
Sulphur sulf- S2-
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-65
 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Provide the IUPAC name for the following
binary compounds

Ga2O3

Al2Se3

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-66

 Multivalent Ions
Transitional elements form more than one cation,
which can have multiple charges

examples

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-67

 Charges of Transition Metals

Transition metals exist as cations in ionic compounds

Charges are determined from the charges of anions

CuF (F = -1 and so Cu = +1)

Cu(OH)2 (OH = -1 and so Cu = +2)

Ionic compounds must have an overall

charge of zero (i.e., must be neutral)

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-68

 Transition Metal Ionic Compounds
Rules for naming ionic compounds
containing transition metals

1. Write the name of the transition metal

2. Indicate the oxidation number (charge) of the
transition metal in brackets () using Roman
Numerals after the name of the transition metal
3. Write the name of the nonmetal stem followed
by the ending –ide
Example NiS (Ni = +2 and S = -2)

Nickel(II) Sulphide
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-69
 Transition Metal Ionic Compounds
Provide the IUPAC name of the
following ionic compounds

1. MnO2

2. Zn3N2

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-70

 Transition Metal Ionic Compounds
Write the formulas for the following compounds

1. Iron (III) oxide

1. Lead (II) iodide

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-71

 Naming Polyatomic Ions

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-72

 Polyatomic Ion Formulas

Writing formulas for polyatomic ions is

similar to that of binary ionic compounds

Steps for writing polyatomic ion formulas

1. Write down the cation and the anion with
charges above the symbol
2. Cross the charge of the cation and anion
3. Write the cation and anion with charges
as subscripts
4. Reduce to the lowest terms

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-73

 Polyatomic Ions Formulas
Writing formulas for polyatomic ions is
similar to that of binary ionic compounds

1. Mg and SO2−
4

1. NH+ and CrO2−

4 4

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-74

 Naming Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

Polyatomic ionic compounds are

named using the following pattern

metal + polyatomic anion name

The polyatomic anion name can be found in the

table on slide 69 (Table 2.5 page 63 of textbook)

Example MgCrO4

Magnesium Chromate

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-75

 Naming Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
Practice
Provide the IUPAC name for the
following polyatomic ion compounds

1. Na2CO3

2. (NH4)2SO4

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-76

 Binary Covalent Compounds
Substances that consist of two atoms are
binary compounds
occurs between two non-metals
involves a sharing of electrons
example: water (H2O)

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-77

 Periodic Table of Elements
Elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals,
or metaloids (semimetals) based on their position
in the periodic table

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-78

 Naming Covalent Compounds
Similar rules for naming binary ionic compounds
Rules
1. Provide the name of the least electronegative element first
2. Include the stem of the name of the most electronegative
element and add the ending –ide
3. Indicate the number of atoms for each element using the
Greek prefixes
Note: Mono- is not used at the beginning of a name

Because nonmetals often combine

with one another in different
proportions to form different
compounds, numerical prefixes are
usually included in the names of
binary molecular compounds.
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-79
 Naming Covalent Compounds
Example

Name the compound SO2

S - sulphur is the least electronegative element

name it first
Sulphur

Two atoms of oxygen are present, so we use

the prefix “di”.

Sulphur dioxide

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-80

 Nomenclature
Practice Problems

1. XeF6:
2. dinitrogen pentoxide:
3. TiCl2 :
4. NaClO:
5. Strontium Nitride:
6. Magnesium Acetate:

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-81

 Summary
Key Concepts
• Periodic Table of Elements – groups, periods, halogens,
alkali metals, alkali earth metals, and noble gases
• Experiments for determining atomic structure – cathode
ray, oil drop, gold foil
• Determining number of subatomic particles, isotopes,
and average atomic mass
• Nuclear chemistry – a-decay, b-decay, and g-decay
• Law of definite proportions, law of multiple proportions,
Dalton’s atomic theory
• Writing formulas and IUPAC names for ionic
compounds
• Writing formulas and IUPAC names for covalent
compounds
2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-82
 Problems
Textbook Homework

Page 72, problems 2.50-2.54, 2.58-2.60, 2.70, 2.71

Page 73, problems 2.76, 2.78, 2.80, 2.81, 2.84,
2.87-2.89, 2.92, 2.97, 2.98
Page 74, problems 2.99,-2.105, 2.108-2.111,
2.120-2.123, 2.126, 2.127
Page 75, problems 2.132-2.138, 2.140-2.150

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-83

 dan4 Getty Images/iStockphoto

2020 Fall Chemistry for Engineers CHEM1800-84