PHYSICS

2010 1st semester

NATASHA KELBAS
 UNIT 1: Vibrations, Waves and Sound

Retart Stand

String

Rubber stopper

What factors effect the period of the pendulum?

-rotation of the Earth
* -weight (mass) of the rubber stopper (M)
* -length of sting (L)
- air density/temperature
* -amplitude of the vibration (A)
-material used for string
-gravitational force (w/o it the pendulum won't move)

(NOTE: * means that these are the factors with the biggest impact/ easily measurable)

For an ideal pendulum:

T=2π√L/g
Technical terms:
 Vibration: particles moving back and forth in time.

 Period (T) time for 1 complete cycle.

-measured in seconds (s) usually
-from A to B and then back to A
i.e. A-> B -> A
A B
<
>

 Frequency (f): # of vibrations/ unit time

- measured in Hz. (Hertz or 1/s)
 Waves : vibrations that travel in space AND time
-ex. water waves

Therefore(∴):

time for n vibrations

T=---------------------------
# of vibrations

1. T= Δ t/N

2.f= N/ Δ t

3. (s)

4. f= 1/T (Hz)

constant
crest
amplitude
x-axis
time(s)
displacemnet from
equilibrium (m)
Period (T)
trough

The example above is the ideal vibration

-the amp and the T remains fixed for all time.

Realistic vibrations:
-damped vibrations

What vibrations look like in reality.

A vibration that has been damped in a very

short amount of time.
Ex. Automobile shock absorber
- after the initial shock (a pothole) the car has
to be able to dampen the vibration as soon as
possible. so the shock absorber is there to
minimize the time it takes for the vibration to
be equal to 0.

The wavelength (λ-lambda)

The time is fixed

The period (T)

The position is fixed

UNIVERSAL WAVE EQUATION:

Units:
V=f λ derived from:
V= m/s
speed of wave= distance travelled/time λ= m
f= Hz
V= λ / T V= λ x 1/T V= λ f

Interpretation of V= f λ

-it is assumed that every wave travels through a medium

V- is controlled by a medium (medium fixes the speed of the wave)

∴ you can change f or λ however once f is chosen then λ is automatically set. (and visa versa)

Ex. wave moving through a coil.

Medium= coil
given the medium, you can easily adjust f (i.e. move your hand faster/slower ∴ λ is automatically
set)
Example: Radio

Amplitude
V - fixed Volume
Tunning
f - chose
FM MHz
Frequency AM KHz

Waves in 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D

1-D wave
 mechanical wave moving through a coil

2-D wave
 Water wave on the surface of water

3-D wave
 sound waves from a speaker

Transverse wave

particles in medium move perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels.
Ex. wave in a coil

Longitudinal wave
particles move parallel to the medium

Ex.

Resonance
Every object has a "natural" frequency of vibrations
Ex. period of pendulum

T=2π√L/g

Resonance: if we "force" a system to vibrate @ same frequency the largest amp. response will be
when the "forced" frequency is approximate to the natural frequency.

Example:
Boyfriend has to push his girlfriend on a swing. The best time for him to push so close to the natural
frequency of the girlfriend on the swing in order to get the largest amplitude response of the swing.
Push happnes
here to
increase the
amplitude
REAL life application
-if you car is stuck in a rut during the winter. You could just press gas and get out eventually.
However if you tap the gas pedal to get the car rocking and then using the motion tap on the gas
each time its going up, so using the natural frequency to increase the amplitude. This saves your
engine, time and gas.

Think of a wine glass breaking due to high frequency waves.

-The waves match the natural frequency of the glass and there for increase the amplitude to the
point that the glass can no longer keep itself together.

Interference

waves undergo a special phenomena called interference - waves can travel though each other and
form new waves

Ex 1. SUPER CREST: Total constructive interference.

two waves (crests) moving towards each other with the same
amplitude @ t=0s at with the same speed.

@ t=1s the two waves collide with each other creating a super
crest where the amplitude of the waves (x) is doubled to
become 2x

After the two waves @ t=2s they travel in their initial

directions with the initial speed and amplitude

Ex 2. Total destructive interference

Two waves a crest and a trough of equal amplitude (-x and x)

and speed(v) are travelling towards each other @ t=0s

When the two waves crest+trough meet the amplitudes cancel out to create a straight line (-x+x=0)
@ t=1s

@ t=2s the two waves continue with their initial speed, direction and amplitude.

Square waves

Many waves are sinusoidal in appearance

However due to the fact that it is so hard to figure out the size of the super crests, super troughs
and total destructive interference.

∴ we use square waves (sharp angles) Step 1: place dots to the left and
15u right of the kink points for EACH
Ex. 1 wave

15u Step 2: “add the dots”

10u
Step 3: connect the new dots to form
the new wave.
10u

Wave 1
Wave 2

1st kink. B+G=0, B+G= 10+0=0

2nd kink. B+G=10+0=10, B+G=10+15=25
3rd kink. B+G=10+15=15, B+G= 0+15=15
4th kink. B+G=0+15=15, B+G=0+0=0
more examples:

a)

b)

c)
final wave
wave 1
wave 2

Standing wave

-basing physics of interference

-send a 2nd wave trains @ the same frequency in the opposite direction
^ a series of crests and troughs

medium

-where the two wave trains meet:

 crest+crest=super crest
 trough+trough=super trough
 crest+trough=total destructive interference

result: standing wave

1st mode/fundamental mode: 2 nodes.

λ =L/2

2nd mode: 3 nodes

λ=L
3rd mode: 4 nodes
λ =3L/2

nth mode: n+1 nodes

λn = 2L/n
Universal wave eqn:

V=f λ

∴ f= V / λ
=V / (2L / n)
=Vn / 2L

Standing wave

fn= n(V / 2L)

V and L are fixed

n- changes
as f goes up^, n goes up^

2-D waves
n
wave eq is still valid V=fλ
Plane wave.

X
the crest/trough forms a plane with the other water molecules at that amplitude.

Interference: circular waves spread out and interfere with one another to produce an interference
pattern.

Sound

-a vibration of molecules that make up a medium (air, water, metal[rail

road tracks]...)
-ears are sensitive to these slight vibrations of molecules

The person's vocal chords contract and expand causing the air molecules in your throat to vibrate.
The wave produced is a longitudinal wave with the compressed air particles and the rare fractions
where the molecules are spaced further apart. The ear then picks up on these slight vibrations and
because the ear drum vibrates the brain gets a signal of the amplitude (volume) and the wavelength
(pitch).

-looks like transverse wave: use the same mechanics

-V depends on the temp

Vsound = 331m/s + 0.59xT - (temp in Celsius.)

as T goes up V goes up.

NOTE: T is period and temperature. Be careful some abbreviations have more then one meaning

Sound Phenomena: "Beats"

->f1

f2<-

f1~f2
≠
Resulting sound is a
"trilling" vibration.

Application: given 2 musical instruments A and B

A is in tune and B is not certain. then strike same note (if trilling sound is noted then adjust B)

f(beat) = | f1 - f2 |
NOTE: if f1=f2; f(beat) = 0.

Closed and open vibrating air columns

closed air column Open air column

one end is open for air

closed end open

-many wind instruments can be viewed as either open/closed air columns (i.e. organ pipes, flute,
trumpet, etc.)

4 possible cases:
 open column
◦ fixed length
◦ fixed frequency
 closed column
◦ fixed length
◦ fixed frequency

closed air column open air column

fixed f Ln=(2n-1) λ ΔL= λ/2 Ln=(nλ)/2
4 ΔL= λ/2
fixed L fn= (2n-1)V fn=(2n-1)f1 fn= n-(V/2L)
4L f1=V/2L
f1=V/4L fn =f1 - n
ΔL=L1-L2

closed, fixed length

L1= λ1/4
L2= 3λ2/4
L3= 5λ3/4
Ln=(2n-1) λ/4

closed, fixed frequency

Ln=(2n-1) λ/4
if L is fixed then λ changes.

∴ L= (2n-1) λn/4 ---------> λn = 4L/(2n-1)

V=f λ

fn=V/ λ = V(2n-1)/4L

Equation: fn=V(2n-1)/4L

Open, fixed frequency

L1= λ/2
L2 = λ
L3 = 3λ/2

Ln=nλ/2

Open, fixed Length

∴ Ln=nλn/2
λn= 2L/n
V=fλ
fn=V/λn = n(v/2L)

Ex. 1
Bugle 20 °C
-acts like an open air column.

a) determine fundamental frequency

b) determine 2 higher frequencies

open, L fixed b) f2= 2f1-128Hz

a) fn=nV/2L F3= 3f1= 192Hz
=340/2.65 Hz
= 64Hz

Ex. 2
3rd resonance L of a closed air column resonating to a tuning fork is 95cm (L3)
determine the 1st and 2nd resonance
closed, fixed f.

Ln=(2n-1) λ/4
L3= 5λ/4
λ= 4L3/5
= 4 x 0.85m/5
= 0.76m

Intensity of Sound Waves

quantity related to the Amplitude of the wave

- if we have a point source of sound

ex. a small speaker
in general, as distance from the source increases, the intensity of the sound decreases

inverse square law: Intensity proportional to 1/(distance from source)^2

∴ I ∝ 1/r^2
as r goes down I increases
as r goes up I decreases
NOTE: unit for intensity is W/m^2 (Watts/ m^2)

in practice, however, intensity is called using dB (decibel) levels

10dB= 1B (bell)
dB = 10 x log(intensity/threshold intensity)

"threshold intensity" - 10^-12 W/m^2

dB scale is similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes.

ex. 7.0 earthquake compared to 8.0 eq. The 8.0 is 10x more intense then the 7.0 earthquake

same for dB 10 units, Intensity has increased by a factor of 10.

source intensity dB
threshold of hearing 10^-12 0
normal breathing 10^-11 10
vacuum cleaner 10^-4 80
pneumatic chisel 10^-1 110
loud rock and roll concert 1 120
instant perforations of eardrum 10^4 160

Doppler Effect

-pitch (f) of a sound depends on whether the sounds source moves toward or away from you.

- if source is approaching then f goes up

- if source is moving away then f goes down

as ambulance moves towards you effective lambda of sound goes down and frequency goes up
"moving into the waves"
Mach number =speed of object
speed of sound (usually @ 20 °C)

UNIT 2: Kinematics

- study of motion (relationship b/w distance and time)

1st examine motion in a straight line (1-D)

Vav = (final position-initial position)/time period units: (m/s)

^ average velocity

position of an object must be measured with respect to an origin.

 -ve +ve

Origin Initial Final position

(O) position (110m)
(40m)

d1= initial position= +40m

d2= final position= +110m
time interval= 2.0s
∴ Vavg= (d2-d1)/Δt = (110m-40m)/2.0s = +35m/s (+means that the object is moving to the
right)

Ex.1

O
-60m i.p. -20m f.p
ANS: Vav should be +ve! b/c car is moving
2.0s towards the right.

Vavg= (d2-d1)/Δt = (-20+60)/2 = +40m/2.0s = +20m/s

Ex. 2

O 30m f.p. 60m i.p.

Vavg. should be
-ve! car is moving to the left 3.0s

Vavg. = (d2-d1)/Δt = (30m-60m)/3.0s = -10m/s

- in your car the speed-o-meter only measure the size of the velocity.
i.e. speed = |velocity| (magnitude)

a speed-o-meter measures the instantaneous speed which is |average velocity| over very small time
interval. (Δt =/= 0)

∴ Vinst= (Vavg as Δt starts to approach 0)

V

Straight
Posd2 line
itio
n d1
Vavg. Is the slope of the
(m)
“secant” line connect
points (t1,d1) and (t2,d2)

0 t1 t2 Time (s)

Slope of this
line is the
Vavg.

The secant line

approaches the
tangent line
(touches the curve
@ 1 pt.)

Δt -> 0

slope of the secant line of d-t (graph-Vavg)

slope of tangent line of d-t (graph- Vinst.)

2nd Kinematic quantity- Acceleration

Aavg = (V2-V1)/(t2-t1) = ΔV / Δt units are = m/s/s = m/s^2

similarly as Δt approaches 0 the Aavg becomes Ainst.
Difference b/w velocity and acceleration

V1
A

if V1 is +ve and A<0 then the car "speeds up"

if V is -ve and A<0 then the car is "speeding up" while travelling to the left.

Graphs

d-t, v-t, a-t

given any 1 of the graphs you can make the other 2 graphs
Ex. given a d(position) - t (time)

0 1 2 3 4 d(m)
d(m3
)
2

0 1 2 3
t(s)
slope

V(m3
/s)
2

0 1 2 3
t(s) slope
 A(m3
/s^2)
2

1 2 3
0
t(s)

V(m3
/s)
2

1 2 3 Area
0
t(s) under
the
5 graph

d(m)3

Slope
2

0 1 2 3
t(s)
NOTE: starting point must be given.

A(m3
/s^2)
2

1
 1 2 3
t(s)
RULES: for going from v-t to d-t/ a-t to v-t

Piece of a smiley parabola

Piece of a frowning parabola

Straight diagonal line

GENERAL RULE:
slope
D V A

t t t

area

Five Useful Kinematic Equations

used to solve many problems

valid in the case where acceleration is constant

1. Δd = V1Δt + (1/2)AΔt

2. Δd = V2Δt - (1/2) A (Δt)^2

3. Δd = Δt ((V1+V2)/2)

4. V2=V1+ A Δt

5. V2 ^2 = V1 ^2 + 2AΔd

2-D world
so far we have looked at the 1-D world
i.e a line
we now expand our world into 2-D
i.e Cartesian plane
y

0 x
Vectors in the 2-D world
vector: an arrow

2 properties: the size (length of arrow) and the direction (where the arrow head is pointing)

where's waldo?
y

15m
20°
x
0
Vector
Waldo is @ 15m [E 20° N]

size direction

Vector: special notation

r = 15m (mag) [E 20° N] (dir)

NOTE: when writing a vector notation by hand draw an arrow above the vector . when typing the
vectors should be bolded.

How to work w/ Vectors

1. addition of vectors
w. given 2 vectors
A= 3.0m [E]
B= 2.0m [E60* N]
* is °

A 60*
find C
****** C =/= 5.0m [E60*N]

graphically: 4.4m [E24*N]

2. Analytical (by calculation only)

Sine law:
(sinA)/a = (sinB)/b = (sinC)/c

Cosine law:
c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2(a)(b)cosC

∴ mag: x= √2² + 3² - 2(2)(3)cos 120*

= 4.4m

dir: sin 120*/4.4m = sin Ɵ / 2.0m

Ɵ = 26*

HOWEVER note ambiguous case.

(the angle could be either in the I quadrant or II/ III or VI)

- don't use sine law only cosine law

cos C = (a² + b² - c²) / 2ab

3. Method of components

Ex. A = 3.0 [E]

B = 2.0 [E 60* N]
Step 1: convert vector into bracket form
A = (3.0cos 0*, 3.0sin0*) Write the mag of each vector first and then the cos
B = (2.0cos60*, 2.0sin60*) and sin of the ccw (counter clockwise) angle from the E
axis
Step 2: add the columns
A = (3.0cos 0*, 3.0sin0*) = (3, 0) N
B = (2.0cos60*, 2.0sin60*) = (1, √3)
= (4, √3)

Step 3: find the mag

√#x + #y = √19 m = 4.4m II I
W E
Step 4: find the direction III
VI
Ɵ = |tan -1 (#y / #x)|
= 23*
∴ A + B = 4.4m [E 23* N]
S
quadrant I - [E _ N]
quadrant II - [W _ N]
quadrant III - [W _ S]
quadrant VI - [E _ S]

Why does this method work? (geometric proof)

y2 Using the two vectors and making right angle triangles down to the
axis. Then you add the y and the x of the vectors (the brakets). You
get then the sides of a larger right angle triangle. Using Pythagorean
x1 theorem you can find the magnitude of the blue vector. Now yo have
to find the dir. Knowing all three sides you can find the angle from
the x-axis by using the cosine law.
Ex. 1
A = 2.0m [E 15* N] A = (2.0m cos 15*, 2.0m sin 15*)
B = 3.0m [W 30* S] B = (3.0m cos 210*, 3.0m sin 210*)

A + B = (-0.67, -0.98)

mag: √(0.67)^2 + (-0.98)^2

= 1.2m
dir: |tan -1 (#y / #x)|
= 56*
because the #y and #x are both negative they are in quadrant VI [W_S]
1.2m [W 56* S]
 Subtracting vectors

you can always make a -ve "look" like addition

Ex. 4-6 = 4 + (-6)

similarity for vectors

A - B = A + (-B) When the vector is -ve and you switch it to +ve.
You can change the direction to the opposite
quadrant.
Ex. the vector B is [E _ N] so when you change the
direction to be +ve its [W _ S]

Ex.
A = 3.0m [E40*N]
B = 5.0m [S20*E]

find A - B = A + (-B) = 3.0m [E40*N] + 5.0m [N20*W]

A = (3.0mcos40*, 3.0msin40*)
B = (5.0mcos110*, 5.0msin110*)
= (1.64, 6.7)
mag = √(1.64)^2 + (6.7)^2
= 7.00m

dir: |tan -1 (#y / #x)|

= 84.7*
A - B = 7.0m [E84.7*N]

Application of Vector Technology

Ex. 40m
35* Δd
E
0
20*
45m
Δd- change in position
Mag= √(9.5)^2 + (-38)^2
d2 - position2
= 39m
d1 - position1

Δd = d2 - d1 Dir= |tan -1 (#y / #x)|

= 45 [E20*S] - 40 [E35*N] = 76*
= 45 [E20*S] + 40 [W35*S]
(45cos340*, 45sin340*)
(40cos215*, 40sin215*)
(9.5, -38)

∴Δd = 39m [E76*S]

Ex 2. car.
V2

V1

Aav = ΔV/Δt
= (V2 -V1)/ Δt
V1 = 2.0m/s [N]
V2 = 3.5m/s [E]
Δt = 5.0s

numerator: V2 - V1= 3.5m/s [E] - 2.0m/s [N] Mag= √(3.5)^2 + (-2)^2

= 3.5m/s [E] - 2.0m/s [S] = 4m/s
(3.5cos0, 3.5sin0)
(2.0cos270, 2.0sin270) Dir= |tan -1 (#y / #x)|
(3.5, -2) = 30*

∴ΔV = 4m/s [E30*S]

Aavg = ΔV/Δt
4m/s [E30*S] NOTE: the time will
5.0s only effect the
= 0.8 m/s^2 [E30*S] magnitude of the
vector.
the vector is pointing in the ES quadrant which means that the force acting upon the car travelling
N is pointing so the car can turn and travel directly E.

Acceleration due to Gravity - Free Fall

projective motion : motion in a vertical plane

projectile: any object thrown in the air. (includes all directions)
free fall: objects in motion only under the influence of gravity

V=0
A= 9.81m/s^2 [S] Ex. 1 If you drop a ball from 1.25m, how long will it take for the
ball to reach the ground?
V1 = 0 and A = 9.81m/s^2 [down] = +9.81m/s^2
1.25m
b/c the ball is moving in 1 direction [S] the displacement is
9.81m/s^2 sinc V1= 0

Δd = V1Δt + 1/2 A (Δt)^2

NOTE: the time it takes for an object is directly
Δd = 1/2A(Δt)^2
proportional to the root of the height
∴ if there is no air resistance the time doesn't depend on
(Δt) = √2 Δd/A
mass, volume or density

= 0.505s

What goes up must come down

-throw an object up its d increases while its v decreases. - the decrease is because of the
acceleration downwards due to gravity.
V and A are opposite so the ball slows down

Vi A
ball stops momentarily but due to acceleration (9.81m/s^2) [S] changes direction.
A

V and A are same so it speeds up.

 Vi A

Po
Graphical representation: d-t
siti
on
(m)

Time (s)
NOTE: Ball doesn't move in a parabolic arc.

Relative Velocity

N Buttonville Pilot ignored wind. Though the plane is

Wind pointing [S] and all the instruments
[E] show that he's flying due [S] due to the
wind its flying SE

S Toronto Island Airport

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
N Buttonville
This time the pilot saw that he wasn't
heading towards TIA so he pointed the
nose of his plane SW all the time.
However this is time consuming and time
=$

S TIA

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
N Buttonville
 The correct solution is to point the plane in the SW
quadrant so the nose of the plane “cuts into” the
wind which is blowing E. This way even though the
instruments on the plane don't read S you are
travelling in the correct direction.

S TIA

Navigation: study of finding the direction of the heading (nose of plane in this case).

Relative Velocity eqn. : Vpg(plane wrt ground) = Vpa(plane wrt air) + Vag (air wrt ground)
term magnitude direction
Vpg ground speed (must be known!
calculated) i.e. your plane always has a
destination
Vpa air speed (of plane) heading (must be calculated)
known!
Vag wind speed(Enviro Canada is wind direstion
responsible for -------------- these two numbers
----->
Niigata [N]
Example
take off 2:00pm
Wind [W]
|wind speed| = 20km/h
|air speed| = 80km/h
wind direction = [W]
Tokyo [S]
a) what heading should the plane have?
Vag 20km/h
opp
Sin = = 20/80
Vpg Hyp
Vpa 80km/h Ө =14*
The heading is [N14*E] = [E76*N]
Ө

b) Whats the estimated time of arrival in Niigata?

time of flight = ground distance / ground speed
= 300km / √80km/h^2 - 20km/h^2
= 3.9h

Arrival time: 5:54pm

SYMBOLS/ Abbreviations:
(∴)- therefore
b/c- because
w/o- without
w/ - with
eqn - equation
wrt - with respect to