CH 2 Biology

Chapter # 2 Class IX: Biology SR
Structural Organization of Life
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
Concepts in Brief
Discovery of Cell Light Microscopy Basic Organization of Cells

and Cell Theory and Electron Structure of to form Tissues,
Microscopy Cell Organs and Organ
System
Tissues
Cell Division Unicellular
Organism
Mitosis Meiosis Organs
Cell wall
Cell membrane Organ

System
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Scientific Law
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Multicellular
Mitochondria Organisms
Plastids
Centrosome
Ribosomes
Vacuole
The Chapter Includes:
 Introduction
 Cell as a basic unit of living organisms
 Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
 Introduction to the discovery of cell
 Formulation of cell theory
 Salient features of cell theory
 Light Microscopy and Electron Microscopy
 Concepts of light microscopy and electron microscopy
 Difference between magnification and resolution
 Basic Structure of Cell
 Microscopic and ultramicroscopic structure of plant and animal cells
 Structure and function of different cell structures or organelles
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
 Concept of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 Cell Division
 Different methods of reproduction of cells
 Mitosis and meiosis and their significance
 Organization of Cells to form Tissues, Organs and Organ System
 Levels of organization in living organisms i.e. tissue level, organ level
and system level
 Types of plant tissues, simple and compound tissues, their
further classification and function in different parts of plant body.
 Types of animal tissues, epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous
tissue, structure of these in relation to their function
 Unicellular Organisms
 Unicellular organization, Amoeba as an example of unicellular organism
 Multicellular Organisms
 Multicellular Organization
 Brassica, an example of multicellular organization with root, stem, leaf,
flower, fruit and seed
 Frog as multicellular organization with digestive, respiratory,
circulatory, excretory, nervous and reproductive organs and systems
Key Points
 Cell is the basic unit of living organisms.

 All the living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 The efforts of Schleiden, Schwann and R. Virchow gave rise to the cell theory.
 Cells are observed under light and electron microscope.
 Resolution power of electron microscope is very high.
 Plant cell consists of cell-wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus, in an animal cell all
these are present except the cell-wall.
 Cell-wall is the non-living, outermost boundary of plant cells, bacterial cells and fungal
cells.
 The cell-membrane or plasma membrane surrounds nucleus and cytoplasm in

all types of cells.
 Nucleus is an important and prominent structure present inside the cell. It controls all the
activities of cell.
 Cytoplasm is the translucent fluid portion of the cell present between plasma membrane
and nucleus.
 Cell organelles include nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic

reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, centrioles and vacuoles.
 Prokaryotic cell is the type of cell without proper nucleus while eukaryotic cell contains
proper membrane bound nucleus.
 Cell wall is the non-living part of cell, mainly composed of cellulose and pectin. Cell
membrane is a thin, differentially permeable membrane which limits the cytoplasm.
 Translucent material filled between nucleus and plasma membrane is called

cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm contains many granular bodies which are called cytoplasmic organelles. They
include endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosome, ribosome, mitochondria,
plastids etc.
 Cells divide to increase in numbers.
 Mitosis is a type of cell-division in which chromosome number remains the same

after cell division.
 Meiosis is a reduction cell-division in which number of chromosomes reduces to half

in daughter cells.
 Tissue consists of group of cells which are similar in structure and function.
 Plant tissues are of two types i.e. Meristematic tissues and Permanent tissues. Permanent
tissues are further divided into simple and complex tissues.
 Animal tissues are of different types i.e. epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscular
tissues and nervous tissues.
 Organisms possess unicellular or multicellular levels of organization.
 Amoeba is an example of unicellular organization, Brassica and frog are examples of

multicellular organization.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
1. The term cell was first time used by:

a. Schwann b. Robert Hook c. Robert Brown d. William Harvey
2. Who proposed that all plants are made up of cells?
a. Galileo b. Schleiden c. T. Schwann d. Robert Brown
3. Who proposed that all animals are made up of cells?
a. Galileo b. Schleiden c. T. Schwann d. Robert Brown
4. Schleiden was a German ________.
a. zoologist b. botanist c. chemist d. physicist
5. Which statement is incorrect about cell theory?
a. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b. The cell is the smallest, basic structural and functional unit of all organisms.
c. New cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
d. None of these
Light Microscopy and Electron Microscopy
6. The light microscope has ____ lenses.

a. biconcave b. convex c. concave d. electromagnetic
7. The light microscope can magnify the object upto:
a. 10 times b. 100 times c. 1000 times d. 10000 times
8. The resolving power of electron microscope is:
a. 0.1 m b. 100 nm c. 0.02 nm d. 0.2 nm
9. Electron microscope was invented in:
a. 1909 b. 1940 c. 1935 d. 1920
10. One millimeter is equal to:
-2 -3 -4 -6
a. 10 m b. 10 m c. 10 m d. 10 m
Basic Structure of Cell
11. The nucleus of cell wall was discovered by:

a. Robert Hook b. Schleiden c. Robert Brown d. Virchow
12. DNA is found in:
a. nucleus b. chromosomes c. cells d. nucleoplasm
13. Nucleus was discovered by:
a. Robert Brown b. Dutrochet c. Schleiden d. Galileo
14. The functional unit of living organisms is:
a. nucleus b. mitochondria c. cell d. none of these
15. Cell-wall is the non-living, outermost boundary of:
a. plant cells b. bacterial cells c. fungal cells d. all of these
16.The cell wall of plant cells is mainly composed of:

a. cellulose b. chitin c. pectin d. both ‘a’ and ‘c’
17.Bacterial cell wall is made up of:
a. carbohydrates & proteins c. pectin and lignin
b. cellulose and chitin d. proteins and pectin
18.The function of cell wall is to give ______ to the cell.
a. protection b. support c. shape d. all of these
19.Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was presented by:
a. Singer b. Nicholson c. Schwann d. Singer & Nicholson
20. Which of the following statement is not a function of cell membrane?
a. It surrounds nucleus and cytoplasm in all types of cell.
b. It regulates selective movement of molecules.
c. It performs the function of endocytosis.
d. None of these
21. Nucleus of the cell is filled with a gel like substance called:
a. nucleolus b. plasma c. nucleoplasm d. chromatin
22. Chromosomes are made up of:
a. DNA & protein c. RNA & protein
b. Protein and carbohydrates d. DNA and carbohydrates
23.The number of chromosomes in the cells of onion are:
a. 46 b. 23 c. 08 d. 16
24. Cells of man has _____ chromosomes.
a. 26 b. 48 c. 46 d. 14
25. The translucent, fluid portion of the cell lying between plasma membrane and nucleus is
called:
a. matrix b. cell jelly c. nucleoplasm d. cytoplasm
26.Chemically cytoplasm is about _____ % water.
a. 70 b. 80 c. 90 d. 95
27.It is a network of membranous channels or tubules extending throughout the cytoplasm.
a. Golgi complex c. ribosomes
b. mitochondria d. endoplasmic reticulum
28. Which of the following functions is/are performed by endoplasmic reticulum?
a. Synthesis and transport of materials
b. Providing mechanical support to the cell
c. Detoxification of harmful effects of drugs
d. All of these
29. The cell organelles which are mainly concerned with the secretions:
a. ribosomes b. mitochondria c. plastids d. Golgi complex
30.Which of the following is heredity material?
a. DNA b. protein c. sugar d. fat
31.The organelle which is called power house of the cell is:
a. Golgi bodies c. mitochondria
b. plastids d. endoplasmic reticulum
32.Which of the cell organelles are called protein factories?

a. mitochondria b. plastids c. ribosomes d. centrosomes
33._______ contain enzymes which break the food for the production of energy.
a. mitochondria b. plastids c. ribosomes d. centrosomes
34.The organelle of the cell which contains pigments:
a. vacuoles b. ribosomes c. plastids d. centrosomes
35. The type of plastids which are colourless and found in the cells of underground parts
of plants:
a. chloroplast b. chromoplast c. leucoplast d. all of these
36.Which type of plastids are found in petals of flower?
37.In plants, cell wall is mainly composed of:
a. sugars b. cellulose c. lignin d. proteins
38.Golgi apparatus consists of a set of smooth membrane stacked into flattened:
a. vacuoles b. matrix c. sacs d. cristae
39.Leucoplast is a type of:
a. endoplasmic reticulum c. mitochondria
b. ribosomes d. plastids
40._____ store food in the form of starch.
a. chloroplast b. chromoplast c. leucoplast d. plastids
41.Each centriole consists of a cylindrical array of _____ rows of microtubules.
a. 3 b. 6 c. 9 d. 12
42.Fluid filled cells surrounded by tonoplast and concerned with the storage of cell sap are called:
a. ribosomes b. plastids c. mitochondria d. vacuoles
43.
44.Which one of the following is not present in animal cell?
a. cell wall c. cell membrane
b. vacuoles d. ribosomes
45.Which of the following does not possess cell wall?
a. plant cell b. bacterial cell c. animal cell d. fungi cell
46.Which of the following have coloured pigments other than green?
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell
47.Prokaryotic cells do not contain:

a. nucleus b. DNA c. ribosomes d. cell-membrane
48.The example(s) of eukaryotes is/are:
b. fungi & algae b. plants c. animals d. all of these
49. All of these are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells except:

a. Nucleoplasm is absent.
b. Single chromosome is found.
c. Cells are complex and larger in size.
d. Ribosomes are of small size and freely scattered in cytoplasm.
50. All are the examples of eukaryotes except:
a. fungi b. algae c. bacteria d. plants
51.The cell size of prokaryotes ranges from:
a. 0.5 – 10 nm b. 1 – 20 nm c. 10 – 50 nm d. 10 – 100 nm
52.In eukaryotic cells, respiratory enzymes are present:
a. in cytoplasm c. on inner surface of cell membrane
b. in mitochondria d. in nucleoplasm
Cell Division
53.Cytokinesis is the division of:

a. nucleoplasm b. protoplasm c. cytoplasm d. centrioles
54.The division of nucleus is called:
a. cytokinesis c. cell division
b. nuclear division d. karyokinesis
55.In mitosis, the number of chromosomes is:
a. reduced to half c. doubled
b. remains same d. reduced to one fourth
56.In mitosis, the nuclear membrane disappears during:
a. prophase b. metaphase c. anaphase d. telophase
57.The chromosome arranges itself on the equator of the spindle in:
58.The chromatids of a chromosome separate during ______ of mitosis.
59.In which phase of mitosis, the nuclear envelop reappears?
60. Mitosis is involved in:
a. development and growth of organisms
b. production of somatic cells
c. vegetative propagation
d. all of these
61. The phenomenon of crossing over occurs during:
a. prophase I of meiosis c. metaphase I of meiosis b. anaphase I of

meiosis d. prophase of mitosis
62. Meiosis is responsible for:
a. maintaining constant number f chromosomes from generation to generation
b. genetic variability
c. providing the basis of evolution
d. all of these
63. In meiosis, chromosome number is:

a. doubled b. tripled c. maintained d. reduced to half
64. In crossing over, exchange takes place between:
a. cytoplasm c. nucleoplasm
b. homologous chromosomes d. ribosomes
Organization of Cells to Form Tissues, Organs and Organ System
65.A group of similar cells performing the same function forms a/an:
a. organ b. organelle c. tissue d. system
66.Meristematic tissue is found in:
a. root tips b. shoot apex c. leaf margins d. both ‘a’ and ‘b’
67.Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are the types of
a. simple permanent tissue c. meristematic tissue
b. compound permanent tissue d. epidermal tissue
68.It is food storing tissue:
a. parenchyma b. collenchyma c. sclerenchyma d. xylem
69.The supporting tissue of plants is:
a. parenchyma b. epidermal c. sclerenchyma d. meristematic
70.Complex tissue of plants are of _____ types.
a. two b. three c. four d. five
71. Which statement is incorrect about epidermal tissues?
a. Cells of these tissues are oval in shape.
b. They form the outer layer of root, stem and leaf.
c. The cells are compactly arranged except stem and leaves where stomata are present.
d. These tissues protect the inner parts of plants.
72. The tissue which conducts water and salts from soil to the leaves is:
a. xylem b. phloem c. ground tissue d. collenchyma
73.The animal tissue which supports the other tissues:
a. epithelial tissue c. muscular tissue
b. connective tissue d. nervous tissue
74.Which of the following is/are connective tissue(s)?
a. bone b. cartilage c. blood d. all of these
75.The tissue made up of elongated cells which can contract and relax is:
a. connective tissue c. muscular tissue
b. nervous tissue d. none of these
76. Nerve cells are specialized to conduct messages in the form of:
a. electrical currents c. flow of ions
b. voice signals d. none of these
77.Which tissue is not found in animals?
a. sclerenchyma c. epithelial tissue
b. connective tissue d. muscular tissue
78.Which tissue is not found in plants?
a. phloem b. xylem c. parenchyma d. nerve tissue
79.Which of the following tissue conducts water and salts in plants?
b. cambium b. xylem c. phloem d. pith
90.Which tissue forms the outer layer of root, stem and leaf?
a. epidermal tissue c. ground tissue
b. supporting tissue d. vascular tissue
91.Sclerenchyma and collenchyma are the examples of:
a. epidermal tissue c. ground tissue
b. supporting tissue d. vascular tissue
92.Blood is an example of _____ tissue.
a. epithelial tissue c. connective tissue
b. nervous tissue d. muscular tissue
93.Which tissues are responsible for the movement of body and body parts?
a. epithelial tissue c. connective tissue
b. epidermal tissue d. muscular tissue
94.A group of cells with similar structure and function is called:
a. organism b. organ c. organelle d. tissue
Unicellular Organisms
95. Which one of the following is not a unicellular organism?

a. amoeba b. brassica c. chlamydomonas d. euglena
96. Amoeba moves with the help of:
a. pseudopodia b. flagella c. cilia d. legs
97. The habitat of amoeba is:
a. ponds b. pools c. stagnant water d. all of these
98. The size of amoeba is about:
a. 01 mm b. 0.5 mm c. 0.25 mm d. 0.1 mm
99. In amoeba, the viscous, translucent and granular part of cytoplasm is called:
a. ectoplasm b. endoplasm c. nucleoplasm d. plasma
Multicellular Organisms
101. Which of the following is not included in vegetative pats of plant?

a. root b. stem c. flower d. leaf
102. The part of root which arise from the radicle is called:
a. primary root c. secondary root
b.tertiary root d. root hairs
103. Cortex of root is composed of:
a. collenchyma b. parenchyma c. sclerenchyma d. epidermis
104. in the structure of root, the central cylinder in the cortex is called:
a. stele b. endodermis c. pericycle d. xylem
105. The point on the stem or branch which gives rise to leaf is called:
a. anti-node b. node c. internode d. mesophyll
106. The stem and branches of plant transport:
a. water b. salts c. prepared food d. all of these
107. The region of meristematic cells between xylem and phloem is called:
a. pith b. pericycle c. cambium d. cortex
108. Pith of the stem is made up of ______ cells which store food material.
a. parenchyma b. collenchyma c. sclerenchyma d. meristematic
109. The lower stalk like part of Brassica leaf is called:
a. lamina b. petiole c. midrib d. axil
110. The green expanded portion of Brassica leaf is called:
a. lamina b. petiole c. midrib d. axil
111. Lamina is:
a. margin of the leaf c. lower stalk like part of the leaf
b. upper broad green part of the leaf d. midrib of leaf
112. Which one is not a part of flower?
a. Stigma b. filament c. ovary d. none of these
113. Which of the following is not a part of carpel?
a. filament b. stigma c. style d. ovary
114. In which season frogs hibernate?
a. summer b. winter c. autumn d. spring
115. Which of the following is outermost whorl of flowers?
a. calyx b. corolla c. androecium d. gynoecium
116. Which of the following in Brassica flower is composed of four free yellow petals?
117. The male reproductive organs in brassica flower are:
a. stamens b. carpel c. ovary d. none of these
118. The gaseous exchange that takes place in lungs is called:
a. buccal respiration c. pulmonary respiration b. cutaneous

respiration d. none of these
119. Which of the following is known as accessory chamber of the heart of frog?
a. truncus arteriosis c. both of these b. sinous venosus d.

none of these
120. The tissue of green leaf where major photosynthesis occurs is:
a. mesophyll b. epidermis c. xylem d. phloem
121. The buccal cavity of frog opens into a short narrow part of alimentary canal called:
a. pharynx b. oesophagus c. stomach d. glottis
122. The pancreatic duct and the bile duct join to form:
a. hepatic duct c. hepato-pancreatic duct
b. pancreatic duct d. bile-pancreatic duct
123. Frogs exhibit ______ types of respiration.
124. Truncus arteriosus originates from:
a. dorsal side of ventricle c. ventral side of ventricle
b. dorsal side of left atrium d. ventral side of right atrium
125. The accessory chamber of frog’s heat is:
a. right atrium b. left atrium c. ventricle d. sinus venosus
126. Human beings contain ______ of blood per kilogram of body weight.
a. 7 ml b. 70 ml c. 80 ml d. 700 ml
127. Heart of frog has ______ chambers.
a. five b. two c. three d. four
128. Which of the following vessels carry oxygenated blood to all parts of the body other than
head and lungs?
a. pulmocutaneous arteries c. carotid arteries
b. systemic arteries d. all of these
129. Which of the following fuse together to form aorta?
a. pulmocutaneous arteries c. carotid arteries
b. systemic arteries d. nonel of these
130. The most anterior region of the brain of frog comprises:
a. olfactory lobes c. optic lobes
b. cerebellum d. medulla oblongata
131. The last part of the brain of frog consists of:
a. cerebellum c. both of these
b. medulla oblongata d. none of these
132. Which of the following part of brain is known as the seat of intelligence and memory?
b. cerebral hemispheres d. diencephalons
133. The part of nervous system of frog between the optic lobes and hemispheres is known as:
a. pineal b. diencephalon c. olfactory lobes d. cerebellum
134. Multicellular organisms having no cell wall and no chlorophyll are:
a. fungi b. bacteria c. animals d. plants
Sense Organs
135. Which part of the eye contains photo receptors?

a. cornea b. choroid c. retina d. pupil
136. Which nerve takes the sensory messages from the eye to the brain?
a. motor nerve b. sensory nerve c. cranial nerve d. optic nerve
137. The outermost part of frog’s ear is:
a. tympanic membrane c. tympanic cavity ossicles d. pinna
b.
138. The internal ear of frog consists of ______ semi-circular canals.
139. The layer of eye which is richly supplied with blood capillaries:
a. retina b. choroid c. cornea d. none of these
What you MUST learn! (Short Question / Answers)
Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
1. State the salient features of cell theory.

Ans. The salient features of the cell theory are as under:
i) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
ii) The cell is the smallest, basic structural and functional unit of all organisms.
iii) New cells are formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
2. Write a brief note on the history of discovery of

cell. Ans: Discovery of Cell:
In 1665, Robert Hook made an improved microscope by combining lenses, called compound
microscope and examined a slice of cork under it. He found small honey comb like chambers,
which reminded him small rooms of monastery and are said cellula in Italian, so he also named
these structures as cellulae or cell (small rooms). The cork was made from bark of oak, so he
actually saw the cell-wall only.
In 1842, Dutrochet, boiled plant material in nitric acid and examined it under the microscope.
It was found to consist of cells. Schleiden (1838) a German botanist, proposed that all plants
are made up of cells.
3. Describe the contribution of Schleiden, Theoder Schwann and Rudolf Virchow in the
formulation of cell theory.
Ans: Schleiden (1838) a German botanist, proposed that all plants are made up of cells. Next
year a German Zoologist, Theoder Schwann stated that all animals are made up of cells. He
observed nuclei in all types of animal cells but failed to observe cell- wall in them. From here the
difference between plant and animal cell started to establish. In 1858, Rudolf Virchow stated
that animals cells come from animal cell and plant cells from plant cell. The combined efforts of
Schleiden, Schwann and R.Virchow finally gave rise to cell theory.
Light Microscopy and Electron Microscopy
4. What is light microscope? How does it work?

Ans: Light microscope:
The microscopes which use light as a source of illumination are called light microscopes and
were first used by scientist. Light microscope is also used in the biology laboratory.
Working:
Light microscopes use visible light as the source of illumination and glass lenses for
magnification. These lenses reflect the light in a way that the image of the specimen is
magnified as it is projected into the human eye. The light microscope can magnify the
object upto 1000 times but its resolving power is very limited, i.e just 0.2µm (Resolving
power is a measure of the clarity of the image).
5. How does an electron microscope work? What is its resolving power?

Ans: Working of Electron Microscope:
The electron microscope is the most advanced form of microscope which was invented to
increase the resolving power of microscope. Its resolving power is nearly 250 times more than
the compound microscope. It uses a beam of electrons as a source of illumination. The electron
beam increases its resolving power. The electron microscope uses electromagnet as lenses
instead of glass lenses. This image cannot focus in human eye, therefore screen or photographic
plates are used to view and focus these images.
Resolving power of Electron Microscope:
The resolving power of modern electron microscope is about 0.2 nm, which is thousand times
more than the light microscope.
6. Differentiate between light microscope and electron microscope.
Ans:
Light Microscope Electron Microscope
It uses visible light as the source of It uses a beam of electrons as a source of
illumination. illumination.
Glass lenses are used in light microscope. Electromagnets are used as lenses instead of
glass lenses.
The resolving power of light microscope The resolving power of electron microscope
is very limited i.e. 0.2 m is up o 0.2 nm.
7. How is light microscope better than electron microscope?

Ans: Electron microscopes reveal many organelles that are impossible to be seen with the light
microscope but the light microscope has many advantages especially for the study of alive cells.
In electron microscopy, chemicals and physical methods are used to prepare sample which kills
cells. So, we can see alive samples only under light microscope.
8. Differentiate between resolution and magnification.

Ans:
Resolution Magnification
Resolution or resolving power is the Magnification is the action of magnifying
measure of the clarity of image. something or the process of being
magnified.
Resolution is the capacity to separate Magnification is a means of increasing the
adjacent objects. size of the object.
Resolution is maintained up to certain By increasing magnification resolution is
magnification. disturbed.
Resolution improves as the wavelength of Magnification improves with the focal
illumination becomes shorter. length of the lens.
Basic Structure of Cell
9. Name different organelles of the cell.

Ans: The names of different organelles of the cell are: Cell-wall, cell-membrane,
nucleus, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, plastids,
centrosome and centrioles, ribosomes and vacuoles
10. Define cell-wall. What is the cell-wall of plants, bacteria and fungi made up
of? Ans: Cell-wall:
Cell-wall is the non-living, outermost boundary of plant cells, bacterial cells and fungal cells. It
is not found in animal cells.
Composition of Cell Wall:
Cell-wall of plants is mainly composed of cellulose and pectin.
Bacterial cell-wall is made up of protein and carbohydrate.
Fungal cell wall is made up of fungal cellulose and chitin.
11. What are the functions of cell-wall?
i. Cell-wall provides protection and support to the cell.

ii. It gives a definite shape to the cell.
iii. It also performs the function of transport of material from outside to inside or
vice versa, therefore, it is permeable in nature.
12. What is the composition of cell membrane? Why is it called unit membrane?
Ans: Cell membrane consists of lipid (Phospho-lipid) bilayer, in which protein molecules
float like iceberg in the sea. This basic structure is found in all the membranes of
mitochondria, chloroplast etc. Therefore, it is also called unit membrane.
13. Why the cell membrane is called semi-permeable membrane?

Ans: Cell membrane is called a selectively permeable or semi-permeable membrane because it
allows the movement of selective molecules through it while it does not allow the others to pass
through it.
14. Differentiate between the cell wall and cell membrane.

Ans:
Cell Wall Cell Membrane
Outer covering of plant cell is called cell Outer covering of animal cell is called cell
wall. membrane.
It is non-living in nature. It is living in nature.
It is made up of cellulose and pectin. It is made up of lipids and proteins.
It is thick, hard and rigid. It is thin, soft and delicate.
15. What is nucleus? Describe its location in the cell.

Ans: Nucleus or Karyon:
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells which contains the genetic material
and controls all the functions of the cell.
Location:
In animal cell it is usually present in the center but in plant cell, due to presence of large vacuole
it is pushed towards cell-membrane.
16. Briefly describe the structure of nucleus.
Ans: Shape of nucleus: Nucleus may be spherical or irregular in shape.
Nuclear membrane: Nucleus is enveloped by a double membrane called nuclear-membrane.
This membrane possesses large number of nuclear pores.
Nucleoplasm: Nucleus is filled with a gel like substance called nucleoplasm. The nucleoplasm
contains nucleoli and a network of thread like structures called chromatin network. The threads of
chromatin become prominent during cell-division. Each thread is called chromosome.
Chromosomes: The thread like structure of chromatin are called chromosomes. These structures
are of major importance because they are composed of Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) and
proteins. DNA is the hereditary material. The number of chromosomes in the cells of all
individual of the same species always remains constant.
Fig: The Nucleus

17. State the functions of nucleus.
Ans: Functions of nucleus:
i. It controls all the activities of cell.
ii. DNA present in the nucleus plays significant role in the inheritance of characters.
iii. DNA is also involved in controlling or regulating the cell activities.
18. Define cytoplasm and write its composition and

functions. Ans: Cytoplasm:
It is the translucent fluid portion of the cell lying in between plasma membrane and nucleus. It
consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol and granular portion called cytoplasmic
organelles.
Composition:
Chemically cytoplasm is about 90% water and forms a solution and serves as a store house
of vital chemicals.
Functions:
It is a site of metabolic reactions like protein synthesis, glycolysis etc. Many reactions can
occur at the same time in different regions of the cytoplasm.
19. Name the organelles present in cytoplasm of the cell.
Ans: Cytoplasmic Organelles:
Some important cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
1 Endoplasmic reticulum 2 Golgi complex
3 Mitochondria 4 Plastids
5 Centrioles 6 Ribosomes
7 Vacuoles
20. Define endoplasmic reticulum. Draw its neat and labelled diagram.
Ans: Endoplasmic reticulum: (Endo= inside, plasma = protoplasm, reticulum=net work).
It is a network of membranous channels or tubules extending throughout the cytoplasm. The
channels seem to be in contact with plasma membrane as well as nuclear membrane.
21. What are different types of endoplasmic

reticulum? Ans: Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum: They have ribosomes at its outer surface which are involved
in protein synthesis.
ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: They are without ribosomes.
22. What are the functions of endoplasmic reticulum?

Ans: Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
i. Endoplasmic reticulum plays important role in the synthesis of materials.
ii. It is also involved in the transport of materials within the cell.
iii. It also provides mechanical support to the cell so that its shape is maintained.
iv. It detoxifies the harmful effects of drugs
23. What do you know about Golgi complex?

Ans: Golgi complex:
Golgi bodies were discovered by Camillo Golgi and called Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus".
They are set of smooth membranes that are stacked into flattened fluid filled sacs or vesicles
containing carbohydrate, glycoproteins and enzymes. Golgi bodies are mainly concerned with
the cell secretions.
24. Give a brief account of mitochondria.

Ans: Mitochondria (Sing;
mitochondrion): Shape:
They are generally rod-like or bean shaped organelles.
Structure:
They consist of double membrane. The inner membrane is folded. These infoldings are
called cristae while the fluid present inside is called matrix.
Function:
Mitochondria contains enzymes which break the food for the production of energy. As
producers of energy they are called Power house of the cell. The number of
mitochondria in cell relates to its activities.
Fig: Mitochondria
25. What are plastids? Explain their

types. Ans: Plastids:
Plastids are found in the cells of all the higher plants. These are the organelles which
contain different types of pigments. Plastids are of three types on the basis of their
pigment or colour.
i) Chloroplasts have green pigment i.e. chlorophyll found in leaves and other green
parts of a plant. They manufacture carbohydrates by the process of photosynthesis.
ii) Chromoplast have coloured pigments other than green found in fruit, flower, petals
and other coloured parts of plants.
iii) Leucoplast (leucos = white or colourless) are colourless, found in the cells of
underground parts of plants. They store food in the form of starch.
26. Differentiate between mitochondria and plastid.

Ans:
Mitochondria Plastids
Mitochondria are present in all living cells Plastids are present only in plant cells.
i.e. plant as well as animal cells.
They are of only one type. They are of three types on the basis of
pigments i.e. chromoplasts, chloroplasts
and leucoplasts.
The function of mitochondria is respiration. They are concerned with photosynthesis.
27. What are ribosomes?

Ans: They are granules, rich in ribonucleic acid (RNA). They serve as sites where proteins are
synthesized hence called protein factories of cell. They are found free in cytoplasm as well as
attached on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Fig: Ribosome
28. What are vacuoles?
Ans: Vacuoles:
They are the fluid (other than cytoplasm) filled sacs surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
In animal cell they are numerous, small but temporary structures while in plant cell they are
permanent and very large in size, one or a few in number. They are concerned with storage of
cell sap.
29. How would you differentiate between plant cell and animal
cell? Ans:
Plant Cell Animal Cell
The outer most covering of plant cell is cell The outer most covering of an animal cell is
wall. cell membrane.
Centrioles are absent in plant cells. Centrioles are present in animal cells.
Plant cells have a large vacuole placed in Animal cells have many small vacuoles
the center of the cell. scattered in cytoplasm.
Plastids ae present in plant cells. Plastids are absent in animal cells.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell
30. Write any four differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Ans: Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
They do not have many of the membrane They have membrane bounded structures
bounded structures e.g. mitochondria, E.R, (organelles).
Golgi apparatus etc.
Ribosomes are of small sized and freely Ribosomes are of large size and present either
scattered in cytoplasm. on endoplasmic reticulum or free in
cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm is absent. Nucleoplasm is present.
Single chromosome is found. Proper chromosomes in diploid numbers are

present.
Cell Division
31. Define cell division. Name its different types.

Ans: Cell Division:
Cells reproduce and increase in number by division. After growing to a certain maximum
size, a cell may undergo the process of cell division. During this process the nucleus
divides first. This nuclear division is called Karyokinesis (karyon=nucleus; kinesis =
division). Nuclear division is followed by division of the cytoplasm. The cytoplasmic
division is called Cytokinesis. Thus two daughter cells arise from a single division of a
cell.
Types of Cell Division:
There are two main types of cell division found in living organisms.
(1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis
32. Define mitosis. What are the different phases in Mitosis?

Ans: Mitosis:
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way that
the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in the parent cell.
Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided into four phases which
are
i. Prophase
ii. Metaphase
iii. Anaphase
iv. Telophase
33. Explain prophase of

mitosis. Ans: Prophase:
During early prophase chromatin material condenses and becomes visible as thick coiled, thread
like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome at this stage is already double, i.e.
consists of two chromatids. The chromatids are attached to each other at centromere. The
nuclear membrane gradually disappears and at the same time centrosome divides to form two
centrioles, each moves towards the opposite pole of the cell and forms the spindle fibres. The
centrioles are absent in plant cells.
Fig: Prophase of mitosis

34. Describe the changes occurring in the metaphase and anaphase of
mitosis. Ans: Metaphase:
During this phase each chromosome arranges itself on the equator of the spindle. Each
chromosome is attached to separate spindle fibre by its centromere.
Fig: Metaphase of mitosis

Anaphase:
In this phase the centromere of a chromosome divides and the chromatids of each chromosome
separates from each other and begin to move towards opposite poles. In this way one set of the
chromatids (each chromatid is now an independent chromosome) move towards one pole while
the other set towards the other pole.
Fig: Anaphase of mitosis

35. What happens in the telophase of

mitosis? Ans: Telophase:
This is a stage when the chromatids (now called chromosomes) reach the poles and their
movement ceases. Each pole receives the same number of chromosomes as were present in the
parent cell. The nuclear membrane is reformed around each set of chromosomes. In this way two
daughter nuclei are formed in each cell. Soon the cytoplasm of the cell also divides and two
daughter cells arise. The nucleus of each daughter cell contains the same chromosome number as
in their parent cell. In this way the daughter cells are exact copies of their parent cell.
Fig: Telophase of mitosis

36. Describe the significance of mitosis.
Ans: Significance of mitosis:
Mitosis plays an important role in the life of an organism.
i. It is responsible for development and growth of organisms by increasing exact copies of
cells. With few exceptions all kinds of asexual reproduction and vegetative propagation
take place by mitosis.
ii. The production of new somatic cells, such as blood cells depends on mitosis.
iii. The healing of wounds, repair of wear and tear within organism is also dependent upon
the mitotic division.
37. Define the process of meiosis.
Meiosis or reduction cell-division is a special type of cell-division in which a parent cell finally
divides into four daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosome in each daughter cell
reduce to half of their parent cell. Thus it is the reduction of the diploid (2n) number of
chromosomes to the haploid (n) number. In animals meiosis produces gametes (sperms and eggs)
while in plants it gives rise to spores.
The process of meiosis involves two consecutive divisions.
(a) Meiosis I - First meiotic division or reduction phase
(b) Meiosis II - Second meiotic division or meiotic mitotic phase
38. Elaborate 'Prophase I’ of meiosis.
Ans: Prophase I:
In prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes join to exchange their parts at certain
places. This exchange is called crossing over. During crossing over exchange of genetic
material takes place and new combination of genes are formed. The nuclear membrane
disappears and at the same time spindle fibres are formed.
39. Differentiate between metaphase and anaphase of meiosis

I. Ans:
Metaphase I Anaphase I
Metaphase I: During this phase pairs of Anaphase I: The members of the
homologouschromosomesarrange homologous pairs now begin to
themselves on the equator of the spindle. separate and move towards the
Unlike mitosis, it is the homologous pair opposite poles.
and not the individual chromosomes
which attach at separate fibre of the
spindle.
40. What changes take place in the telophase of meiosis I?

Ans: Telophase of Meiosis I:
In this phase the chromosomes come to rest at the poles. The nuclear membranes are reformed
around each set of chromosomes resulting in formation of two daughter nuclei. Now the cell has
two daughter nuclei having haploid number (n) of chromosomes.
Fig: Telophase of meiosis I

41. What happens when the cell divides in meiosis II?
Ans: Meiosis II - Second meiotic division or Equational Division:
During second meiotic division the details are almost similar to those seen in mitosis.
Prophase:
During prophase, spindles are formed and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase:
In metaphase, the chromosomes (each consisting of two chromatids) arrange themselves on the
equator.
Anaphase:
The chromatids of chromosomes separate from each other in anaphase and migrate to
the opposite poles.
Telophase:
In telophase, the nuclear membrane reappears around each set of chromatids (now
called chromosomes) and the cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells.
42. Describe the significance of meiosis.

Ans: Significance of meiosis:
Meiosis plays very important role in keeping chromosome number constant in a
species from generation to generation. When the haploid male gamete (sperm) fertilizes
i.e. fuses with the haploid female gamete (ovum) to form a zygote, the diploid number of
chromosomes is restored (n + n = 2n).
Meiosis is responsible for genetic variability i.e. the individuals of a given species differ
from one another. It is due to crossing over which takes place during prophase I. This
genetic variability provides the basis of evolution by providing raw material for it.
43. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.

Ans:
Mitosis Meiosis
The type of cell division in which the number The type of cell division in which the number
of chromosomes in daughter cells remains the of chromosomes in daughter cells reduces to
same as in parent cell. half as compared to the parent cell.
It takes place in somatic cells. It occurs in germ cells.
Daughter cells produced by mitosis are Daughter cells produced by meiosis are not
similar to parent cells. exactly the same as the parents.
Two daughter cells are produced at the end of Four daughter cells are produced at the end of
mitosis. meiosis.
Organization of Cells to Form Tissues, Organs and Organ System
44. How can a cell express itself as an independent living thing?

Ans: Small organisms (Amoeba) are made of only one cell. These organisms are called
unicellular organisms. They represent single cells capable of independent existence by making
use of their organelles. Once capable of independent existence, the cell has become an organism.
Such an organism represents the unicellular level of organization of life.
45. Define tissues. Name different types of plant tissues.

Tissues:
A major step in the direction of multicellular organization of life has been the formation of tissues.
A tissue consists of a group of cells which are similar in structure and function. Both plants and
animals tissues have achieved increasing complexity by formation of organs and organ systems.
Types of plant tissues:
i. Meristematic tissue
ii. Permanent tissue
46. Make a chart of different types of plant tissues.

Ans:
Plant
tissues
Meristematic
Permanent tissue
tissue
Simple tissue Compound tissue
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma xylem phloem
Types of plant tissues

47. What do you know about meristematic tissue?
Ans: Meristematic tissue: The tissue which contains cells that have ability to divide, so that the
number of cells increases and the organism can grow. Meristematic cells are smaller in size with
comparatively thin walls and a nucleus in the center. This tissue is commonly present in root tips
and shoot apex and helps to increase the length of the root and the shoot by adding primary tissue.
Fig: Meristematic tissue

48. Define permanent tissue. Write the names of its types.
Ans: Permanent tissue: Permanent tissue is formed from meristematic cells. This tissue is
different from meristematic tissue because its cells do not divide. The walls of these cells are
thick enabling them to maintain their shape.
Types of permanent tissue:
Permanent tissue may be classified into two groups:
i. Simple tissue
ii. Complex tissue
49. Differentiate between simple tissue and complex tissue. Ans:

Simple tissue Complex tissue
Simple tissue is made up of one type of Complex tissue is made up of more
cells forming a homogeneous or uniform than one type of cells working together
mass. as a unit.
Examples: Parenchyma and Examples: Xylem and phloem tissue
collenchyma tissues
50. How would you differentiate between parenchyma and collenchyma

tissues? Ans:
Parenchyma tissue Collenchyma tissue
It consists of living cells which are more It consists of somewhat elongated cells
or less equally expanded on all sides. with the corners filled with cellulose
These cells have intercellular spaces. They and pectin. Collenchyma occurs in a
are present in all the soft parts of plant. It few layers under the epidermis of
is food storing tissue. herbaceous dicotyledons.
51. Write a short note on sclerenchyma tissue.

Ans: Sclerenchyma tissue: Sclerenchyma (scleros =hard) tissue consists of very long, narrow thick
walled and lignified cells. They are dead cells. They become hard by deposition of chemical like
lignin and thus provide support to the plants. They are found in xylem and hard fruit coats etc.
52. Name the types of permanent tissues on the basis of function and briefly describe
any two of these.
i. Epidermal tissue
ii. Ground tissue
iii. Supporting tissue
iv. Conducting tissue
i) Epidermal tissues: The cells of these tissues are rectangular in shape. These tissues form
the outer layer of root, stem and leaf.
Fig: Epidermal tissue

ii) Ground tissues: Ground tissues are composed of thin walled parenchymatous cells, which
are formed from meristematic tissue. These cells are basically meant for storing food.
53. Write two differences between xylem and phloem.

Ans:
Xylem Phloem
The xylem consists of sclerenchyma The phloem is made up of living cells
vessels and fibers. like sieve tubes.
It conducts water and salts from the soil It conducts food from leaves to various
to the leaves and also provides support parts of the plants
54. Name different types of animal tissues and briefly describe any two of
these. Ans: Types of Animal Tissues:
Like plants, animals have tissues which form organs and organ system. Some important types
of animal tissues are:
i. Epithelial tissue
ii. Connective tissue
iii. Muscular tissue
iv. Nervous tissue
i) Epithelial tissue: The cells of this tissue occur in a single layer and are closely packed
together. This tissue forms surface layer and underlines the tubular organs of the body.
Fig: Epithelial tissue

ii) Connective tissues: These tissues provide support to other tissues and organs and
bind them together. They consist of a ground substance, cells and fibres.
Fig: Connective tissue

55. Differentiate between muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
Ans:
Muscular tissues Nervous tissues
This tissue is formed of muscle fibres. These tissues are formed of cells called
Each muscle fibre is an elongated cell, neurons or nerve cells. Nerve cells are
which has the ability to contract and specialized to conduct messages in the form
relax. of electrical currents. The nervous system
(brain, spinal cord, nerves) is made up of this
tissue.
56. What is meant by organ system? Give

examples. Ans: Organ system:
An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions.
Examples: The digestive system is made of organs such as mouth, gut, liver and pancreas are all
working together to digest food. There are other systems in the animal body such as transport,
respiratory, excretory, muscle, skeletal, nervous and reproductive systems.
Unicellular Organisms
57. Define unicellular organisms. Give

examples. Ans: Unicellular Organisms
A unicellular organism is an organism that consists of a single cell. This means all life processes,
such as reproduction, feeding, digestion, and excretion, occur in one cell.
Example: Amoeba is one of the example. Some other examples are euglena, paramecium etc.
58. Write down any five characteristics of amoeba.
i. It is a unicellular aquatic organism found in stagnant water pools and ponds.

ii. It is microscopic in size measuring about 0.25 millimeter.
iii. It does not possess a permanent form and' keeps on changing its shape.
iv. It moves by producing temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia
v. Amoeba respires by exchanging gases with the surrounding water through its surface.
59. Write a few lines about the cytoplasm of amoeba.

Ans: The Cytoplasm of amoeba is differentiated into two parts. Its outer portion, which is clear
and transparent is called ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part is called
endoplasm. The endoplasm contains many food vacuoles of different size, a contractile vacuole
and other cells organelles.
60. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of amoeba.
Fig: Amoeba
Multicellular Organisms
61. What are multicellular organisms?

Ans: Multicellular Organisms
The majority of living organisms consist of many cells and are called multicellular organisms.
Brassica and frog have been selected here as representative examples of multicellular plants and
animals, respectively.
62. Write a brief note on brassica.

Ans: Brassica:
Brassica campestris is the botanical name of mustard (sarsoun). Its oil (mustard oil) is used for
cooking and its leaves are used as vegetable (saag).
Structure of Brassica:
This plant consists of roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds. These parts can be divided into
two categories on functional basis i.e. vegetative parts and reproductive parts.
The vegetative parts are those which do not directly take part in sexual reproduction. These
parts are root, stem, branches and leaves.
The reproductive parts consist of sex organs which are directly related to sexual
reproduction. These are flowers.
63. Name different vegetative parts of brassica. Give a brief account of

roots. Ans: Vegetative parts of Brassica:
The vegetative parts of brassica are:
i. Root
ii. Stem
iii. Leaves
i) Root: The root is that part, which grows under the soil and develops from the radicle of the
seed. The tips of all the roots bear a cap, the root cap. The root bears fine, thin root hairs. The
plant absorbs water and minerals from the soil through the root hairs only, the rest of the root fix
the plant to the soil.
The outer part of a root is the epidermis (epi=above; derma=skin), which protects the root. Next
to epidermis is the cortex. Cortex is composed of parenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells store food
material. Within the cortex is a central cylinder region called the stele. The stele of the root is
surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called endodermis. Next to the endodermis is a
layer of cells called pericycle. Branch of the root originate from the pericycle. The central part of
the stele is occupied by a star shaped xylem. In between the arms of the xylem is phloem. Rest
of the stele is made of parenchyma cells.
64. Discuss the internal structure of brassica stem.

Ans: Internal structure of brassica stem:
Internal structure of brassica stem consists of following parts:
Epidermis:
A cross section of Brassica stem shows that it is surrounded on the outside by a single layered
epidermis.
Cortex:
Next to the epidermis is cortex. The cortex is made up of parenchyma and collenchyma cells.
Food material is stored in the cortex.
Vascular bundles:
Next to the cortex is a ring of vascular bundles. Each bundle consists of xylem and phloem.
Xylem is located towards the inside and phloem towards the outside.
Cambium:
In between xylem and phloem, there is a region consisting of meristematic cells called cambium.
Pith:
The centre of the stem is occupied by pith. It is made up of parenchyma cells and stores food
material.
65. Define the following terms:

i. Petiole ii. Lamina iii. Midrib iv. Bifacial leaf Ans: Petiole: The
lower stalk like part of leaf is called petiole. Lamina: The upper green
expanded portion of the leaf is called lamina.
Midrib: There is a swollen vein in the middle of the leaf which is known as midrib.
Bifacial leaf: The leaf having different upper and lower surfaces is called bifacial leaves.
66. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of transverse section of brassica leaf.
67. What is mesophyll? How is it divided into two layers

Ans: The tissue between upper and lower epidermis of the leaf is called mesophyll.
Mesophyll is divided into layers:
Palisade layer:
The mesophyll cells below the upper epidermis are longer than broad and are closely packed. It
is called the palisade layer.
Spongy layer:
The cells next to the palisade layer are irregular in shape and loosely arranged having spaces like
sponge and is called the spongy layer.
68. Define inflorescence, pedicel, calyx and corolla.

Ans: Inflorescence: This special arrangement of the flowers on the stem is called inflorescence.
Fig: Different arrangements of flowers (inflorescence)
Pedicel: The flower in Brassica is situated on a stalk known as pedicel.
Calyx: This is the outermost whorl of flower and consists of sepals which are green in colour.
Corolla: This is the second whorl of a flower and is composed of petals of different colours.
Corolla
69. What is the male reproductive part of flower called? Briefly describe
it. Ans: The male reproductive part of flower is called androecium.
The androecium lies inside the petals. It makes the third whorl of the floral leaves. Its parts are
not leaf-like. It consists of free stamens which are the male reproductive organs of the flower.
Each stamen has two well defined parts, a lower delicate stalk called the filament and an upper
swollen part called the anther.
70. Define pollination of flowers.

Ans: Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part (anther) of a flower to the
female part (stigma) of a flower. Pollination may be through insects, air or water etc.
71. Write a note on gynoecium.

Ans: Gynoecium: This is fourth whorl occupying the central position in the flower. The parts of
the gynoecium are called carpels, which are the female reproductive organs of the plant. Each
carpel is divisible into three main parts. The lower swollen part is the ovary. Above the ovary
carpel extends into a thin stalk, the style. The style has swollen tip, which is called stigma. In the
ovary many ovules are present, which ripen into seeds.
72. What do you know about the habitat and habit of living of
frog? Ans: Habitat of Frog:
The frog lives both in water as well as on land. It swims in water and moves by jumping
when on land. Frogs are found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay
eggs. They hibernate during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and stay
there throughout the winter. This phenomenon is called hibernation or winter sleep.
73. Write a note on external features of frog.

Ans: External features of frog:
Frog has neither a neck nor a tail. As the head is directly attached to the trunk frog
cannot move it as we can. The conical head has two large bulging eyes. Behind each eye
is a circular area called tympanic membrane. These membranes help in hearing. At the
tip of the snout it has two openings called external nostrils by which frog breathes. The
skin of the frog is loose and slippery. It is slippery due to secretions produced by glands
present in it.
There is a membranous skin between its toes which helps in swimming. There are five
toes in each foot but the hand has only four fingers because the thumb is rudimentary. In
male frog the first finger is thicker than the others.
74. Define digestion and digestive system. Name different parts of the digestive system
of frog.
Ans: Digestion:
Digestion is a process by which the complex insoluble food substances are converted into soluble
form by the action of enzymes. The digested food is then absorbed into the blood through the
intestinal walls.
Digestive system:
The organs involved in the breakdown of complex food into simpler form (digestion) constitute
the digestive system.
Organs of digestive system of frog:

This system is composed of a tube, the alimentary canal and special glands associated with it.
The alimentary canal consists of buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and intestine.
75. What is the food of frog? How does the frog get it?
Ans: Frog feeds mainly on insects. On seeing the prey, it suddenly throws out its tongue. The prey
sticks to its sticky tongue. The tongue is then immediately withdrawn and the prey is swallowed.
76. What is stomach? Describe the function of stomach in the process of digestion.
Ans: Stomach is a thick walled, muscular and glandular sac. Anterior end of stomach is called
cardiac end while posterior end is called pyloric end. Food is grounded in stomach and mixed
with enzyme pepsin, which partially digest proteins. Food in stomach changes into a paste like
substance called chyme.
77. How does intestine help in digestion of food?

Ans: The partially digested food from the stomach enters the small intestine through pyloric end,
where its digestion is completed. The digested food is absorbed into blood. The undigestible
parts of the food enter the large intestine, also called rectum.
78. What is the role of liver and pancreas in the process of

digestion? Ans: Role of Liver and pancreas:
The liver is a large reddish-brown gland located adjacent to the stomach. Its secretion is known
as bile. Between the lobes of the liver is a rounded pouch called gall bladder, which stores bile.
A bile duct arises from it.
The pancreas lies between stomach and duodenum, the first part of small intestine. Its secretion,
pancreatic juice, is carried by the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct and the bile duct join to
form a common hepato-pancreatic duct, which then opens into duodenum. The bile and the
pancreatic juice help in the complete digestion of the food in the small intestine.
79. Define respiration. What are its phases?
Respiration is the process by which digested food in the cells is oxidized in the presence of
oxygen, as a result of which energy is released, and carbon dioxide and water are produced as
by-products. This entire process is divided into two phases.
a) Gaseous exchange or Extra-cellular respiration
b) Cellular respiration
80. Name different ways of respiration in frog. Describe any one of these.
Ans: Frog has three types of respiration on the basis of organs involved in the gaseous exchange,
these are:
i) Pulmonary respiration
ii) Cutaneous respiration
iii) Buccal respiration
i) Pulmonary respiration:
The gaseous exchange, which takes place through lungs is called pulmonary respiration.
During respiration air is taken in by the external nostrils. It passes into the buccal cavity through
the internal nostrils. From here it enters the glottis, passes through the larynx and bronchi finally
reach the lungs. In the lungs, exchange of gases between air and blood takes place i.e. oxygen is
taken up by the blood and CO2 is given out, which leaves the body through same route.
81. Differentiate between cutaneous and buccal respiration.

Ans:
Cutaneous Respiration Buccal Repiration
Gaseous exchange carried out by skin, is The lining of buccal cavity is thin,
called cutaneous respiration. Frog uses moist and richly supplied with blood
skin as a respiratory organ during capillaries. Here also exchange of gases
swimming and hibernation. Oxygen takes place between the air and blood.
diffuse into blood through skin while This type of respiration is called buccal
CO2 diffuses out from the network blood respiration.
capillaries in skin.
82. Define circulatory system, also give an introduction to closed circulatory

system. Ans: Circulatory System:
The system that circulates blood through the body, consisting of the heart, blood vessels and
blood, is called circulatory system.
Closed Circulatory System:
A closed type circulatory system is that in which blood circulates in the closed circuit of blood
vessels being pumped by an organ called heart, this system is also called cardiovascular system.
83. Name different parts of circulatory system of frog.
i) Heart- strong muscular pumping organ.

ii) Three kinds of blood vessels:
(a) Arteries － which carry blood away from heart.
(b) Veins － which return blood to the heart.
(c) Capillaries － exchange material between tissues and blood.
iii) Blood
84. Briefly state the structure of frog’s heart.
Ans: Structure of Frog’s Heart:
The heart of frog is a conical, muscular pumping organ, located in the anterior region of body
cavity. It is enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. It contracts and expands continuously
throughout the life. This contraction and expansion of heart is called heartbeat, due to which
blood circulates continuously in the body. Frog’s heart consists of three main chambers and two
accessory chambers:
(i) Right auricle or Atrium
(ii) Left auricle or Atrium
(iii) Ventricle
Fig: Heart of Frog

The truncus arteriosus originates from ventral side of the ventricle and divide into two
branches each of which divides into three arches (arteries). Another thin walled triangular sac
called sinus venosus formed by major veins opens into right atrium. Both of these structures are
not true chambers of heart but often called accessory chambers.
85. How does the blood circulate through the frog’s heart.
Ans: In heart, the flow of blood is continuous and moves in two path ways. The oxygenated
blood from the lungs enters the left auricle through pulmonary veins. The deoxygenated blood
from all other parts of the body enters the sinus venosus. From sinus venosus, it reaches the right
auricle. When the two auricles contract, the blood is pushed into the single ventricle. When
ventricle contracts it is pumped into the truncus arteriosus, from here it enters (a) the pulmonary
arteries, which carry the blood to lungs for oxygenation and (b) the systemic arteries, which
supply it to all parts.pf the body and (c) the carotid arteries, which supply it to the brain.
86. Define artery. Name the arteries which comprise the arterial system of
frog. Ans: Artery:
A blood vessel, which carries blood away from heart to the various body parts is called an artery.
Arterial system of frog:

The arterial system can be simply stated to comprise of the following three main components.
i. Pulmocutaneous arteries
ii. Carotid arteries
iii. Systemic arteries
87. Describe the function of pulmocutaneous and systemic arteries.

Ans: Pulmocutaneous arteries: They supply deoxygenated blood to lungs and skin
where it gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
Systemic arteries: These vessels carry oxygenated blood to all the parts of the body except the
head and lungs. They fuse together to form a major vessel of this system called aorta, which
gives off branches to various parts of the body such as fore and hind limbs, digestive system,
liver, pancreas, kidneys, genital organs and muscles.
88. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of arterial system of frog.
89. What are veins? Explain major components of venous system of

frog. Ans: Venous system:
It is a set of blood vessel, called veins, which bring the blood from all the parts of the body
towards heart. The venous system of frog consists of the following major components.
(i) The oxygenated blood from the lungs is collected by pulmonary veins, which bring it to
the left auricle of the heart.
(ii) The deoxygenated blood from head and fore limbs is collected through several veins,
which join together to form one major precaval vein, on each side.
(iii) Blood from all the lower parts of the body such as stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas,
genital organs, muscles, hind limbs etc, is collected through veins, which join together and
form one major vein called post caval. Both the pre-cavals and the post-caval open into
the sinus venosus from where the blood is pumped into the right auricle of the heart.
90. What are portal veins? Briefly describe renal portal and hepatic portal systems.
Ans: Portal veins: Set of veins, which collect the blood from one organ and discharge it into
another organ, is called portal veins.
Hepatic portal system: The set of veins draining their blood into liver form hepatic portal
system. Renal portal system: The set of veins opening into the kidneys, collectively make renal
portal system.
91. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of venous system of frog.
92. Differentiate between veins and arteries.

Ans:
Veins Arteries
These are the blood vessels which collect the These are the blood vessels which distribute
blood from different parts of body and carry it the blood from the heart to different parts of
to the heart. the body.
All veins carry deoxygenated blood except All arteries carry oxygenated blood except
pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated pulmonary arteries which carry
blood from the lungs to the heart. deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs.
Their walls are thin, fibrous and less elastic. Their walls are thick muscular and elastic.
93. Write short note on excretory system of frog.

Ans: Excretory system of frog:
It is the set of organs involved in the process of excretion i.e. the removal of metabolic waste
matters from the body. This function is performed by kidneys, which filter out the excretory
matter from the blood and pass it out in the form of urine. There are two kidneys in frog. They
are elongated reddish brown organs attached to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. The urine is
carried from the kidneys by a pair of tubes called ureters, which open into the cloaca. From the
cloaca, it is either passed out directly through cloacal aperture or is stored for some time in a bag,
the urinary bladder.
94. Define reproduction. What are the male and female reproductive organs of frog
called?
Ans: Reproduction:
Reproduction is the process of production of new babies by their parents. Organs involved in this
process are included in reproductive system.
The male reproductive organ is known as the testis (plural testes) and the female reproductive
organ is called the ovary. Testes produce sperms and ovaries produce ovum (Plural ova) or egg.
95. Define nervous system. Name and briefly describe its different parts.
Ans: Nervous system:
The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is called nervous
system.
Parts of nervous system:
Nervous system is composed of two parts:
i. Central nervous system
ii. Peripheral nervous system
Central nervous system: The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: It comprises of nerves, which connect the central nervous system
with various parts of the body, i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs.
96. Describe different parts of the brain of frog. Ans:

The brain of frog consists of the following regions:
(i) The most anterior region comprises the olfactory lobes.
(ii) Immediately behind the olfactory lobes, there are two large outgrowths called the
cerebral hemispheres.
(iii) Behind the hemispheres are located two prominent outgrowths called the optic lobes.
(iv) The part between the optic lobes and hemispheres is known as the diencephalon. On the
dorsal surface of diencephalon is present a pineal body while the pituitary gland is
attached to its ventral surface.
(v) The last part of the brain consists of the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata.
Sense Organs
97. What do you know about sense organs?

Ans: SENSE ORGANS
To get the informations about the environment organisms like frog have receptor organs. These
receptors send sensations to the central nervous system via nerves. The frog has many types of
receptors. Its skin has many small microscopic receptors for the sense of touch. For smell, there
are olfactory receptor located in the nostrils. For the sense of taste sensory cells are present in
taste buds on the tongue. Ears are used for receiving sound waves and maintaining balancing and
eyes for receiving light i.e. sight.
Fig: Taste bud or taste receptor

98. Briefly describe the structure frog’s ear.
Ans: Ear of frog:
The outermost part of frog’s ear is the tympanic membrane. On the inner side of this membrane
is a cavity known as tympanic cavity. The cavity contains three small rod- like bones called
ossicles. Its one end is attached to the tympanic membrane and the other with the internal ear.
The internal ear (Fig) is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semi-circular canals. These
canals are filled with a fluid and sensory cells are located at special places in these canals.
99. How does the ear of frog perform its function?

Ans: When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane it is set into vibration. This vibrates
ossicles which in turn, vibrate the internal ear and thus, sound waves stimulate the hearing
receptors in the inner ear. The internal ear, in addition to hearing, also keeps the balance of the
body.
93: Explain the structure of frog’s eye.

Ans: Eye of frog:
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head. If we make vertical section of the
eye, we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the sensory retina.
The retina contains photoreceptor cells. Outside the retina is the choroid, which is richly
supplied with blood capillaries supplying nutrients to the retina. The sclerotic is the hard,
outer most layer of the eye. It provides shape to the eye ball. The anterior transparent part
of the eye is called cornea. Behind the cornea is iris. The iris has a window called the
pupil. Behind the pupil is the lens of the eye. The cornea, pupil and lens focus light on
the retina. A watery fluid is present in between the cornea and lens.
Understanding the concepts (Detailed Question/Answers)

Q.1: Write a note on discovery of cell and cell theory.
Ans: DISCOVERY OF CELL AND CELL THEORY
All living organisms are composed of cells. Biologist came to know that through observations.
These observations started with the discovery of magnifying glasses and later on with the
development of microscope. (Latin word micro = small; skopion = to see). In 1610 Galileo, an
Italian astronomer and physicist developed microscope to observe small organisms. In 1665,
Robert Hook made an improved microscope by combining lenses, called compound microscope
and examined a slice of cork under it. He found small honey comb like chambers, which
reminded him small rooms of monastery and are said cellula in Italian, so he also named these
structures as cellulae or cell (small rooms). The cork was made from bark of oak, so he actually
saw the cell-wall only.
In 1842, Dutrochet, boiled plant material in nitric acid and then examined under microscope. It
was found to consisting of cells. In 1831, Robert Brown discovered a spherical body, the nucleus
in the cells of orchids. Schleiden (1838) a German botanist, proposed that all plants are made up
of cells. Next year another German Zoologist, Theoder Schwann stated that all animals are made
up of cells. He observed nuclei in all types of animal cells but failed to observe cell- wall in
them. From here the difference between plant and animal cell started to establish. In 1858,
Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells come only from other cells i.e animals cells come from
animal cell and plant cells from plant cell. The combined efforts of Schleiden, Schwann and
R.Virchow finally gave rise to cell theory.
The salient features of the cell theory are as under:
iv) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
v) The cell is the smallest, basic structural and functional unit of all organisms.
vi) New cells are formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
Q.2: What do you know about light microscopy and electron microscopy?
Ans: LIGHT MICROSCOPY AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
The discovery and early study of cells progressed with the invention and improvement of visual
instrument, like microscope. Microscopes of various types are still important tools for the study
of cells.
The microscopes first used by scientist, as well as the microscope you use in the biology
laboratory are light microscopes. These microscopes use visible light as the source of
illumination and glass lenses for magnification. These lenses reflect the light in a way that the
image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the human eye. The light microscope
can magnify the object upto 1000 times but its resolving power is very limited, i.e. just 0.2µm
(Resolving power is a measure of the clarity of the image).
In 1935, a new type of power full microscope called Electron microscope was invented by scientist
to improve the resolving power of microscope. It uses a beam of electron as a source of
illumination. The electron beam increases its resolving power. Modern electron microscope can
achieve a resolution about 0.2 nm, a thousand times improvement over light microscope. The
electron microscope uses electromagnet as lenses instead of glass lenses. This image cannot focus in
human eye, therefore screen or photographic plates are used to review and focus these images.
Units of measurement
-2
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 meter.
-3
1 millimeter (mm) - 10 meter.
-6
1 micrometer (µm) =10 meter.
-9
1 nanometer (nm) = 10 meter.
Electron microscopes reveals many organelles that are impossible to be seen with the light
microscope. But the light microscope has many advantages especially for the study of live cells.
In electron microscopy, chemicals and physical methods are used to prepare sample which kills
cells.
Q.3: What is cell wall? Describe the structure, composition and function of the cell wall.
Cell-wall:
Cell-wall is the non-living, outermost boundary of plant cells, bacterial cells and fungal cells. It
is not found in animal cell.
Structure and composition of cell wall:
Cell wall is secreted by the protoplasm of the plant cell. In plant cell it is mainly composed of
cellulose and pectin. Ultra microscopic structure of cell-wall shows that cellulose makes the
fibers which are arranged in crisscross manner. These fibers are kept in their position by a
cementing material called calcium pectate (Pectin).
Bacterial cell-wall is made up of protein and carbohydrate while fungal cell wall is made up of
fungal cellulose and chitin.
Thickness of cell-wall varies in different cells of plant. It is composed of three main layers:
middle lamella, primary wall, secondary wall and sometimes tertiary wall. Middle lamella is
formed between the primary walls of neighbouring cells. Primary wall, the first wall of plant cell
is chemically composed of cellulose and pectin, some limes, lignin.
Functions of cell wall:
Cell wall performs the following functions:
iv. Cell-wall provides protection and support to the cell.
v. It gives a definite shape to the cell.
vi. It also performs the function of transport of material from outside to inside or
vice versa, therefore, it is permeable in nature.
Q.4: Write a note on cell-membrane.

Ans: Cell- membrane:
The cell-membrane or plasma membrane surrounds nucleus and cytoplasm in all types of cells.
However in bacteria and plants, plasma membrane itself is surrounded by a cell-wall. It can
repair itself to some extent. Different models have been presented to understand the structure
of cell membrane. The most acceptable model among them is Fluid mosaic model presented by
Singer and Nicholson (1972).
According to it, cell membrane consists of lipid (Phospho-lipid) bilayer, in which protein
molecules float like iceberg in the sea. This basic structure is found in all the membranes
of mitochondria, chloroplast etc. Therefore, it is also called unit membrane.
Cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane because it regulates selective movement of
molecules. In many animal cells the cell membrane infolds, taking in materials in the form of
vacuoles. This process is called endocytosis.
Fig: Structure of cell membrane
Q.5: What is nucleus? Describe its location, structure and functions. Also draw its
labelled diagram.
Ans: Nucleus or Karyon:
Nucleus (discovered by Robert Brown in 1831) is an important and prominent structure present
inside the cell.
Location:
In animal cell it is usually present in the center but in plant cell, due to presence of large vacuole
it is pushed towards cell-membrane.
Structure:
Nucleus may be spherical or irregular in shape. It is enveloped by a double membrane called
nuclear-membrane. This membrane possesses large number of nuclear pores. Nucleus is filled
with a gel like substance called nucleoplasm. The nucleoplasm contains nucleoli and a network
of thread like structures called chromatin network. The threads of chromatin become prominent
during cell-division. Each thread is called chromosome. These structures of major importance.
They are composed of Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) and protein. The number of chromosomes
in the cells of all individual of the same species always remains constant.
Cells of organism No. of Chromosomes

Man 46
Frog 26
Chimpanzee 48
Drosophila (fruit fly) 08
Onion 16
Potato 48
Garden pea 14
Functions:
i. It controls all the activities of cell.
ii. DNA plays significant role in the inheritance of characters as well as in controlling or
regulating the cell activities.
Fig: The Nucleus

Q.6: Define cytoplasm and write its composition. Also name different
cytoplasmic organelles.
Ans: Cytoplasm:
It is the translucent fluid portion of the cell lying in between plasma membrane and nucleus. It
consists of an aqueous ground substance called cytosol and granular portion called cytoplasmic
organelles.
Composition:
Chemically cytoplasm is about 90% water and forms a solution and serves as store house of vital
chemicals. It is a site of metabolic reactions like protein synthesis, glycolysis etc. Many reactions
can occur at the same time in different regions of the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasmic Organelles:
Some important cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
Golgi
1. Endoplasmic reticulum 2. complex
3. Mitochondria 4. Plastids
5. Centrioles 6. Ribosomes
7. Vacuoles
Q.7: Define endoplasmic reticulum. Describe its types and functions.
Endoplasmic reticulum: (Endo= inside, plasma = protoplasm, reticulum=net work).
It is a network of membranous channels or tubules extending throughout the cytoplasm. The
channels seem to be in contact with plasma membrane as well as nuclear membrane.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum.
i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum having ribosomes at its outer surface which are involved in
protein synthesis.
ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Endoplasmic reticulum plays important role in the synthesis and transport of material within the
cell. It also provides mechanical support to the cell so that its shape is maintained. It detoxifies
the harmful effects of drugs.
Q.8: Write Notes on the following topics:

i. Mitochondria ii. Plastids iii. Centrosome and Centrioles iv. Ribosomes v. Vacuoles
Mitochondria (Sing; mitochondrion):

They are generally rod-like or bean shaped organelles consisting of double membrane.
The inner membrane is folded. These infoldings are called cristae while the fluid present
inside is called matrix. Mitochondria contain enzymes which break the food for the
production of energy. As producers of energy they are called Power house of the cell.
The number of mitochondria in cell relates to its activities.
Fig: The Mitochondrion

Plastids:
contain different types of pigments. Plastids are of three types on the basis of their
pigment or colour.
i) Chloroplasts have green pigment i.e. chlorophyll found in leaves and other green
ii) Chromoplast have coloured pigments other than green found in fruit, flower, petals
iii) Leucoplast (leucos = white or colourless) are colourless, found in the cells of
Fig: Structure of Chloroplast

Centrosome and Centrioles:

A rounded structure, the centrosome is present near the nucleus in animal cells. A
centrosome contains two centrioles (Fig). Each centriole consists of a cylindrical array of 9
rows of microtubules. They form fibrous protein spindle which help in movement of
chromosomes towards poles during animal cell division.
Fig: Centrioles
Ribosome:
They are granules, rich in ribonucleic acid (RNA). They serve as sites where proteins are
synthesized hence called protein factories of cell. They are found free in cytoplasm as well as
attached on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Vacuole:
They are the fluid (other than cytoplasm) filled sacs surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
In animal cell they are numerous, small but temporary structures while in plant cell they are
permanent and very large in size, one or a few in number. They are concerned with storage of
cell sap.
Fig: Plant Cell Vacuole

Q.9: Draw a diagram showing different parts of a typical plant cell. Describe those
organelles which are only found in plant cell.
Ans:
Fig: A Plant Cell
Plastids are the organelles which are only found in plant cells.
Location of Plastids:
contain different types of pigments.
Types of Plastids:
Plastids are of three types on the basis of their pigment or colour.
iv) Chloroplasts have green pigment i.e. chlorophyll found in leaves and other green
v) Chromoplast have coloured pigments other than green found in fruit, flower, petals
vi) Leucoplast (leucos = white or colourless) are colourless, found in the cells of
Fig: Structure of Chloroplast

10. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

Ans: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic (pro: before; karyon: nucleus) Eukaryotic (eu: true, karyon: nucleus) cell
cell does not possess true nucleus. It means possesses proper nucleus where nuclear
its nuclear material is not enclosed in a material is enclosed in a proper nuclear
proper nuclear membrane. membrane.
They do not have many of the membrane They have membrane bounded structures
bounded structures e.g. mitochondria, E.R, (organelles).
Golgi apparatus etc.
Ribosomes are of small sized and freely Ribosomes are of large size and present either
scattered in cytoplasm. on endoplasmic reticulum or free in
cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm is absent. Nucleoplasm is present.
Single chromosome is found. Proper chromosomes in diploid numbers are

present.
Respiratory enzymes are located on the inner Respiratory enzymes are present in
surface of the cell membrane. mitochondria.
These cells are simple and comparatively These cells are complex and comparatively
smaller in size i.e. average 0.5 – 10 nm in larger in size i.e. 10 - l00 nm in diameter
diameter. average.
These types of cells are found in Plants and animals are composed of this type
bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue green of cells and are called eukaryotic organisms.
algae). Such organisms are called
prokaryotic organisms.
Q.10: What is mitosis? Explain the process with the help of diagrams.
Ans: Mitosis:
In this type of cell division a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way that the number
of chromosomes in the daughter cells remains the same as in the parent cell.
Although mitosis is a continuous process, its karyokinesis can be divided for convenience into
four phases which are Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. Let us now study
mitosis is an animal cell.
i) Prophase:
During early prophase chromatin material condenses and becomes visible as thick coiled, thread
like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome at this stage is already double, i.e.
consists of two chromatids. The chromatids are attached to each other at centromere. The
nuclear membrane gradually disappears and at the same time centrosome divides to form two
centrioles, each moves towards the opposite pole of the cell and forms the spindle fibres. The
centrioles are absent in plant cells.
ii) Metaphase:
During this phase each chromosome arranges itself on the equator of the spindle. Each
chromosome is attached to separate spindle fibre by its centromere.
iii) Anaphase:
In this phase the centromere of a chromosome divides and the chromatids of each chromosome
separates from each other and begin to move towards opposite poles. In this way one set of the
chromatids (each chromatid is now an independent chromosome) move towards one pole while
the other set towards the other pole.
iv) Telophase:
This is a stage when the chromatids (now called chromosomes) reach the poles and their
movement ceases. Each pole receives the same number of chromosomes as were present in the
parent cell. The nuclear membrane is reformed around each set of chromosomes. In this way two
daughter nuclei are formed in each cell. Soon the cytoplasm of the cell also divides and two
daughter cells arise. The nucleus of each daughter cell contains the same chromosome number as
in their parent cell. In this way the daughter cells are exact copies of their parent cell.
Q.11: What do you mean by cell division? Describe the method of cell division by which
gametes or spores are produced.
Ans: Cell division:
The division of a cell into two daughter cells with the same genetic material is called
cell division.
Meiosis is the cell division by which gametes and spore are produced.
Meiosis:
Meiosis or reduction cell-division is a special type of cell-division S| which a parent cell finally
divides into four daughter cells in a way that the number of chromosome in each daughter cell
reduce to half of their parent cell. Thus it is the reduction of the diploid (2n) number of
chromosomes to the haploid (n) number. In animals meiosis produces gametes (sperms and eggs)
while in plants it gives rise to spores.
The process of meiosis involves two consecutive divisions.

(a) Meiosis I - First meiotic division or reduction phase
(b) Meiosis II - Second meiotic division or meiotic mitotic phase
(a) Meiosis I - First meiotic division or Reduction Phase: This division consists of the
following phases.
a. Prophase I: Those chromosomes in the cell which 'are similar to each other in shape and size
are called homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes occur in pairs. The
difference between mitosis and meiosis starts at this point. In mitosis individual chromosomes
remain separate from each other while in meiosis the homologous chromosomes come together
and form pairs. In each homologous pair, there are four chromatids, since each member
(chromosome) of the pair has already doubled itself. Homologous chromosomes join to
exchange their parts at certain places. This exchange is called crossing over. During crossing
over exchange of genetic material takes place and new combination of genes result. The nuclear
membrane disappears and at the same time spindle fibres are formed.
b. Metaphase I: During this phase pairs of homologous chromosomes arrange themselves on
the equator of the spindle. Unlike mitosis, it is the homologous pair and not the individual
chromosomes which attach at separate fibre of the spindle.
c. Anaphase I: The members of the homologous pairs now begin to separate and
move towards the opposite poles.
d. Telophase I: In this phase the chromosomes come to rest at the poles. The nuclear
membranes are reformed around each set of chromosomes resulting in formation of two
daughter nuclei. On completion of nuclear division, the cytoplasm also divides and two
daughter cells are formed. Each daughter cell has half (haploid) the number of chromosomes
present in the parent cell (compared with the cell in prophase) .Thus, the first meiotic
division reduces the 2n (diploid-2 sets) chromosomes to ‘n’ (haploid-half or one set).
(b) Meiosis II - Second meiotic division or Equational Division:

During second meiotic division the details are almost similar to those seen in mitosis.
Prophase: During prophase, spindles are formed and the nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase: In metaphase, the chromosomes (each consisting of two chromatids) arrange

themselves on the equator.
Anaphase: Their chromatids separate from each other in anaphase and migrate to the
opposite poles.
Telophase: In telophase, the nuclear membrane reappears around each set of chromatids
(now called chromosomes)
Cytokinesis: Now the cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. So at the end of meiosis
four daughter cells are produced in total, each possessing a haploid nucleus. Thus meiosis
produces cells (gametes or spores) with a haploid number of chromosomes.
Q.12: Describe the significance of mitosis and meiosis.

Ans: Significance of mitosis:
Mitosis plays an important role in the life of an organism. It is responsible for development and
growth of organisms by increasing exact copies of cells. With few exceptions all kinds of asexual
reproduction and vegetative propagation take place by mitosis. The production of new somatic
cells, such as blood cells depends on mitosis. The healing of wounds, repair of wear and tear
within organism is also dependent upon the mitotic division.
Significance of meiosis:
Meiosis plays very important role in keeping chromosome number constant in a species from
generation to generation. When the haploid male gamete (sperm) fertilizes i.e. fuses with the
haploid female gamete (ovum) to form a zygote, the diploid number of chromosomes is restored
(n + n = 2n).
Meiosis is responsible for genetic variability i.e. the individuals of a given species differ from
one another. It is due to crossing over which takes place during prophase I. This genetic
variability provides the basis of evolution by providing raw material for it.
Q.13: Define tissues. Describe different types of plant tissues.

Tissues:
A major step in the direction of multicellular organization of life has been the formation of tissues.
A tissue consists of a group of cells which are similar in structure and function. Both plants and
animals tissues have achieved increasing complexity by formation of organs and organ systems.
1. Plant tissues:
i) Meristematic tissue: This tissue contains cells which have ability to divide, so that the number
of cells increases and the organism can grow. Meristematic cells are smaller in size with
comparatively thin walls and a nucleus in the center. This tissue is commonly present in root tips
and shoot apex and helps to increase the length of the root and the shoot by adding primary tissue.
Fig: Meristematic tissue

ii) Permanent tissue: Permanent tissue is formed from meristematic cells. This tissue is
different from meristematic tissue because its cells do not divide. The walls of these cells are
thick enabling them to maintain their shape. Permanent tissue may be classified into two groups
i.e. simple tissue and complex tissue. Simple tissue is made up of one type of cells forming a
homogeneous or uniform mass and a complex tissue is made up of more than one type of cells
working together as a unit.
a) Simple tissue: Simple tissues may further be divided into following type on the basis of their
structure, i.e. Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
i. Parenchyma: It consists of living cells which are more or less equally expanded on all
sides. These cells have intercellular spaces. They are present in all the soft parts of
plant. It is food storing tissue.
Fig: Parenchyma tissue
ii. Collenchyma: It consists of somewhat elongated cells with the corners filled with
cellulose and pectin. Collenchyma occurs in a few layers under the epidermis of
herbaceous dicotyledons.
Fig: Collenchyma tissue
iii. Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma (scleros =hard) consist of very long, narrow thick walled
and lignified cells. They are dead cells. They become hard by deposition of chemical
like lignin and thus provide support to the plants. They are found in xylem and hard
fruit coats etc.
Fig: Sclerenchyma tissue

b) Complex or Compound tissues: Compound tissues are mainly of two types: (a) Xylem (b)
Phloem. These will be discussed later under conducting tissues.
Types of permanent tissues on the basis of function:
i) Epidermal tissues: The cells of these tissues are rectangular in shape. These tissues
form the outer layer of root, stem and leaf .The cells in it are very compactly arranged so that
there is no space between them. However, in the stem and leaves, pores called stomata are
present through which gases are exchanged. These tissues protect the inner parts of plant.
Fig: Epidermal tissue
ii) Ground tissues: Ground tissues are composed of thin walled parenchymatous cells,
which axe formed from meristematic tissue. These cells are basically meant for storing
food. These tissues are present in all parts of the plant except the epidermal and the
vascular tissues.
iii) Supporting tissues: When cells reach a maximum size their cell wails become thick due to
deposition of special material and become dead. Such cells make up supporting tissue. This
tissue is of various shapes and provides rigidity and support to the plant. Sclerenchyma (thick
walled, lignified and elongated) and collenchyma (living cells with thick cellular walls with
few small intercellular spaces) are examples of the supporting tissues.
iv) Conducting or Vascular tissues: These tissues consist of elongated cells with thick or thin
walls. Xylem and Phloem are examples of this tissue. The xylem consists of sclerenchyma
vessels and fibers, which conducts water and salts from the soil to the leaves and also
provides support. The phloem is made up of living cells like sieve tubes, which conducts
food from leaves to various parts of the plants. Xylem and phloem together form vascular
bundle in the stem while they remain separate from each other in the roots.
Fig: Conducting tissue

Q.14: Write a note on “Animal Tissues”.

Ans: Animal tissues:
Like plants, animals have tissues which form organs and organ system. Some important types
of animal tissues are:
i) Epithelial tissue: The cells of this tissue occur in a single layer and are closely packed
together. This tissue forms surface layer under lines of the tubular organs of the body.
Epithelial tissue occurs in glands where it is variously folded.
Cell membrane
Nucleus Cell
Fig: Epithelial tissue

ii) Connective tissues: These tissues provide support to other tissues and organs and bind them
together. They consist of a ground substance, cells and fibres. They range from soft to very
hard tissues. Fatty tissues are examples of the soft type. Cartilage and bone are special types
of these tissues and are hard. Blood is also a special connective tissue with cells suspended
in a fluid medium. It transports materials in the body.
Fig: Connective tissue
iii) Muscular tissues: This tissue is formed of muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is an elongated
cell, which has the ability to contract and relax. These tissues are responsible for movement
of the body and body parts.
Fig: Muscular tissue

iv) Nervous tissues: These tissues are formed of cells called neurons or nerve cells. Nerve cells
are specialized to conduct messages in the form of electrical currents. The nervous system
(brain, spinal cord, nerves) is made up of this tissue.
Fig: Nervous tissue
Q.16: What do you know about organ level and organ system level of organization?
Ans: Organs:
Your arm is an organ because it consists of various kinds of tissues such as epithelial tissue, muscular
tissue, connective tissue and nervous tissue. All of these tissues have come together in the arm to
make it an organ. Your heart, kidney, liver and many others structures are organs made in the same
way. Similarly, in a plant the root, the stem and the leaves arc organs. The stem, for example,
consists of several tissues such as epidermal tissue, ground tissue and conducting tissue.
Organ systems:
Organs work together as a unit to perform a particular function to make an organ system. For
example, the digestive system is made of organs such as mouth, gut, liver and pancreas are all
working together to digest food. There are other systems in the animal body such as transport,
respiratory, excretory, muscle, skeletal, nervous and reproductive systems. In plants also, the
tissues and organs (root, stem, and leaves) are organized to form systems. However, the systems,
here are not so clearly organized as in the animals. It is usual to study these in plants, as
conduction, storage, supporting systems, or root and shoot systems.
In this chapter you are studying life at various levels of organization from the simplest to
the most complex. A simple diagram of this organization is given below:
Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism

Q.17: How would you define unicellular organisms? Explain with example.
Ans: UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Those animals and plants, which are single-celled, are called unicellular organisms. Amoeba is
one of the example.
Amoeba:
It is a unicellular aquatic organism found in stagnant water pools and ponds. It is microscopic in
size measuring about 0.25 millimeter. It does not possess a permanent form and' keeps on
changing its shape.
The structure of Amoeba is very simple. The nucleus and cytoplasm are surrounded by a
protective cell membrane.
Cytoplasm is differentiated into two parts. Its outer portion, which is clear and transparent is called
ectoplasm. The inner viscous, translucent and granular part is called endoplasm. The endoplasm
contains many food vacuoles of different size, a contractile vacuole and other cells organelles.
Nucleus is usually present in the centre but as the Amoeba moves, the nucleus changes its
position. The contractile vacuole functions to remove excess water from the body. The food
vacuoles contain food particles. The animal moves by producing temporary finger-like
projections called pseudopodia (Pseudo = false, podia a feet). The pseudopodia are also used to
capture food particles, which enter the body as food vacuoles. Amoeba respires by exchanging
gases with the surrounding water through its surface.
Fig: Amoeba
Q.18: Describe the structure of vegetative parts of brassica.

Ans: Vegetative parts of Brassica:
i) Root: The root is that part, which grows under the soil and develops from the radicle of the
seed. The first part of the root to arise from the radicle is known as the primary root. During its
growth it gives off secondary and tertiary roots. The primary roots are thicker than the
secondary and tertiary roots. The tips of all the roots bear a cap, the root cap. The root bears fine,
thin root hairs. The plant absorbs water and minerals from the soil through the root hairs only,
the rest of the root fix the plant to the soil.
The outer part of a root is the epidermis (epi=above; derma=skin), which protects the root. Root
hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells. Next to epidermis is the cortex. Cortex is composed of
parenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells store food material. Within the cortex is a central cylinder
region called the stele. The stele of the root is surrounded on the outside by a layer of cells called
endodermis. Next to the endodermis is a layer of cells called pericycle. Branch of the root originate
from the pericycle. The central part of the stele is occupied by a star shaped xylem. In between the
arms of the xylem is phloem. Rest of the stele is made of parenchyma cells.
ii) Stem: Stem develops from the plumule of the seed and grows away from the soil. It bears
branches and flowers. The point, on the stem or on a branch, which gives rise to leaf, is known as
the node. The part between two adjacent nodes is called the internode. The stem and the
branches transport water and salts from the root to the leaves. It also transports prepared food
from the leaves to all parts of the plant. The stem also supports the leaves and the branches in the
air, thus enabling the leaves to receive maximum amount of sun light for photosynthesis. The
stem and its branches also bear flowers, which are the reproductive organs.
Internal structure:
A cross section of Brassica stem shows that it is surrounded on the outside by a single layered
epidermis. Next to the epidermis is cortex. The cortex is made up of parenchyma and
collenchyma cells. Food material is stored in the cortex. Next to the cortex is a ring of vascular
bundles. Each bundle consists of xylem and phloem. Xylem is located towards the inside and
phloem towards the outside. In between xylem and phloem, there is a region consisting of
meristematic cells called cambium. The centre of the stem is occupied by pith. It is made up of
parenchyma cells and stores food material.
iii) Leaf: Leaves grow out on the stem and its branches from the nodes. Generally, the leaf of
Brassica consists of two parts. The lower stalk like part is the petiole and upper green expanded
portion is the lamina. Young leaves are without petioles and their margins are entire or smooth
but in mature leaves the margin is wavy. There is a swollen vein in the middle of the leaf which
is known as midrib. The branch veins emerge and spread in the leaf like a net. These veins are
actually vascular bundles consisting of xylem and phloem. This network of veins supports the
leaf and keeps its lamina in an expanded position. New branches of the plant arise from buds
present in the axil of the leaf. The function of the leaf is to prepare food. Therefore, all of its
tissues are arranged in such a way that photosynthesis can take place easily.
The leaves are arranged on the stem and branches in such a way that their upper surfaces remain
directly exposed to sunlight while the lower surface does not get the same amount of light. Due
to this difference the upper and lower surfaces are slightly different from each other. Leaves
having different upper and lower surfaces are called bifacial leaves.
Internal structure:
A leaf is composed of several distinct cell layers. The upper layer of a leaf is called the upper
epidermis. The lower layer of the leaf is called the lower epidermis, which contains stomata
(Sing: Stoma). Each stoma has a pore and two guard cells. The tissue between upper and lower
epidermis is called the mesophyll. The mesophyll cells below the upper epidermis are longer
than broad and are closely packed. It is called the palisade layer. The cells next to the palisade
layer are irregular in shape and loosely arranged having spaces like sponge and is called the
spongy layer.
Photosynthesis takes place in palisade and spongy mesophylls. Running through the leaf are
many vascular bundles or veins. The veins are composed of xylem and phloem. Xylem is located
towards the upper side and the phloem towards the lower epidermis.
Q.19: Describe the structure of reproductive parts of brassica.

Ans: Reproductive parts of Brassica:
Flower: Flowers are the most beautiful and important parts of the plant. They are arranged on
young branches in a special way. This special arrangement of the flowers on the stem is called
inflorescence.
Parts of the flower:
The flower in Brassica is situated on a stalk known as pedicel. The tip of the pedicel bears
thalamus. The floral leaves are arranged in four whorls on the thalamus. These whorls, starting
from the outermost to the central one, are in the following order.
i) Calyx: This is the outermost whorl and consists of four free sepals. The sepals are light
greenish in young flowers but as the flower matures, their colour also becomes yellowish
like that of the petals. The most important function of the calyx is to cover the inner parts of
the flower and to protect them from sunlight and rain.
ii) Corolla: This is the second whorl and is composed of four free yellow petals. Because of
the petals, the flower becomes very conspicuous that honey bees, butterflies and other
insects are easily attracted and thus help in pollination.
Fig: Flower of Brassica (Longitudinal Section)
iii) Androecium: The androecium lies inside the petals. It makes the third whorl of the floral
leaves. Its parts are not leaf-like. The androecium consists of six free stamens which are the
male reproductive organs of the flower. In Brassica flower, the stamens are arranged in two
circles. The outer circle has two small stamens. The inner circle has four long stamens. Each
stamen has two well defined parts, a lower delicate stalk called the filament and an upper
swollen part called the anther. Each anther contains numerous pollen grains. When the
anther matures a longitudinal slit in its wall enables the pollen grains to escape. There are
dark green nectaries of small size at the base of the androecium. These nectaries contain
nectar (a honey-like substance). This nectar is the food of insects. When the insects are
attracted towards the flowers to collect this nectar pollen grains get attached to their bodies
and are transferred from one flower to another. This results in the pollination of flowers.
iv) Gynoecium: This is fourth whorl occupying the central position in the flower. The parts of
the gynoecium are called carpels, who are the female reproductive organs of the plant.
In Brassica, gynoecium is formed by the union of two carpels. Each carpel is divisible into
three main parts. The lower swollen part is the ovary. Above the ovary carpel extends into a
thin stalk, the style. The style has swollen tip, which is called stigma. In the ovary many
ovules are present, which ripen into seeds. The ovary ripens and is converted into fruit. The
fruit of Brassica is a long dry capsule with many seeds. The seeds are very small and light.
They can be easily dispersed by air currents. When these seeds fall on a suitable place they
germinate and produce new Brassica plants.
Fig: Stamen Fig: Carpel Fig: Dehiscing opening of fruit of

Brassica for dispersal of seeds
Q.20: Give scientific reasons of the following:

1. Why is cell membrane differentially permeable?
Reason: Cell membrane is differentially permeable because it regulates selective
movement of molecules.
2. Why is cell called the basic structural and functional unit of life?
Reason: Cell is the basic structural unit of life because all living organisms are made up of
cells. It is also the basic functional unit of life because all basic functional activities of
living organisms take place in the cell.
3. How do the chromosome number remains the same in the members of same
species? Reason: Chromosome number remains the same in members of the same species
because of meiosis. Meiosis plays very important role in keeping the chromosome number
constant in a species from generation to generation. Male and female gametes are formed by
meiosis, so their chromosome number reduced to half i.e. they are haploid. When haploid
male gamete (sperm) fuses with the haploid female gamete (ovum) to form a zygote, the
diploid number of chromosomes is restored.
4. Why is meiosis called reduction cell division?
Reason: Meiosis is called reduction cell division because a parent cell finally divides into
four daughter cells I a way that the number of chromosomes in each daughter cell reduces to half of their
parent cell. Thus it is the reduction of the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes to the haploid (n) number.
5. Why is upper surface of dicot leaf much darker than the lower surface?
Reason: The upper surface of dicot leaf is much darker than the lower surface because the
upper surface remains directly exposed to sunlight, while the lower surface does not get the same
amount of light.
Q.21: Describe the habitat and external features of frog.
Habitat of Frog:
The frog lives both in water as well as on land. It swims in water and moves by jumping
when on land. Frogs are found in abundance in the rainy season during which they lay
eggs. They hibernate during the winter season by burying themselves in the mud and stay
there throughout the winter. This phenomenon is called hibernation or winter sleep.
External features of frog:
Frog has neither a neck nor a tail. As the head is directly attached to the trunk frog
cannot move it as we can. The conical head has two large bulging eyes. Behind each eye
is a circular area called tympanic membrane. These membranes help in hearing. At the
tip of the snout it has two openings called external nostrils by which frog breathes. The
skin of the frog is loose and slippery. It is slippery due to secretions produced by glands
present in it.
There is a membranous skin between its toes which helps in swimming. There are five
toes in each foot but the hand has only four fingers because the thumb is rudimentary. In
male frog the first finger is thicker than the others.
Fig: Frog
Q.21: Explain the digestive system of frog with the help of diagram.
Ans: Digestive system of frog:
The organs involved in the breakdown of complex food into simpler form (digestion) constitute
the digestive system. This system is composed of a tube, the alimentary canal and special glands
associated with it. The alimentary canal consists of buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach and intestine.
i) Buccal cavity: Food enters into the buccal cavity through mouth. The upper jaw has a row of
weak but pointed teeth. They are not meant for chewing food but prevent it from slipping out of
the mouth. The tongue of frog is unique in being attached in front to the floor of the buccal
cavity and being free behind. This allows the animal to throw it outward.
Frog feeds mainly on insects. On seeing the prey, it suddenly throws out its tongue. The
prey sticks to its sticky tongue. The tongue is then immediately withdrawn and the prey is
swallowed.
Fig: Buccal cavity of frog

ii) Pharynx: The buccal cavity opens into a short but narrow pharynx, which leads into a
wide tube, the oesophagus. Immediately behind the tongue on the floor of the pharynx is a
slit like opening, the glottis, which opens into the lungs. When the food passes into the
oesophagus, the glottis is closed and during respiration it is opened.
iii) Oesophagus and stomach: Pharynx opens into a wide tube called oesophagus or gullet; It
transports food into the stomach. Stomach is a thick walled, muscular and glandular sac.
Anterior end of stomach is called cardiac end while posterior end is called pyloric end.
Food is grounded in stomach and mixed with enzyme pepsin, which partially digest
proteins. Food in stomach changes into a paste like substance called chyme.
iv) Intestine: The intestine is a long narrow coiled tube. It is divisible into small and a large
intestine. The partially digested food from the stomach enters the small intestine through
pyloric end, where its digestion is completed. The digested food is absorbed into blood.
The undigestible parts of the food enter the large intestine, also called rectum. The short
terminal part of rectum is called cloaca. From cloaca undigested food is expelled out as
faeces through its opening called cloacal aperture. This is a common aperture for urine,
reproductive and undigested food discharge.
v) Liver and pancreas: The liver is a large reddish-brown gland located adjacent to the
stomach. Its secretion is known as bile. Between the lobes of the liver is a rounded pouch
called gall bladder, which stores bile. A bile duct arises from it. On its way, this duct
passes through pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct. The pancreas lies between stomach
and duodenum, the first part of small intestine. Its secretion, pancreatic juice, is carried by
the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct and the bile duct join to form a common hepato-
pancreatic duct, which then opens into duodenum. The bile and the pancreatic juice help
in the complete digestion of the food in the small intestine.
Digestion is a process by which the complex insoluble food substances are converted into
soluble form by the action of enzymes. The digested food is then absorbed into the blood
through the intestinal walls.
Fig: Digestive system of frog
Q.22: What is the difference between cellular respiration and gaseous exchange?
Describe different methods of gaseous exchange in frog.
Difference between cellular respiration and gaseous exchange:
Cellular Respiration Gaseous Exchange
Cellular respiration is a biochemical process Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from
in which chemical energy of food is converted the lungs to the bloodstream, and the
into usable energy (ATP). elimination of carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream to the lungs.
It takes place in the cells of living organisms. It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli and
a network of tiny blood vessels called
capillaries.
Q.23: Explain the circulatory system of frog.

Ans: Circulatory system of frog:
Every cell requires a supply of oxygen and nutrient molecules and must get rid of waste
products. For this purpose a transport system usually called circulatory system is required. Blood
transports these materials during its circulation throughout the body.
Frog has a closed type circulatory system in which blood circulates in the closed circuit of blood
vessels being pumped by an organ called heart, this system is also called cardiovascular system.
It consists of:
i) Heart- strong muscular pumping organ.
ii) Three kinds of blood vessels:
(a) Arteries － which carry blood away from heart.
(b) Veins － which return blood to the heart.
(c) Capillaries － exchange material between tissues and blood.
Heart:
Heart is a conical, muscular pumping organ, located in the anterior region of body cavity. It is
enclosed in a membrane called pericardium. It contracts and expands continuously throughout
the life. This contraction and expansion of heart is called heartbeat, due to which blood circulates
continuously in the body. Frog heart consists of three chambers.
(i) Right auricle or Atrium
(ii) Left auricle or Atrium
(iii) Ventricle
Fig: Heart of frog

The truncus arteriosus originates from ventral side of the ventricle and divide into two
branches each of which divides into three arches (arteries). Another thin walled triangular sac
called sinus venosus formed by major veins opens into right atrium. Both of these structures are
not true chambers of heart but often called accessory chambers.
In heart, the flow of blood is continuous and moves in two path ways. The oxygenated blood
from the lungs enters the left auricle through pulmonary veins. The deoxygenated blood from all
other parts of the body enters the sinus venosus. From sinus venosus, it reaches the right auricle.
When the two auricles contract, the blood is pushed into the single ventricle. When ventricle
contracts it is pumped into the truncus arteriosus, from here it enters (a) the pulmonary arteries,
which carry the blood to lungs for oxygenation and (b) the systemic arteries, which supply it to
all parts.pf the body and (c) the carotid arteries, which supply it to the brain.
The opening between various chambers of the heart are guarded by valves, which prevent the
flow of blood in reverse direction.
Q.24: Describe the arterial system of frog with the help of diagram.
Ans: Arterial system of frog:
A blood vessel, which carries blood away from heart to the various body parts is called an
artery. The arterial system can be simply stated to comprise of the following three main
components. Pulmocutaneous arteries: They supply deoxygenated blood to lungs and skin
where it gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
Carotid arteries: These vessels arise from the truncus arteriosus, and supply the oxygenated
blood to various parts of the head region such as brain, tongue, head muscles, eyes, ears etc.
Systemic arteries: These vessels carry oxygenated blood to all the parts of the body except the
head and lungs. They fuse together to form a major vessel of this system called aorta, which
gives off branches to various parts of the body such as fore and hind limbs, digestive system,
liver, pancreas, kidneys, genital organs and muscles.
Q.25: Explain major components of venous system of frog.

Ans: Venous system:
It is a set of blood vessel, called veins, which bring the blood from all the parts of the body
towards heart.
The venous system consists of the following major components.
 The oxygenated blood from the lungs is collected by pulmonary veins, which bring it to
the left auricle of the heart.
 The deoxygenated blood from head and fore limbs is collected through several veins,
which join together to form one major precaval vein, on each side.
 Blood from all the lower parts of the body such as stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas,
genital organs, muscles, hind limbs etc, is collected through veins, which join together and
form one major vein called post caval. Both the pre-cavals and the post-caval open into the
sinus venosus from where the blood is pumped into the right auricle of the heart.
Portal system: Set of veins, which collect the blood from one organ and discharge it into
another organ, is called portal veins. The set of veins draining their blood into liver are included
in hepatic portal whereas the set opening into the kidneys are called renal portal system.
Hepatic portal system: The veins collecting the blood from the digestive system do not carry it
directly to the heart. They all join to form a hepatic portal vein, which breaks up into capillaries
in the liver to allow transfer of some of the digested food into the liver for storage. From the
liver, blood enters the post-caval, which carries it to the sinus venosus. Some of the blood from
hind limbs is collected in an abdominal vein, which joins the hepatic portal vein in the liver and
drains blood into liver from where it is collected by the post caval vein. These veins are also
included hepatic portal system.
Renal portal system: The alternate route of blood from the hind limbs is by the way of a renal
portal vein. These veins begin in capillaries in the hind limbs and breaks up into capillaries in the
kidneys. From the kidneys, this blood enters the post caval by renal veins and ultimately returns
to the heart. These veins arc included in renal portal system.
Q.26: Write comprehensive notes on excretory system and reproductive system of frog.
Ans: Excretory system of frog:
It is the set of organs involved in the process of excretion i.e. the removal of metabolic waste matters
from the body. This function is performed by kidneys, which filter out the excretory matter from the
blood and pass it out in the form of urine. There are two kidneys in frog. They are elongated reddish
brown organs attached to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. The urine is carried from the kidneys by
a pair of tubes called ureters, which open into the cloaca. From the cloaca, it
is either passed out directly through cloacal aperture or is stored for some time in a bag, the
urinary bladder.
Fig: Excretory and reproductive system of female frog Fig: Excretory and reproductive
system of female frog
Reproductive system of frog:

Reproduction is the process of production of new babies by their parents. Organs involved in this
process are included in reproductive system. Sexes are separate in the frog. The reproductive
organs consist of gonads and their ducts. The gonads produce germ cells and the ducts pass them
but of the body. The male gonad is known as the testis (plural testes) and the female gonad is
called the ovary. The gonads are paired structures and are located near the kidneys. The sex cell
of male is sperm and that of female is ovum (Plural ova) or egg. The ova are released into water
through the cloaca in the mating season.
The male produces sperms during the breeding season. Sperms are also released from the testes
into water near the eggs. Each sperm fuses with an egg and a new frog starts developing.
Q.27: Write a note on Nervous System of Frog.

Ans: Nervous system of frog:
The set of organs, which control and co-ordinate all the activities of the body is called nervous
system. It is composed of two parts, i.e the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system. The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord whereas the peripheral
nervous system comprises of nerves, which connect the central nervous system with various
parts of the body, i.e. muscles, glands and sense organs.
The brain is protected in the skull and the spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral column. The
brain consists of the following regions:
(i) The most anterior region comprises the olfactory lobes.
(ii) Immediately behind the olfactory lobes, there are two large outgrowths called the
cerebral hemispheres.
(iii) Behind the hemispheres are located two prominent outgrowths called the optic lobes.
(iv) The part between the optic lobes and hemispheres is known as the diencephalon. On the
dorsal surface of diencephalon is present a pineal body while the pituitary gland is
attached to its ventral surface.
(v) The last part of the brain consists of the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata.
The spinal cord starts from the posterior end of the medulla oblongata like a thick thread. It
passes from the skull through a hole and enters the canal of the vertebral column. The vertebral
column protects the spinal cord just as the skull protects the brain. Brain and spinal cord are not
solid. They have a system of canals which is filled with a fluid.
Olfactory lobes are associated with the sense of smell and transfer of olfactory sensation to the
cerebral hemispheres, which are the seats of intelligence and memory. The diencephalon receives a
variety of messages from the internal and external environment of the body and also controls the
secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. The optic lobes are associated with the eyes and
vision. The cerebellum and the medulla oblongata co-ordinate body movements and maintain balance
of the body. The medulla also controls respiration, circulation and digestion. The spinal cord controls
the movements of the trunk area, and many other functions independently.
The peripheral system connects body parts with the central nervous system. This system consists
of cranial and spinal nerves. Cranial nerves connect and establish communication between
various parts of brain and parts of the head while the spinal nerves connect structures of the trunk
area with the spinal cord.
Some special nerves are present in the head and trunk region called the autonomic nerves, which
work automatically. Autonomic nerves control the internal organs of the body such as heart,
lungs, stomach, smooth muscles of the intestine, vessels and glands.
Q.28: Describe the structure and function of frog’s ear.

Ans: Ear of frog:
In frog, like the other vertebrates, the organ of hearing is the ear. Its outer most part is the tympanic
membrane. An external ear called pinna is absent in frog. On the inner side of this membrane is a
cavity known as tympanic cavity. The cavity contains three small rod- like bones called ossicles. Its
one end is attached to the tympanic membrane and the other with the internal ear.
The internal ear (Fig) is a very delicate organ. It consists of three semi-circular canals. These
canals are filled with a fluid and sensory cells are located at special places in these canals. When
sound waves strike the tympanic membrane it is set into vibration. This vibrates ossicles which
in turn, vibrate the internal ear and thus, sound waves stimulate the hearing receptors in the inner
ear. The internal ear, in addition to hearing, also keeps the balance of the body.
Q.29: How would you explain the structure and function of frog’s eye?
Ans: Eye of frog:
The frog has two eyes one on each side of the head (Fig). If we make vertical section of the eye,
we find that the innermost layer of the ball is the sensory retina. The retina contains photoreceptor
cells. Outside the retina is the choroid, which is richly supplied with blood capillaries supplying
nutrients to the retina. The sclerotic is the hard, outer most layer of the eye. It provides shape to the
eye ball. The anterior transparent part of the eye is called cornea. Behind the cornea is iris. The iris
has a window called the pupil. Behind the pupil is the lens of the eye. The cornea, pupil and lens
focus light on the retina. A watery fluid is present in between the cornea and lens. Similarly a jelly
like fluid is present between the lens and retina, through which light passes before it strikes retina.
Optic nerve takes the sensory messages from the eye to the brain.
Chapter Test
Subject: Biology Class: IX Total Marks: 20
Name: _______________________ Total Time:35 mins
Question No. 1 2 3 Total Marks

Marks
Obtained
Instructions:
 Attempt all the given questions.
 Cutting, crossing or over writing in objective part will be considered as incorrect.
(Objective type)
Q1. Tick the correct answer. /06
1. Which one of the following is not present in animal cell?
a. cell wall c. cell membrane
b. vacuoles d. ribosomes
2. Cytokinesis is the division of:
a. nucleoplasm b. protoplasm c. cytoplasm d. centrioles
3. Which tissue is not found in animals?
a. sclerenchyma c. epithelial tissue
b. connective tissue d. muscular tissue
4. Which of the following in brassica flower is composed of four free yellow petals?
5. Which of the following is known as accessory chamber of the heart of frog?
a. truncus arteriosis c. both of these
b. sinous venosus d. none of these
6. Which of the following part of brain is known as the seat of intelligence and memory?
b. cerebral hemispheres d. diencephalons
Q2. Write short answers to the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)

1. Name three types of respiration in frog. Also draw labelled diagram of lungs of frog.
2. Give a brief account of mitochondria.
Q3.a) Draw a neat and labelled diagram of eye of frog. /05

b) Name and define four whorls of flower. /04

CH 2 Biology

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CH 2 Biology

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter # 2 Class IX: Biology SR

Structural Organization of Life

STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

Discovery of Cell Light Microscopy Basic Organization of Cells

Mitosis Meiosis Organs

Cell membrane Organ

The Chapter Includes:

 Cell is the basic unit of living organisms.

 The cell-membrane or plasma membrane surrounds nucleus and cytoplasm in

 Cell organelles include nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic

 Translucent material filled between nucleus and plasma membrane is called

 Mitosis is a type of cell-division in which chromosome number remains the same

 Meiosis is a reduction cell-division in which number of chromosomes reduces to half

 Amoeba is an example of unicellular organization, Brassica and frog are examples of

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. The term cell was first time used by:

6. The light microscope has ____ lenses.

Basic Structure of Cell

11. The nucleus of cell wall was discovered by:

16.The cell wall of plant cells is mainly composed of:

32.Which of the cell organelles are called protein factories?

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

47.Prokaryotic cells do not contain:

49. All of these are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells except:

53.Cytokinesis is the division of:

a. prophase I of meiosis c. metaphase I of meiosis b. anaphase I of

63. In meiosis, chromosome number is:

Organization of Cells to Form Tissues, Organs and Organ System

95. Which one of the following is not a unicellular organism?

101. Which of the following is not included in vegetative pats of plant?

a. buccal respiration c. pulmonary respiration b. cutaneous

a. truncus arteriosis c. both of these b. sinous venosus d.

135. Which part of the eye contains photo receptors?

What you MUST learn! (Short Question / Answers)

Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory

1. State the salient features of cell theory.

2. Write a brief note on the history of discovery of

4. What is light microscope? How does it work?

5. How does an electron microscope work? What is its resolving power?

7. How is light microscope better than electron microscope?

8. Differentiate between resolution and magnification.

Basic Structure of Cell

9. Name different organelles of the cell.

11. What are the functions of cell-wall?

i. Cell-wall provides protection and support to the cell.

13. Why the cell membrane is called semi-permeable membrane?

14. Differentiate between the cell wall and cell membrane.

15. What is nucleus? Describe its location in the cell.

Fig: The Nucleus

18. Define cytoplasm and write its composition and

21. What are different types of endoplasmic

22. What are the functions of endoplasmic reticulum?

23. What do you know about Golgi complex?

24. Give a brief account of mitochondria.

25. What are plastids? Explain their

26. Differentiate between mitochondria and plastid.

27. What are ribosomes?

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Ans: Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Single chromosome is found. Proper chromosomes in diploid numbers are

31. Define cell division. Name its different types.

32. Define mitosis. What are the different phases in Mitosis?