BAA FCTM Rev 1 PDF

Flight Crew Training Manual
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AB INITIO TRAINING
AB Initio Department
General Part
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© BAA Training Issue No. 1 Revision No. 1 Effective date: 06/06/2019
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Contents
COPYRIGHT ...........................................................................................................................................................................6
Chapter 1 Aircraft Control .............................................................................................................................................................13
1.2 Normal Procedures Philosophy...................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3 Technique Philosophy....................................................................................................................................................14
1.4 Speed Definitions ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Pitch and Power Concept ...............................................................................................................................................15
1.6 Pitch and Power Tables ..................................................................................................................................................17
1.7 Control and Performance Concept .................................................................................................................................17
1.8 Control Instruments........................................................................................................................................................18
1.9 Performance Instruments ...............................................................................................................................................18
1.10 Aircraft Control Technique ............................................................................................................................................18
1.10.1 Stabilization ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.10.2 Pitch Control .......................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.10.3 Roll Control ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.10.4 Power Control ........................................................................................................................................................22
1.10.5 Torque and Yaw Compensation.............................................................................................................................22
1.10.6 Trim........................................................................................................................................................................ 23
1.10.7 Integrated/Composite Flight (Flight in VMC) ....................................................................................................... 26
1.10.8 Instrument Scan Technique ....................................................................................................................................27
1.10.9 Influencing Instrument Scan Technique ................................................................................................................28
1.10.10 Instrument Scan Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 2 Normal Operation.......................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.1 Preflight and Ground Operation .....................................................................................................................................33
2.1.1 Preflight Checks .....................................................................................................................................................34
2.1.3 Technical Log Book (TLB)....................................................................................................................................34
2.1.4 Sequence of events during ground operations ....................................................................................................... 34
2.1.5 Taxi Operations ......................................................................................................................................................37
2.2 Take Off and Initial Climb .............................................................................................................................................40
2.2.1 Before Take Off .....................................................................................................................................................40
2.2.2 Normal Take Off ....................................................................................................................................................41
2.2.3 Crosswind Take Off ...............................................................................................................................................41
2.2.4 Take-off procedure................................................................................................................................................. 42
2.3 Departure and Enroute Climb ........................................................................................................................................ 43
2.4 Cruise .............................................................................................................................................................................44
2.4.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................................44
2.4.2 Tasks Approaching Check/Way Point ...................................................................................................................44
2.4.3 Tasks Overhead Check/Way Point ........................................................................................................................45
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2.4.4 Tasks after Check/Way Point Passage ...................................................................................................................45
2.5 Descent and Approach Preparation ................................................................................................................................46
2.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................................46
2.6 Traffic Circuit ................................................................................................................................................................48
2.6.1 Normal Circuit ........................................................................................................................................................... 48
2.6.2 Non-Standard Circuit ................................................................................................................................................. 54
2.7 Landing ..............................................................................................................................................................................54
2.7.1 Normal Landing .....................................................................................................................................................54
2.7.2 Factors Affecting Landing .....................................................................................................................................55
2.7.3 Touchdown Zone ...................................................................................................................................................57
2.7.5 Crosswind Landing ................................................................................................................................................ 63
2.7.6 Slips........................................................................................................................................................................ 64
2.7.7 Landing Roll .......................................................................................................................................................... 66
2.7.8 Touch and Go ......................................................................................................................................................... 66
2.7.9 Short Field Landings ..............................................................................................................................................67
2.7.10 Soft Field Landings ................................................................................................................................................ 68
2.8 Go Around .................................................................................................................................................................69
2.9 After Landing .................................................................................................................................................................71
2.9.1 Taxi ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
2.9.2 Parking ...................................................................................................................................................................72
2.9.3 Engine Shutdown ...................................................................................................................................................72
2.10 Post Flight ..................................................................................................................................................................73
Chapter 3 Airwork and Maneuvers.............................................................................................................................................74
3.1 General Information ...................................................................................................................................................74
3.2 Air work Preparation..................................................................................................................................................75
Chapter 4 Norma Operations IFR ................................................................................................................................................ 131
4.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 131
4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 133
4.2.2 Attitude Flying ..................................................................................................................................................... 134
4.2.3 Timed Turns and use of the Magnetic Compass .................................................................................................. 137
4.2.4 Vertical S ............................................................................................................................................................. 139
4.2.4.2 Vertical S2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.2.4.3 Vertical S3 ............................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.2.5 Interceptions .........................................................................................................................................................142
4.3 Preflight Procedures and Ground Operation ................................................................................................................ 145
4.4 IFR Flight Operations .................................................................................................................................................. 147
4.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 147
4.4.2 Flight Control Techniques ...................................................................................................................................149
4.4.3 Use of Stopwatch ................................................................................................................................................. 150
4.4.4 Cockpit Organization ........................................................................................................................................... 151
4.5 Takeoff, Departure and Climb .....................................................................................................................................152
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4.6 Cruise and Enroute Navigation .................................................................................................................................... 153
4.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 153
4.6.2 Homing ................................................................................................................................................................ 154
4.6.3 Tracking ...............................................................................................................................................................154
4.6.4 Distance of Lead .................................................................................................................................................. 157
4.7 Holding ........................................................................................................................................................................ 159
4.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 159
4.7.2 Holding Entry....................................................................................................................................................... 161
4.7.3 Wind Correction...................................................................................................................................................162
4.8 Approach Planning, Preparation and Briefing ............................................................................................................. 164
4.8.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 164
4.8.2 Briefing and Sequence of Events ......................................................................................................................... 165
4.8.3 Stabilization Criteria: ........................................................................................................................................... 168
4.8.4 Terrain awareness, descend below MGA/MSA and down to prescribed altitudes ............................................... 169
4.8.5 Visual Descent Point (VDP) ................................................................................................................................169
4.8.6 Decision to Land Point (DLP) ............................................................................................................................. 171
4.8.7 Descent planning during approach ....................................................................................................................... 171
4.9 Approach Segments .....................................................................................................................................................174
4.9.2 Initial Approach Segment .................................................................................................................................... 175
4.9.3 Intermediate Approach Segment ..........................................................................................................................176
4.9.4 Arc Approach ....................................................................................................................................................... 176
4.9.5 Final Approach..................................................................................................................................................... 180
4.9.6 issed Approach ..................................................................................................................................................... 180
4.9.7 Radar Vectors to Final ......................................................................................................................................... 181
4.10 Approaches .................................................................................................................................................................. 183
4.10.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 183
4.10.2 Precision Approach – ILS (Basic) ....................................................................................................................... 184
4.10.3 Non-Precision Approach ...................................................................................................................................... 188
4.10.4 Deaccelerated approach (High speed) .................................................................................................................. 191
4.10.5 PBN Operations (Not yet approved for BAA operations) ...................................................................................192
4.10.6 Circling Approach ................................................................................................................................................195
4.10.7 SRE-ASR and PAR Approaches.......................................................................................................................... 197
4.10.8 Visual Approach .................................................................................................................................................. 200
4.10.9 Transition to Visual Reference and Landing ....................................................................................................... 201
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COPYRIGHT
All charts and pages of this publication bear notice of copyright by UAB “BAA
Training” and may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
whole or in part in any form or by any means (electronical, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission from:
JSC “BAA Training”

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Phone: +370 5 2525536, Fax: +370 5 2525537
info@baatraining.com
This publication and all subsequent revisions thereof is purchased and/or used with
these understandings.
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DOCUMENT APPROVAL
JSC “BAA Training” approval
Responsibility Position Signature, date
Document approver Accountable Manager

CEO
Eglė Vaitkevičiūtė
Date:
Document creator Deputy Head of Training
Marko Rintanen
Date:
Document executor Chief Flight Instructor
Zakhar Mankov
Date:
Document auditor Safety Manager
Kęstutis Pakarklis
Date:
Document auditor Compliance Monitoring Manager
Elžbieta Ratiuk
Date:
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REVISION APPROVAL
Revision 1
JSC “BAA Training” approval
Responsibility Position Signature, date
Document approver Accountable Manager

CEO
Eglė Vaitkevičiūtė
Date:
Document creator Deputy Head of Training
Marko Rintanen
Date:
Document executor Chief Flight Instructor
Zakhar Mankov
Date:
Document auditor Safety Manager
Kęstutis Pakarklis
Date:
Document auditor Compliance Monitoring Manager
Elžbieta Ratiuk
Date:
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REVISION REVIEW
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REVISION LIST
Revision inserted by Signature,

No. Revision date Pages revised, No.
(Position, Name, Surname) Effective date
1. 06/06/2019 All DHoT, Marko Rintanen 31/06/2019
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Chapter 1 Aircraft Control
1.1 General
This chapter is a summary of the methodology to ensure that operations and training on aircraft
operated by the Baltic Aviation Academy, herein called BAA, are efficient, safe and meet the
requirements of the contemporary pilots.
It provides students and instructors with a maximum reference to the BAA training standards.
The cockpit flow procedures are driven by the following criteria’s even BAA’s Standard
Operations Manuals and AFMs of the individual aircraft has priority.
1.2 Normal Procedures Philosophy
Following standard procedures is the only way to achieve a standardized training and operation
and as a final result the same quality of training for every single student.
Following standard procedures during pilot training means preparation for airline operation
where a changed crewing is “daily business”. Different or personal procedures would lead to
misunderstanding in the cockpit and eventually jeopardize flight safety.
The procedures provided in this chapter are to be followed at all times during normal operations
by all BAA pilots.
During training the maneuvers will be accomplished as illustrated. Conditions beyond the control
of the flight crew, for example conflicting traffic, ATC, traffic separation requirements, weather,
etc may preclude following an illustrated maneuver or procedure precisely. The maneuvers and
procedures herein are not intended to replace good judgment, logic and airmanship.
Every deviation from a standard procedure shall be indicated by the announcement
“NON STANDARD …”
Whenever a crew or pilot have to deviate from a procedure during non-standard situations or
because of flight safety they are responsible to return to the standard procedures as soon as
possible. In these cases, the Flight Safety Report should be submitted.
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1.3 Technique Philosophy
The definition of the word technique: Technical or mechanical skill, the method of doing
something expertly.
Every pilot will and should eventually develop his/her own techniques. This is the personal way
of applying a procedure, but within the procedure.
A technique must not differ from the standard procedure.
1.4 Speed Definitions
TAS: True Airspeed. The speed of the airplane is relative to the air. TAS is CAS corrected for
errors due to altitude and temperature.
VR: Rotation Speed
VLOF: Lift-Off Speed
VX : Best Angle-of-Climb Speed, which creates the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest
possible horizontal distance.
V Y: Best Rate-of-Climb Speed, which creates the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest
possible time. VFE: Max. Flaps Extended Speed. This speed must not be exceeded with
the flap in a prescribed extended position.
VFO: Maximum Flaps operating speed. The maximum speed at which the flaps may be
operated safely.
VA : Maneuvering Speed. Full or abrupt control surface movement is not permissible above
this speed.
VNO: Maximum Structural Cruising Speed. This speed may be exceeded only in smooth air,
and then only with caution.
VNE: Never Exceed Speed in smooth air. This speed must not be exceeded in any operation.
VS : Stalling Speed, or the minimum continuous speed at which the airplane is still
controllable in the given configuration.
VS0: Stalling Speed, or the minimum continuous speed at which the airplane is still
controllable in the landing configuration.
VS1: Stalling Speed, or the minimum continuous speed at which the airplane is still
controllable in a specified configuration.
VREF: 1.3 x VS1 (or as specified by company regulations)
VAPP: VREF plus wind correction (Minimum correction 5 kts, maximum correction 15 kts)
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1.5 Pitch and Power Concept
It is very important in airline flying to have a thorough understanding of the Pitch and Power
concept and to be able to apply it. Airplane specific pitch and power information are presented in
the BAA’s Standard Operation Manuals.
Power settings are given in ranges because they vary due to different weights, temperatures, air
pressure … Pitch information in degrees may be given in ranges because the required angle of
attack for a specific situation changes with changing weight and CG position.
There are different opinions about how to use pitch and power to control airspeed. BAA uses the
following technique:
Control airspeed with throttle when excess power is available. Example:
- Maneuvering
- Landing Approach
Control airspeed with pitch control when power is fixed. Example:
- Climb
- Descent with power idle (Simulated Engine Failure)
Airspeed, pitch and vertical speed have a direct relationship.

As a matter of fact a pilot is considered to be a manager of different energies:
Speed, Altitude and Power
Changing one of these will change at least one of the other ones as well. The connection between
these energies is the pitch which is controlling the angle of attack (AoA) and therefore the lift at
a certain speed.
It is important to know the result of changes in pitch and/or power regarding vertical speed. If we
just change the pitch with no power change we would actually trade only altitude for speed and
vice versa.
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To establish a specific glide angle we reduce the pitch by an exact number of degrees. The
consequence is initially a descent but as well an acceleration. We will start to trade altitude for
speed, resulting in more lift and in a shallower as planned descent.
The logical result: To establish a constant ROD (Rate of Descend) with a constant speed we
have to change the pitch and the power!
Applying the 1: 60 rule (of thumb) we know that
At 60 NM 1° equals 1NM or
At 1 NM 1° equals 100 ft (actually 104.72 ft).
When we convert 1 NM into a speed of 1 NM/min or 60 NM/60 min or 60 kts we get a formula
which we can use to compute the required pitch change for a certain ROD:
ROD (ft/min) = (TAS / 60) x pitch change x 100
Example: TAS 120 kts pitch change 3°
ROD = (120 / 60) x 3 x100 = 2 x 3 x 100 = 600 ft/min
Since we want to trade altitude (ROD) for power, while we keep the TAS constant, we have to know
about the required power change.
100 RPM = 100 ft/min (Rule of Thumb!)
Adjusting the power by this rule we will get parameters “in the ball park” of what we want. Some
adjustments will be necessary.
Another reason for necessary power adjustments are speed and configuration changes required
by our procedures. Therefore a constant crosscheck is required.
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1.6 Pitch and Power Tables
Pitch and power tables are provided for all BAA used aircrafts and are visible in the Standard
Operating Manuals. They provide pitch and power data for some standard situations. A pilot is
considered to know these pitches and power values to be able to control the aircraft in a smooth
way while maintaining fixed parameter.
1.7 Control and Performance Concept
Aircraft stabilization is achieved by controlling the aircraft’s attitude and power (drag vs. thrust
relationship). Aircraft attitude is the relationship of the longitudinal, vertical, and lateral axes. By
integrating Instrument Flying and Visual Flying we achieve the desired aircraft performance
through understanding of the proper control of attitude and power.
Since aircraft are controlled around three axis the pilot has to learn to stabilize the aircraft on all
three axis by using the proper combination of pitch, bank, and power. Therefore the Control
Instruments are used to achieve and maintain the desired aircraft performance.
Once a pitch, bank and/or power are set, the Performance Instruments are monitored to verify
the desired results in altitude, heading, and/or speed. If corrections are needed, the Control
Instruments are used for adjustments in pitch, bank, and/or power. Then the Performance
Instruments are rechecked. This is a continuous process called “Instrument Scan” or “Cross
Check” that must also include the Engine and Navigational Instruments.
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1.8 Control Instruments
Changes on Control Instruments have a direct influence on aircraft performance, i.e. airspeed,
vertical speed, altitude, heading, and rate of turn. A pilot has to have a thorough understanding of
the consequences of changes on the Control Instruments regarding an aircraft’s performance.
Precise adjustments of attitude and power can be made by using these instruments:
• Attitude Indicator (IMC and VMC)

• Power MAP & RPM
• Natural Horizon (VMC only)
1.9 Performance Instruments
Performance Instruments may “lag” behind the initial control input but allow the pilot to verify
that the control inputs are correct:
• Altimeter
• Airspeed Indicator
• Heading Indicator
• Vertical Speed Indicator
• Turn and Slip Indicator (Turn Coordinator)
1.10 Aircraft Control Technique
1.10.1 Stabilization
Proper aircraft stabilization is the pilot’s key ability to manage high workload situations in a
well-controlled manner and according to the procedures.
Insufficient stabilization will on the other hand limit the pilot’s attention to basic flying due to
constantly necessary major corrections leading to new deviations. Proper control of aircraft
stabilization is the direct result of maintaining a constant attitude by developing the knowledge of
when and how much to change the pitch and/or power in order to make precise adjustments and
the correct application of trim to maintain the desired aircraft attitude.
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Use the following technique for aircraft stabilization:
Set an approximate attitude and/or power setting, if possible according to the Pitch and Power
Table, on the Control Instruments to establish the desired performance. Trim until the control
pressures are neutralized.
Interpret the Performance Instruments to determine if the established attitude and/or power
setting have accomplished the desired result.
If a correction is necessary, readjust the attitude and/or power according to the Control
Instruments and adjust trim as required.
1.10.2 Pitch Control
Pitch changes are accomplished by changing the “pitch attitude” either according to the natural
horizon in VMC/VFR and/or of the miniature aircraft of the attitude indicator which are referred
to as bar width or a fraction thereof or degrees.
One wing bar width equals ~ 3° pitch change and one nose dot width equals ~ 2° pitch change.
The pitch change will be accomplished by applying elevator control inputs on the stick/yoke.
The amount of control inputs (stick/yoke forward/backward) determines the rate of pitch change
at a certain speed. The time these inputs are applied determines the amount of pitch change.
A rate of 3° per second should be used for all changes in pitch during normal operation.
For altitude corrections a ROC or ROD of two times the deviation should be achieved.
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1.10.3 Roll Control
For instructional purpose the following definitions will be used:
Shallow Angle of Bank (AoB): up to 15° bank

Medium AoB: up to 25° bank
Steep AoB: up to 45° / 50° for training
The AoB necessary for a standard rate turn depends on the TAS flown.
As a Rule of Thumb use: (TAS / 10) x 1.5 or (TAS/10) +5

To make the rule simple use as well: TAS = IAS
Example: If you are flying 120 KIAS and plan to perform a standard rate turn:
(120 / 10) x 1.5 = 12 x 1.5 = 18

Establish an AoB of 18°.
Angles of Bank are indicated by the Attitude Indicator at 0°, 30°, 60° and 90°. To achieve a
certain AoB the stick/yoke will be moved into the desired direction. The amount of control inputs
(stick/yoke left/right) determines the roll rate at a certain speed. The time these inputs are applied
determines the amount of AoB change. In order to stop a rolling motion a counter acting input on
the stick/yoke has to be applied.
Due to the design of aircraft used by BAA (Dihedral Wings) the aircraft will tend to roll back to
wings level at shallow AoB, to maintain the established AoB at medium AoB and to roll into a
steeper AoB at AoB greater than 30°.
The roll rate to be used depends on the situation. The greater the AoB to be achieved or rolled
out from is the greater roll rate should be used. Nevertheless the AoB has to be established or
rolled out from in a way not to overshoot the desired AoB or heading. As a rule of thumb, use
approximately 1/3 of the AoB to determine the roll out point when turning to a specific heading.
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Example: At 30° AoB start the roll out ~ 10° prior the desired heading.
For “passenger comfort” in airline operation the initial roll in and roll out shall be accomplished
in a smooth manner. But: Too smooth and slow roll in and roll out may lead to a vertigo in IMC.
During VMC/VFR operation outside references will be mainly used to control a turn. Since the
crew is located side by side in our training aircraft and later in airline operated aircraft the crew is
actually moved around the longitudinal axis of the aircraft during rolling motions. This will lead
to the misleading impression that the aircraft’s nose is falling or rising while one of the pilots is
moving up and the other pilot is moving down in relation to the longitudinal axis.
The illustration below shows how the outside view and the position of the natural horizon
changes with bank as a reference point stays steady.
For operation in IMC, some additional considerations apply:
During normal operation the maximum AoB for IFR is standard rate turn up to 25° AoB.
A heading change of less than 30° should be accomplished by using an AoB equal to
½ of the desired heading change.
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1.10.4 Power Control

Power control equipment and indications differ with aircraft type. Pilots have to be familiar with
the different control possibilities, from single lever control, as in the C172, up to two lever
control as P2002JF and P2006T.
Power MAP and RPM are the generally considered power control indications.
Knowledge of the required power settings according to the pitch and power tables and the cruise
power table are required to be able to set the right power and operate an engine in an economical
and safe way.
A pilot will learn from experience how far the control levers, mainly the throttle, have to be
moved to achieve a specific power setting. This ability will enable a pilot to change the power to
a new setting while the cross check is maintained.
Division of attention is required at all times even when making any power changes. Continue the
normal cross check while moving the engine control lever and apply necessary resulting inputs
on the stick/yoke and rudder to maintain a stabilized aircraft.
After a few seconds check the engine instruments and adjust the engine control lever’s position
for a perfect power setting.
1.10.5 Torque and Yaw Compensation
There are many factors which, if not counteracted, will yaw the aircraft around the vertical axis.
These factors or forces have different origins and may add up or equalize each other, very
depending on the specific situation.
All these forces have one thing in common: If not properly counteracted, the aircraft will not fly
coordinated!
The indication for coordinated flight is a centered ball on the Turn Coordinator/triangle turn
coordinator on Garmin G950/1000. If that ball is not centered the turn coordinator would show a
slip or skid, an uncoordinated flight. This way the Turn Coordinator indicates the quality of
flight.
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If the ball is not centered more drag would be put onto the airplane, the performance would be
degraded, the fuel consumption increased, the range and endurance decreased and we would
never fly straight or a standard rate turn.
The Turn Coordinator has to be included in the cross check especially in turns and in phases of
flight where a high power setting is used at low speeds, i.e. climb.
Turns (for clockwise rotating engines viewed from the cockpit): Rolling an aircraft into a bank
creates adverse yaw. During left turns this adverse yaw will be at least partially counteracted by
the torque of the engine depending on AoB, power setting, and speed.
In right turns adverse yaw and torque combine and the pilot has to use the rudder even more to
center the ball again.
Climb: During climbs the aircraft will be flown with maximum continuous power (climb power)
at a fairly low speed. As a result the nose of the aircraft will tend to drift to the left and a steady
heading will not be possible.
If rolling into bank creates adverse yaw, yaw compensation will create a rolling motion into the
direction of applied yaw compensation. As a consequence some aileron input may be necessary
to maintain a wings level attitude.
As you see there are many factors influencing the quality of our flying and therefore a thorough
understanding of inputs given to the airplane and their primary but as well secondary
performance results is vital for stabilized around all axis flying.
1.10.6 Trim
Considering all the factors that affect the aircraft in various conditions of flight, the need for
trimming the aircraft becomes obvious. Considerable force is required to hold the correct
elevator control pressure for level flight at low airspeeds. Flying would become extremely tiring
if some means were not available to relieve these pressures. By trimming the aircraft, you relieve
yourself of extra physical exertion. A correctly trimmed aircraft will maintain a desired attitude
at a specific speed, allowing more attention to other tasks. Since an aircraft is trimmed for a
specific speed, the aircraft will maintain that speed after a power change, not the attitude!
All BAA operated aircraft are equipped with elevator trim and additionally multi engine aircrafts
with rudder trim.
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Any change of airspeed, center of gravity, flaps and configuration require elevator inputs and
consequently trim changes.
Power changes at while maintaining level flight:
As power is increased, airplane speed increases, and the airplane will tend to climb.
Consequently a lower pitch attitude or angle of attack, therefore nose down elevator input and
thus trim, are required.
As power is reduced, airspeed decreases, the airplane will tend to descend. Consequently nose up
elevator input and thus trim is required.
As the airspeed changes, hold level flight with elevator by increasing stick/yoke pressure. Then
trim off the control pressure to zero to achieve a “hands off” condition.
Large trim inputs are required at low airspeeds. At high airspeeds, very small trim inputs are
necessary. Anticipate trim requirements when changing speed.
Configuration changes:
During flap extension there is a noticeable increase in lift. In order to maintain altitude, nose
down elevator input is required. To compensate for the increased drag, a power increase is also
necessary in order to maintain the speed.
If the flaps are lowered and the airspeed shall be reduced as well (like in the Traffic Circuit) an
initial nose down input on the elevator will be required, but as the airspeed decreases to about 10
kts below the initial speed, this input may be released again. If the aircraft had been trimmed
properly and the right power setting had been used before setting the flaps, only minor trim and
power adjustments will be necessary.
Recommended trim sequence at a level off after a climb with climb power still set; start to reduce
the pitch at about 5% of ROC below the desired altitude.
As the pitch, thus AoA, and thus induced drag is reduced, the aircraft will accelerate.
Approaching the desired cruising speed (~ 5 kts prior) reduce power to cruise power setting.
While the aircraft accelerates, more lift will be produced and thus pitch control inputs will now
become necessary to maintain altitude during the level off and acceleration process. To level off
the pitch has to be reduced gradually to level flight pitch to decrease the ROC to zero. Use trim
already in this phase of the level off to reduce the stick/yoke forces as necessary.
Once the aircraft has attained a constant airspeed at the given cruise power setting, use elevator
trim to relieve the control pressures.
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Recommended trim sequence at a level off after a descent:
With descent power still set, start to increase pitch at about 10% of ROD above the desired
altitude.
As pitch, thus AoA, and thus lift is increased, the ROD will be reduced but induced drag will be
increased and the aircraft would decelerate. To avoid this deceleration, almost simultaneously
power must be increased again gradually.
If the descent was started, conducted and terminated with cruise speed, only minor trim changes
will be necessary due to the stability of the airplanes.
If a deceleration after the descent is considered, initial pitch up inputs are necessary to break the
descent, but further pitch up control inputs will become necessary to stay level due to less lift as
the airplane decelerates.
Use trim already in this phase of the level off to reduce the stick/yoke forces necessary.
Once the aircraft has attained the desired and constant airspeed at the given power setting, use
elevator trim to relieve the control pressures.
Initiation of a descent or climb:
Knowing about the effects of trimming and an aircraft’s stability the change over from level
flight into a descent or climb can be achieved easily without changing other flight parameters.
Since a well-trimmed aircraft will maintain the speed it is trimmed for, a change in power will
eventually lead to exactly that pitch that will result in the rate of climb or descend for that speed
and power. But this will not happen in single motion. It would rather lead to some oscillations in
pitch, which are not comfortable for our passengers.
Or it must be done in a very slow way, resulting in a very slow establishment of the descent or
climb. The consequence i.e. would be overshooting the glide path for our approach.
Therefore the pilot will almost simultaneously change the pitch and the power for the required
and/or desired descent/climb. The well-trimmed aircraft will do the rest!
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Conclusion:
Trimming is essential for good aircraft stabilization. With proper trim set a pilot will be able to
manage more and complex tasks while flying on parameters.
Trimming the aircraft will not be an explicit part of any procedure or maneuver in this manual,
trimming will be permanently executed by the pilot.
1.10.7 Integrated/Composite Flight (Flight in VMC)
Integrated/Composite flight means to control the aircraft by the use of outside references,
supported by Control Instruments in order to establish and maintain the desired flight
performance. A reference point (mountain, building or even a cloud) will be used as a heading
reference and natural horizon will be used as the primary attitude indicator.
All maneuvers are accomplished by setting attitudes, power and progressively changing them
throughout the various stages of the maneuvers. The attitude should be set and maintained by
positioning the aircraft’s nose and wings in relation to the natural horizon. This attitude will be
cross checked with the attitude indicator, mainly for precise bank control.
Very small changes in attitude can be better recognized and controlled by use of outside
references rather than the attitude indicator. However a combination of outside references and
instruments must be used in a good crosscheck, since the Performance Instruments will exactly
show whether a certain attitude and/or power setting actually results in the desired performance.
Proper power control requires reference to the Power Indicators. These are not affected by such
factors as turbulence, improper trim or inadvertent control pressures; therefore only little
attention is required to ensure that the power is set to the appropriate value and that the
indications remain constant. This implies that the pilot has a good knowledge of the power
settings required for the various stages of the various maneuvers.
Whenever the pilot realizes that the Performance Instruments readings are different than desired,
these indications are the basis for attitude and/or power changes using outside references and
instruments. The scanning of the instruments has to be accomplished in a rather rapid way to
gather maximum information in a minimum period of time.
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Practicing and using the correct Composite/Integrated flight procedures will lead to accurate and
precise flying and to increased flight safety.
As long as we can use the outside horizon and other references for Composite/Integrated Flight,
we will also scan the area around us to stay orientated at all times and avoid, in worst cases,
midair collisions. Depending on the situation (traffic, weather, maneuver flown, etc.) a general
guideline is to scan outside about 80% of the time and inside 20%.
As long as you scan outside, take an area of about 20 x 20 cm in your windshield for about 3 – 5
seconds, then take another area of the same size or scan the instruments.
As visibility and outside references are getting degraded the instruments become more and more
the primary references, until in full IMC the crosscheck has to be conducted solely by use of
instruments. Nevertheless as long as we are flying in VMC conditions we are responsible for
clearing and have to scan the area around us!
1.10.8 Instrument Scan Technique
Professional aviation could be defined as “the permanent attempt to correct back to the perfect
parameters”. Although no pilot is able to constantly maintain those perfect parameters, a good
pilot will be able to detect performance deviations very early as they develop and correct
smoothly with an adequate control input.
Therefore the pilot must be able to recognize when a correction is required by scanning the
instruments properly.
Instrument Scan or Crosscheck is the proper division of attention and interpretation of flight
instruments. Attention must be efficiently divided between the Control and Performance
Instruments in a sequence that ensures comprehensive coverage of the flight instruments, not to
forget and disregard the Engine and Navigation Instruments.
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Looking at each of these instruments at the right time is of no value unless the pilot
• knows what indication to expect,
• understands and
• evaluates the actual indication.
A pilot must be able to develop and maintain an Instrument Scan Technique that will focus
his/her attention for about one to two second on a single instrument.
Focusing on a single instrument for an extended time must be avoided, since this would lead to
major deviations of other performance parameters and eventually jeopardize flight safety
(Fixation).
1.10.9 Influencing Instrument Scan Technique
Instrument Scan Techniques vary among pilots, as well as throughout the various phases of
flight. Therefore the pilot should become familiar with the factors to be considered in dividing
his/her attention properly. One way to do this is to analyze the different phases of the maneuvers
and procedures and decide which instruments are more important at different times. This analysis
has to be done on the ground as a part of a proper flight preparation.
A pilot should also know the symptoms that allow him/her to recognize a correct or incorrect
Instrument Scan Technique.
In this chapter we talk about the instrument crosscheck. In case of VMC flight the natural outside
horizon will replace the attitude indicator at least partially.
A factor influencing Instrument Scan Technique is the characteristic manner in which

instruments respond to changes of attitude and/or power.
Control - direct and immediate indication

Instruments
Performance - slight lag due to inertia of the aircraft and/or instrument
Instruments design
The lags in the indication of a Performance Instruments results in the pilot’s tendency to over
control and overcorrect. The pilot must know that, after a change in power and/or attitude, he/she
has to wait until the result of the input is registered on the appropriate Performance Instruments.
If that indication is not the desired one, a correction should be performed immediately and the
crosscheck cycle should be continued.
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Rough or large changes in pitch, bank, and power lead to additional lag. Smooth aircraft control
inputs, application of pitch and power concept and data, and exact interpretation of the Control
Instruments reduce these effects and avoid the tendency of “needle chasing”!
Another factor influencing Instrument Scan Technique is the location of the flight instruments.
Since the human eye can only focus on one point at a time, and the flight instruments are
scattered over a wide area on the instrument panel, the pilot is unable to bring several instruments
into his/her scan at a time.
The illustration below shows the “T-crosscheck” which is the recommended basic scan technique
to start with. Since the attitude, airspeed, altitude, and a heading indicator are located like in the
illustration, the T-crosscheck normally works for every airplane.
By applying this technique the pilot will continuously observe and scan the attitude indicator
most often and for the most time.
The pilot should start the correct scan with the attitude indicator as the central point or instrument
and glance to a Performance Instrument, back to the attitude indicator, glance to another
Performance Instrument, back to the attitude indicator and so forth.
Every instrument will be scanned individually, spending about one second on each instrument.
If an instrument indication is changing it should not be considered part of the primary scan. It is
considered good practice to set the desired power and attitude with reference to the RPM/MP and
Airspeed Indicator then observe the result.
For example – In a climb we are looking for constant attitude, constant power and constant
airspeed. Once the aircraft is stabilized in a climbing attitude, the ASI, AI, HDG and VSI should
be constant.
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Once the basic T-crosscheck is built up and the aircraft is stabilized, the pilot will be able to
widen his/her scan including instruments near by the original T or additional info on one of the T
instruments:
Finally the pilot will be able to include as well the Engine Instruments, Navigational Instruments,
etc in his/her scan until the scan circuit would look like a wagon wheel with the hub representing
the attitude indicator and the spokes representing all other instruments.
Since all human beings are different, the instrument scan is influenced by the pilot’s personal
abilities and experience level.
Nevertheless this scan technique is not the only method of scanning. Pilots must often compare
the indications of different Performance Instruments before the decision can be made by the pilot
when and how much the attitude and/or power has to be changed. Thus the scan circuit has to be
changed as required in that situation.
1.10.10 Instrument Scan Analysis
A pilot must have a definite attitude and power indication in mind for the desired performance.
This is provided by the pitch and power tables and the flight circuit.
If the instruments fluctuate erratically, the pilot is not sufficiently
• referring to the Control Instruments,
• performing a fast crosscheck, and
• trimming the aircraft.
This lack of precise aircraft control leads to “chasing the needles”.
To maintain the performance indications within close tolerances requires more than continuous
attention to the Control Instruments alone. A quick scan as described above has to be maintained
continuously and has to include the Performance Instruments as well.
Disregarding one or more instruments for a longer period of time will lead to one or more major
deviations which in turn require major corrections, which in turn may lead to over corrections.
The indications on some instruments are not as apparent as on other instruments. I.e. a 4° heading
deviation is not as noticeable as a 400 ft/min deviation on the VSI. The pilot must make a
deliberate effort until a proper habit is established to ensure that all required instruments are
included in his/her crosscheck at all times.
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Proper preparation and analysis of the Instrument Scan Technique will assist the pilot in
developing his/her own scan technique for optimum interpretation and use of the flight
instruments.
Good knowledge about and constant use of the Control and Performance Concept,
Integrated/Composite Flight, and Instrument Scan Technique will enable a pilot to operate an
aircraft safely and professionally, whether VFR or IFR.
Part of the instrument scan is to be able to identify problems with the system and which
‘indication’ is likely to be in error.
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Chapter 2 Normal Operation
The Flight Circuit or graphical description of BAA procedures are not illustrated in this chapter.
They are appendices of the flight crew training manual. Nevertheless the relevant Flight Circuit
should be available and cross read during study of this chapter.
2.1 Preflight and Ground Operation

All BAA flights require a complete flight preparation according to the BAA AFM/FCTM/OM!
The procedures to be applied are differing by aircraft type and model but they will always be
strictly applied according to the aircraft specific AFM, BAA OM and BAA abbreviated checklist.
All BAA checklists will be applied by using the BAA checklist and call out concept.
All checklist items shall be performed from memory and according to an aircraft specific circuit
(flow).
Any check or action must be clearly accompanied by call out to indicate the purpose of that
action or check to other crew member.
Example: Propeller check during Engine Run up List Propeller check Perform
While cycling the prop lever the PF shall call out that respective RPM, status, oil pressure
Example:
“Prop cycle, RPM drops, RPM rises, MAP drops, MAP raises, Oil pressure drops, and Oil
pressure rises”
Announcing “checked, checked …” wouldn’t tell anybody in that airplane what had just
happened.
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2.1.1 Preflight Checks
Regarding Flight Safety the Preflight Check is one of the most important duties of a pilot or crew
before commencing a flight. Preflight check will be performed according to the applicable
aircraft AFM/POH. For SOLO flights, the student will perform the Preflight check under
supervisory instructor (solo watch).
2.1.2 Airplane Log Book (ALB)

The proper use of the ALB is mandatory to guarantee the airworthiness of the aircraft. Only
correct and complete entries ensure that the required inspections of an airplane are performed in
time and thus the remaining flight hours until an inspection will be sufficient for the mission.
2.1.3 Technical Log Book (TLB)

The TLB has to be checked before flight for any open entry and for recent entries and the
respective corrective actions.
Although corrected, a malfunction may occur again and therefore the knowledge about it may
become very important during flight.
It is the PIC’s decision to accept an aircraft with an open entry in the TLB as long as the entry
does not influence the airworthiness of the aircraft.
2.1.4 Sequence of events during ground operations
The following sequence of checklists and radio calls may differ due to aircraft equipment’s, local
procedures or requirements or because of special situations (i.e. cold weather ops).
After completion of the exterior (preflight) checks the aircraft will be boarded. Before any
checklist is begun the cockpit has to be prepared for flight. This means that only flight relevant
documents, maps and checklists are in an organized order in the cockpit. Additionally the pilots
prepare and fasten their seat belts and prepare their headsets. Loose items shall be stowed in a
safe way in the baggage compartment or in flight bags behind the seats. Your bag should always
be within reach during the flight.
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After that the ground communication will be switched on and checked by initiation of the
“Intercom Check” by the student / PF
PF / Student “INTERCOM CHECK HOW DO YOU READ”
Expected answer: “READ YOU LOUD AND CLEAR HOW DO YOU READ ME” PF / Student:
“READ YOU LOUD AND CLEAR AS WELL”
Of course the answer should clearly indicate the quality of inter communication.
Only after a good and clear communication between all crew members is established the PF
should continue with the checklist work and additional procedures: (The checklist titles are
written in CAPITAL LETTERS)
BEFORE START Items/Checklist
Receive ATIS or call for departure information and receive the Start Up Clearance in case of IFR
flights or as required by the local airfield procedure.
STARTING ENGINE LIST Read and Do
AFTER START Items/Checklist
During the Flight Controls and Flap check items the positions of the control surfaces (aileron and
flaps) and as appropriate the indication will be announced loudly.
“LY-BAA, REQUEST CLEARANCE” (if required)
After receiving and reading back the clearance all available navigational instruments, radios, and
if equipped G950/G1000 will be set up for the departure and route up to and including the first
landing airport.
The pre-selected frequencies for communication and navigational radios should be set to the next
expected frequency.
Then the Student/PIC will brief the departure along the NAV setup.
Example of VFR Departure briefing can be found in standard call out’s section for the particular
type of aircraft.
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“Take Off” is used for the standard/normal take off according to the flight circuit for take-off and
departure.
A short field, soft field, obstacle clearance take off, etc., has to be briefed specifically including
the mandatory additional information like TODA, VX, obstacle clearance height, etc!
Additionally for VFR Cross Country briefing of first leg items:
“… MAGNETIC COURSE, MSA XXXX, TIME XX MINUTES, TOP OF CLIMB AT …”
TAXI Items/Checklist
ENGINE RUNUP LIST Read and Do
“EMERGENCY BRIEFING”
Emergency briefings as describe in Standard Operating Manual of the certain aircraft type.
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2.1.5 Taxi Operations
The taxi/recognition light shall be switched on before starting to taxi.
During any taxi operation checklist items will be performed from memory, but it is not permitted
to read the checklist while moving in student single pilot operation.
Before any movement of the airplane and prior each turn the pilot in control has to check and
announce loudly that the area to be taxied to is “clear”. Normally a visual and announced check
covers most occasions.
“LEFT SIDE CLEAR – FRONT SIDE CLEAR – RIGHT SIDE CLEAR”
Additionally the pilot in control has to check and announce loudly that a taxiway or any other
area to be entered during taxiing is clear of other traffic, persons and any other vehicle or
obstruction.
The amount of power necessary to achieve initial forward movement of the aircraft depends upon
ramp surface and slope, gross weight, and tire pressure.
First the brakes shall be released and then, if necessary, the throttle(s) advanced slowly to
achieve an initial movement. Normally a 10~15% power should be sufficient for normal taxi
operations.
Only small power changes with the throttle(s) should be necessary. Do not ride the brakes.
Instead, the throttle should be reduced to idle to slow down, to stabilize taxi speed or prior using
the brakes to stop. Otherwise the brakes will unnecessarily heat up and wear out.
The aircraft will primarily be steered by use of rudder pedals and only if necessary by additional,
but as short as possible, use of differential braking.
After starting to taxi (about 1 m) the pilot in control initiates the
“BRAKES CHECK”
by retarding the power to idle and then actuates his/her brakes. After a successful check he/she
announces
“MY BREAKS CHECKED GOOD; CHECK YOURS”
To order the other pilot to check his/her brakes which results in hopefully the same call out.
Aircraft control will not be changed over for the brakes check.
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It is not necessary during this check to come to a full stop which may result in an excessive
power demand to continue taxiing.
The brakes check has to be finished as soon as possible and before first turn out of parking
position to ensure that the aircraft can be stopped at any time!
The flight instrument check will be performed earliest when turning onto a major taxiway. It
must not be performed while taxiing on a parking apron or any other congested area.
It is mandatory to perform the flight instrument check once; a second check during a turn to the
other direction is optional.
If the flight instrument check could not be performed during taxiing to run up, it should be
performed latest during taxiing onto the runway.
Purpose of the flight Instrument check is to assure the functionality of some specific instruments:
Turn Coordinator/Turn and Slip Indicator
All heading indicators like HSI, RMI, Directional Gyro, Magnetic Compass, Attitude Indicator
This functionality will as well be called out. Example for a check during a right taxi turn:
“Right turn, Right side clear, Compass turning, HDG indicator turning, ball opposite,
attitude indicator steady”
Whenever possible the pilot has to follow the yellow line which ensures sufficient wingtip
clearance to any obstacle. There is no need to perform S-turns along the yellow line for any
check.
Caution
Reading of any checklist during taxi is not permitted during Single Pilot flying concept!
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When approaching the runup area, the aircraft should be steered initially off the yellow line and
then turn back towards the yellow line or the middle of the taxiway/runup area at about 30-45 °.
In all cases:
Whenever possible come to a stop before the stop line and heading into the wind (within 90° of
wind direction) at wind speeds greater than 5 kts.
This way
• One side of the taxiway will be clear for other vehicles (i.e.: rescue vehicles),
• After runup it will be a lot easier to taxi onto the yellow line again,
• Sufficient engine cooling is guaranteed and
• The chance of damaging an airplane behind during run-up is minimized.
During taxi operations in the parking area and on aprons do not exceed a speed equivalent to a
fast walk.
The minimum distance between 2 airplanes of the same category taxiing behind each other is
30m.
While taxiing behind a medium or heavy aircraft and especially behind a jet airplane use extreme
caution and a minimum of 100 m distance.
Crosswind control inputs must be used during taxi operation in wind conditions of more than 10
kts. For cross wind from the forward sector apply aileron into the wind. For cross wind from the
rearward sector apply opposite aileron and some nose down elevator input.
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2.2 Take Off and Initial Climb

2.2.1 Before Take Off
After completing the Engine Run-up Checklist the Student Pilot performs the standard
Emergency Briefing.
After the pilot has determined that a take-off will be possible very soon he/she will perform and
read the Before Take-Off Checklist.
BEFORE TAKE OFF Items/Checklist
After completing the Emergency Briefing and the Before Take-Off Checklist the PF calls the
control tower for Take-off/Departure clearance.
After receiving a clearance for line up and/or take off the PF taxies onto the yellow line of the
taxi way, checks and announces the approach sector and runway clear. Only then he/she may
cross the stop hold line onto the runway.
ATC normally broadcasts the present wind in connection with a takeoff clearance. The PF does
not have to read back this information but has to analyze the wind not to exceed the crosswind
and tailwind limitations.
Note
The student shall perform the before takeoff items and checklist prior to line up.
The line up on the runway shall result in an aircraft position on and parallel to the runway
centerline and with a minimum of runway behind the aircraft.
Intersection take offs should be avoided whenever possible.
The directional gyro will always be cross checked with the runway direction! During the Line Up
/ Take-Off Items prepare the Flight Time stopwatch.
For all flights the take-off time has to be noted and the stop watch should be activated just prior
applying T/O Power.
If asked by ATC for an “immediate departure” it is the instructor pilot’s responsibility to accept
the immediate departure and to assist the student in his/her tasks while taxiing onto the runway
for an expeditious take off.
With the reception of a Take Off clearance it is not required to stop on the runway.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.2.2 Normal Take Off
Prior to commencing the take-off roll ground references shall be selected to aid the PF in
directional control during takeoff and departure.
For a normal take off following a line up and hold clearance the brakes will be released prior
advancing the throttle(s) in one move (1 – 2 seconds) to full throttle. After correct T-O power is
confirmed PF will look out to maintain runway heading. Simultaneously the control stick or yoke
will be held neutral for no wind condition or proper cross wind control inputs will be used for
cross wind conditions.
A few seconds after applying take off power the engine(s) should be stabilized and the PF will
check the engine instruments (Power percentage and RPM) for indications within limits
according AFM and then call out:
“TAKE OFF POWER SET”
After applying power some right rudder will be necessary to overcome the slipstream and torque
effect. Avoid using the brakes for directional control during take-off roll, since braking lengthens
the take-off roll and may result in a blown tire.
Do not push the control stick or yoke forward during take-off and landing rolls, since this may
result in “wheel-barrowing” and heavy vibrations. Wheel-barrowing occurs when more weight is
put on the nose wheel than on the main wheels which may result in directional control problems
up to rapid pivoting around the nose wheel.
2.2.3 Crosswind Take Off
Crosswind during take-off will be a factor during most take offs and therefore it is very important
to apply proper crosswind control inputs.
“Weathervaning” is a tendency of the aircraft to align itself with the direction of the wind and must be
counteracted by the use of rudder to avoid skidding on the runway.
As a result the effects of crosswind may equalize the effects of torque on single engine airplanes
in case of right crosswind or add onto the torque effect in case of left crosswind.
In any case the “upwind” wing (right crosswind – right wing, left crosswind – left wing) will
create more lift than the other one and the pilot will experience a rising motion of the upwind
wing. This is counteracted by applying aileron into the wind during the entire take off roll.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.2.4 Take-off procedure
The more precise take-off method is described in the Standard Operation Manual for all BAA
training aircraft.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.3 Departure and Enroute Climb

The following procedures have to be followed when conducting VFR and IFR cross country
flights:
 Start timing for the first leg when safe airborne and heading inbound the first waypoint
(VFR only)
 Note takeoff time.
 Follow proper departure/exit procedures.
 Look for ground references to intercept the departure route (VFR only).
 Open your VFR flight plan (if required).
 Start Flight Log Entries, but not before 1500 ft AGL and outside of airport traffic areas.
 Enter take off time in the flight log.
 Calculate all PTO and ETO up to the first landing airport.
 Calculate ETO for the next check/way point.
While performing these calculations and flight log entries continue to clear visually the area
ahead in VMC and continue to scan the instruments. As a technique take one time calculation at
a time and while calculating that one scan an area outside. Then note the result in the FLIGHT
LOG and take the next calculation.
VFR and VMC: During the entire climb and departure keep a good look out and listen to the
radio for situational awareness. If necessary perform climbing turns with up to 10° AoB turning
up to 30° of heading to check the area below and ahead of the aircraft.
Start the level off 5% of the VSI indication before the planned/designated altitude. Accelerate to
cruise speed with climb power until about 5 kts below desired IAS. Then reduce power to the
designated power setting, normally for 65% or 75% cruise power according to AFM.
As completion of the level off read the After Take Off Checklist (if not previously completed
passing 1500ft AAL)
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.4 Cruise
2.4.1 General
• Basic Dead Reckoning (Time – Heading – Speed) will be used.
• Navigate from big references along the route to smaller ones.
• Look for “Lead-in-Features” towards the next Check Point (“Funnel”).
• If possible set yourself a line of reference points along the planned route to follow.
• Keep the planned track preferably on the aircraft’s left side for better track control.
• For longer legs look for timing check marks.
Always use the timing for position identification (Clock to map to ground or ground to clock to
map) Exercise a good look out to be able to make early and good decisions regarding i.e. weather
diversion or traffic avoidance.
2.4.2 Tasks Approaching Check/Way Point
• Identify the Check/Way Point positively.
• Brief the next leg approximately two minutes prior the Check/Way Point and continue until
overhead the Check Point.
• Calculate the point when to start the turn to roll out on the new course (IFR and VFR)
including an estimated wind correction.
• Compare the next leg planning on the map with outside references
• If possible maneuver to be able to turn around the Check Point
• Check semicircular cruise altitude for the next leg (if required).
• Coordinate with ATC and climb (if required) to cross the Check Point at the new altitude.
• Cross check the Heading Indicator with the Magnetic Compass and reset if necessary.
• Estimate time remaining to the Check Point and complete the FLIGHT LOG (ATO, ETO)
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.4.3 Tasks Overhead Check/Way Point
• Turn to the new magnetic heading while using visual references. If possible turn around the
waypoint.
• Reset the stopwatch when abeam the waypoint (VFR mandatory)
• Commence a position report to ATC including your next Check/Way Point and ETO (if
required).
• Coordinate with ATC and start a climb / descent to next altitude (if required).
2.4.4 Tasks after Check/Way Point Passage
• Cross-check the Heading Indicator with the Magnetic Compass and reset it if necessary.
• Compare the planned magnetic course with the actual track displayed on GNS (if available).
• Continue with En Route procedures
• Perform an OPS check
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.5 Descent and Approach Preparation
2.5.1 General
As a guideline for all approaches the acronym WARNBIC is used to prepare for the approach:
W Weather: Receive ATIS or request the weather and airport information
A ATC Clearance: Request an initial clearance for the approach, if possible according to your
plan
R COM Radio: Prepare the next (expected) radio frequency
N NAV setup: Dial in all required/expected/back up frequencies, use all instruments and set up
the G1000 for the approach
B Briefing: Approach Briefing
I Items: Perform the Items of the Approach checklist
C Checklist: Read and if necessary complete the Approach checklist
WARNBIC should be completed at a point 10 NM out of the approached airport. The A may be
delayed if you intend to work off the rest of WARNBIC, i.e. prior leaving a training area.
This way you will have a lot better situational awareness (SA) while approaching the airport
and entering the traffic circuit. The only remaining tasks are flying the airplane, scanning the
area, listening to the radio and following the procedures.
Get ATIS or request in time the weather and landing information for the airport of intended
landing at the controlling agency. The weather and landing information should be received prior
requesting and/or starting the descent. Since the Top of Descent (TOD) is already preplanned and
entered in the map during cross country operation, the weather should be requested about 2 to 5
minutes prior the TOD.
The TOD will whenever possible be calculated for a 3° glide path resulting in the rule of thumb
ROD = 5 x the ground speed (GS) plus 10 %.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Applying this Rule of Thumb 3 NM are necessary to loose 1000 ft during a 3° glide path and by
knowing that fact it is easily possible to control the descent by checking the altitude passing
every 3 NM.
A standard descent will be performed at cruise speed.
For all traffic circuit entries a TOD has to be calculated including not only the distance required
for the descent, but as well 2 NM for deceleration, configuration and stabilization, and that part
of a normal traffic circuit where the pilot intends to enter the traffic circuit. These are normally
the 3 NM final, the (extended) base or the downwind. For a base or downwind entry we have to
add a standard distance of about 1 up to max. 1.5 NM which is the normal spacing of the
downwind towards the runway.
The result is a distance from the runway for base or downwind and from the runway threshold for
straight in. How to define the resulting TOD with our navigational equipment depends on the
airplane flown, the navigational aids available and the circumstances at every single airport.
Adhere to published approach procedures (route, altitude, etc.).
If flying in uncontrolled airspace and/or to an uncontrolled airfield, use the telephone after
landing as often as possible to close your flight plan. Avoid closing the flight plan in the air
before landing to uncontrolled airfield.
Follow “VFR-Approach”-Flight Circuit!
The approach briefing has to accomplish according to standard (see approach briefing in Call out
section of FCTM):
Additionally, specials have to be briefed like airport restrictions, special entry procedures, spot
landing procedure, etc.
Under normal circumstances Flaps full (down) will be used for landing. Nevertheless it is
advisable to use less flaps at stronger wind to achieve a more stable airplane control and to have
some power reserve for aircraft control.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-48
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.6 Traffic Circuit

The traffic circuit was established to coordinate the departing and arriving traffic with the traffic
exercising landings at an airport.
The traffic circuit consists of these phases:
 Departure or Upwind leg
 Crosswind leg
 Downwind
 Base Leg
 Final
Of course the ground roll during a touch and go is part of the circuit as well.
2.6.1 Normal Circuit
In a standard circuit all turns are left turns.
This means that there are basically 2 possible circuits for each runway direction; the left and the
right hand circuit.
The direction of the circuit to be flown is either published (if non-standard i.e. for noise
abatement reasons) or the pilot will be told by ATC, who may use both directions i.e. for
deconfliction of traffic flying different speeds in the circuit.
All turns are normally flown using up to 30 AoB.
In a no-wind-situation a standard circuit lasts about 5 – 6 minutes.
The traffic circuit is a visual maneuver! Although every pilot has to work off a complex
procedure accompanied by checklist work and radio calls, the main references are ground
references, especially the runway.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Due to the fact that the highest traffic density occurs in the traffic circuit it is vital to clear
visually the airspace around, to listen to the radio, to expertly perform radio calls and to cross
check the necessary instruments. Thus every pilot has to exactly know about the time required
for every leg, its references and the procedure accompanied.
During checklist work the items of the After Takeoff and Approach checklist marked with a #
sign will not be performed.
Additionally, every pilot in a circuit has to know the others’ position. Do not turn onto the next
leg if you are in doubt about another airplane’s position!
It is also very important to know about the wind in traffic circuit altitude, its consequences and
how to correct for it!
Upwind Leg:
Like the normal take off and departure procedure. The only difference: At minimum 500 ft AAL
we turn to crosswind.
Local or national regulations may require a turn to crosswind at a different, usually a higher
altitude.
A turn above 500 ft AGL is no problem, turns below 500 ft AGL should be avoided or, if
absolutely necessary, performed applying shallow bank angles and according FOM.
A good cross check while scanning the area: Ground track – speed – (altitude 400/500 ft AAL)
Crosswind Leg:
Purpose of the crosswind leg is to get the right spacing between downwind and runway.
Depending on the wind conditions you may spend more or less time on crosswind. This means
that the level off at circuit altitude may occur on crosswind leg, downwind or even during the
turn to downwind because wind does not influence the rate of climb but your ground speed.
Use ground references to assist in determining when to turn to downwind. A 45° angle towards
the end of the runway is a better technique as ground references change from airfield to airfield.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-50
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Under normal circumstances it will not be necessary to perform any checklist on the Crosswind
Leg. Nevertheless it is acceptable in certain situations (like strong winds, changeover of circuit)
to perform nonstandard the After Take Off items and checklist on Crosswind Leg.
The approach briefing shall be completed before any configuration change on downwind. A good
cross check while scanning the area: Ground track – speed – (altitude 1000 ft AAL)
Whenever the level off is performed lower the pitch for level flight and accelerate to circuit
speed. Prior reaching circuit speed set the respective power setting and adjust the trim. Stabilize
the aircraft expertly. Deviations from speed and altitude cause corrections and require time and
cause even higher workload.
Downwind:
Roll out on downwind on a runway opposed track using ground references and check the
spacing.
1 up to 1.5 NM are a good no wind spacing for a traffic circuit at 1000 ft. This is achieved when
the runway and the wing cross in the outer third of the wing.
A good cross check while scanning the area: Spacing to runway – ground track – speed – altitude
1000 ft AAL
Start ASAP with After Take Off checklist (if not yet performed), then the Approach Briefing
followed by the Approach checklist.
The mandatory items of the approach briefing:
Runway: In use
Flap setting: Planned for the next landing VREF and VAPP:
Type of landing: Full stop, touch and go, low approach
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AB INITIO TRAINING
The briefing may be abbreviated with the call out
“APPROACH BRIEFING STAYS THE SAME”,
where absolutely nothing has changed compared to the last briefing and circuit.
At middle of downwind set flaps 1 whenever an approach is planned with flaps other than up. Do
not mix up middle of downwind with middle of runway. These 2 points differ tremendously with
runway length.
Note
Whenever the configuration of an airplane is changed the pilot must check limitations prior to
and confirm that the resulting configuration and indication are correct. The flap lever at a
position does not guarantee the flaps to be at that position!
The radio call may be performed somewhere on downwind when flying at a controlled airport.
If you are flying an uncontrolled airport the required position reports must be performed in time
including the pilot’s intention.
Nevertheless the call should be short and precise, for example:
“LY-BAA RIGHT DOWNWIND RWY 04, TOUCH AND GO”
Although we expect a clearance according to our request and intention, we have also to expect
numerous other clearances or orders at a controlled airport like extensions of downwind, orbits,
sequencing orders, etc. Nevertheless we will receive a clearance and in Europe the present wind.
The clearance has to be read back, not the wind, but we have to compute the crosswind and
tailwind component to stay within aircraft limits during landing and we have to adjust the briefed
VAPP if necessary.
Start the timing for proper downwind extension and placement of the base leg when abeam the
landing runway threshold. The timing is based on altitude, 3 seconds for every 100 ft, and wind.
In a normal 1000 ft circuit the downwind will be extended beyond the threshold for 30 seconds.
For every knot tailwind on the downwind leg the time flying outbound will be shortened by 1
second and for every knot headwind the time will be extended by 1 second.
Whatever the wind conditions are we should end up at a point to turn to base which is roughly on
a 45° line towards the threshold. The timing is a reference but not the only one!
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ATO FCTM FCTM-52
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Base Leg:
Fly the base leg on a heading to give a ground track perpendicular to the runway. Maintain the
speed according to the flight circuit and maintain a ROD of about 500 ft/min. The most difficult
task on base is to recognize if you are high or low or on glide path. Whenever you realize a
deviation immediately initiate a correction!
All Landing Items will be performed on base.
Prior to the turn to final check the extended final approach is clear.
Plan the turn to final using an AoB of 25°. In the case of an upcoming overshoot use up to 30°
AoB. In case of an upcoming undershoot roll out of the turn and continue until a turn using 25°
AoB is required for the turn to final.
Avoid changing the flap setting during the turn, since flap asymmetries are hard to recognize in
turns.
Adjust the pitch and power as appropriate so as to roll out on final at approximately 300-400 ft
AAL and 0.75 NM final.
A good cross check while scanning the area: Interpretation of glide path – ground track – speed.
Final:
Try to roll out on final with the centerline between your feet. This way you will be off centerline
by acceptable 40 cm.
As soon as possible, even during the turn to final, intercept or correct the glide path using all
references including the VASI or PAPI system if available.
Additionally use an “aim point” to control the glide path and to start the round out at the right
time. The aim point is a ground reference short of the point where you expect the aircraft to touch
down.
Stabilize at minimum Vappr and maintain this speed until round out for landings on normal or
long runways.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
When in the slot (within 30° of Runway heading) or latest stabilized on final complete the
Landing checklist, which should be completed latest at 200 ft AAL.
Check and confirm that the runway is clear and that a landing clearance was received. A call out
is not required.
During a normal “power on” final approach, pitch controls the descent profile and power controls
airspeed. However pitch and power should be used in a combined manner to maintain the aiming
point in the same position in the windscreen.
At the beginning of the training a good crosscheck (and the corresponding actions) are: Glide
path (Stick/Yoke for elevator) – Centerline (Stick/Yoke for aileron) – Speed (Throttle).
Corrections to Profile: Try to imagine the different kinds of deviations on final (and we are only
talking about glide and speed):
• High and slow
• High and fast
• Low and slow
• Low and fast
• Low and on speed
• High and on speed
Imagine how to correct these deviations. This will help you in preparation for the flight training.
Example:
You are high and on speed.
Action: Reduce the pitch to increase the ROD and to get back on the glide path, but you have to
reduce power to stay on speed. Once back on glide increase pitch again but to a lower one as you
had before the correction and increase power again as well.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-54
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.6.2 Non-Standard Circuit
Nonstandard circuit defined as circuit at altitudes other than 1000 ft AGL will not be flown
during normal operations at BAA.
If an alteration of the standard circuit procedures is necessary due to local procedures, ATC or
weather reasons, it will be the PIC’s decision to do so.
The basic procedures will stay the same. The power settings for higher or lower than standard
circuit must be adjusted to stay within AFM limitations and above the minimum speeds
according to the standard circuit.
2.7 Landing
2.7.1 Normal Landing
Maintain the calculated and thereby required Vapp until 200 ft AAL.
As you approach the aim point and the landing is assured, start the round out by smoothly
increasing back pressure and reducing the power slowly to idle. The round out has the purpose of
braking, reducing the rate of descent, not necessarily to level off.
Start to look towards the last third of the runway for pitch control and use peripheral vision to
control the descent.
Be smooth in the round out to avoid ballooning.
As the airspeed decreases during round out due to higher AoA and reduced power, you must
further and continuously increase back pressure until touch down slightly above stall speed. The
pitch attitude at touch down should resemble the pitch attitude at rotation and take off and will
allow a landing on the main gear with the nose wheel off the ground.
If the controls are frozen after initial round out, the nose wheel will most likely hit the runway
first.
During strong and/or gusty winds it is advisable to use less or no flaps at all, because the controls
are more effective at a higher Vapp and the aircraft is more stable.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
The less flaps are used the less power will be necessary due to decreased drag.
With flaps up the pitch attitude is higher than normal which will lead to the impression of being
high on glide. Avoid rolling out on final on high glide path and/or high speed since the correction
would be difficult.
The airplane will float longer during round out and flare compared to flap down landings, so the
aim point should be set slightly shorter and the round out and power reduction should be initiated
earlier. Maintain the attitude and let the energy dissipate slowly the aircraft and allowing a
natural descend onto the runway.
2.7.2 Factors Affecting Landing
There are many factors influencing landings and causing problems during landings. A thorough
knowledge about these factors and their effects on landings is invaluable in analyzing flight
conditions and preventing accidents.
Center of gravity:
An aircraft’s center of gravity (CG) is a point where its entire mass might theoretically be
concentrated. In other words, it is the point of balance. As fuel is used or the number of persons
on board is changed, the center of gravity is changed. It does not change with changes of
configuration or angle of attack or when power is changed, or by centrifugal forces. Only a shift
in load changes the CG.
Different CG positions influence the control inputs necessary. A most forward CG position
requires a lot nose up input by trim or stick/yoke and a most rearward CG position requires nose
down input, which may change our “pitch-picture” as well. At low speeds, like during final
approach and landing and at the CG limits, the control inputs available may just be sufficient to
control a normal touchdown.
Exceeding the CG limits may result in an uncontrolled nose down or nose up movement.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Gross Weight:
Flying at the same speed, like VAPP and VREF, with different gross weights requires a different
amount of lift. To change the amount of lift at a speed we have to change the angle of attack
(AoA). Changing the AoA at a speed changes our view in front of the airplane due to the
changed pitch. As a consequence we will see different “pictures” flying at different gross
weights.
Centrifugal Force:
Centrifugal force is the force which draws or directs a body from the center around which it
revolves. In an aircraft the effect of centrifugal force is felt about the center of the circular arc in
loops or pitch changing maneuvers, such as in turns or round outs. A smooth round out will
diminish these effects and allow a nicely controlled landing.
Weathervaning:
Wind acting on the aircraft will produce the same effects that it has on windsocks, wind tees and
weathervanes, hence the terminology weathervaning. The aircraft will attempt to turn into the
wind. This effect is most dangerous during take-off and landing. If not counteracted it might lead
to the aircraft rolling off the runway or to a difference between the rolling direction and the tires
alignment.
Proper use of the rudder and aileron will prevent weathervaning. During take-off and landing use
any straight line, like center line or concrete joints, to keep the aircraft rolling straight.
For single engine piston aircraft, during take-off and landing rolls a crosswind from the left
coupled with the existing torque and slipstream effect presents the most serious condition for loss
of control. Good SA, thorough knowledge of weathervaning and the required corrective action is
necessary for proper and safe control of the aircraft.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-57
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AB INITIO TRAINING
2.7.3 Touchdown Zone
The touchdown zone for BAA aircraft on runways equipped with Visual Glide Slope Indicators
(PAPI or VASI) begins 1000 ft from the threshold. This is normally the same point where the
runway aiming point marking begins.
The touchdown zone starts at that point and extends for the next 300 ft.
Maintain Vref until initiating the round out when operating at the standard airfields used by
BAA. Speed reduction is no problem flying propeller driven aircraft since the propeller will
function like a speed brake once the power is reduced to idle.
In case of inoperative PAPIs or VASIs establish the same glide slope by use of the Aiming Point
Markings. In case of an approach to a runway without PAPIs or VASIs and without Aiming
Point Markings or for short field approaches and landings use the runway threshold and runway
numbers as an aim point.
Note
Runways 1500 meters or less are considered short field for BAA operation.
2.7.4 Common Errors during Landing
Explanations of landings up to this point have been devoted mainly to ideal situations or, at the
worst, crosswind situations in which landings were executed correctly. There are several errors
that student pilots might make while developing landing proficiency. It is important to be
thoroughly familiar with the causes, effects and proper recoveries from these situations.
As you gain experience, you will become more and more able to avoid and if necessary to
recover from mistakes.
Nevertheless a good and expertly executed cross check is the basis to identify small deviations
which can be corrected with small control inputs. A slow or wrong cross check will sooner or
later lead to the following errors!
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AB INITIO TRAINING
In any case, if you have doubt about the approach, if it looks or feels wrong, execute a go around
immediately! You can go around at any time.
Another important guideline to remember in the following situations is:
 Don’t panic
 Recognize the problem
 Add power and control the aircraft
Low Final Approach:
When the final turn is placed too far from the runway, or the pitch and/or power was set too low
on base and throughout the turn to final, excessive altitude may be lost and cause the final
approach to be far below the desired glide path. This situation is called a “dragged-in” final and
should be avoided.
It is dangerous because the pilot may misjudge the actual height above ground, misjudge the aim
point and misjudge the power needed to fly in this attitude.
The use of a standard power setting combined with an insufficient cross check will lead to the
situation where the aircraft is flown with insufficient power for a “dragged- in” final. Inadequate
low power in a nose high level flight situation will lead to a stall. To continue to drag the aircraft
further in towards the runway is the wrong solution!
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will be able to recognize altitude deviations
already at an early and minor stage. At that time make a small pitch correction and add power to
maintain airspeed. When reestablished on the proper glide path readjust pitch and power to
maintain that glide path and VAPP.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-59
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Too slow on Final:
When the aircraft is flown too slowly on final, misjudgment of the glide ratio and the proper
round out point is very likely. Also, the aircraft may be stalled easily during round out and the
touch down may be harder as usually due to the reduced maneuverability.
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will be able to recognize a slow speed situation
early enough and be able to apply additional power early enough to reestablish the correct
airspeed and attitude or to safely execute a go around.
Round Out too high:
Starting the round out too high and/or too rapidly will lead to a high flare and, may be, even to
level flight at a too high altitude above the runway. To compensate that you can adjust the back
pressure on the controls to maintain a constant pitch attitude until speed diminishes slightly and
the aircraft starts to descend again.
Then continue the round out and landing.
This technique should only be used when you have adequate airspeed and runway left. If you are
already at landing attitude and/or below Vref and/or still well above the runway, don’t wait for
the aircraft to start a descent again, the resulting condition would most likely become a stalled
situation and a high rate of descent. This would result in a more or less uncontrolled and possibly
hard touch down.
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will be able to recognize the need to execute
immediately a go around.
Round Out too late or too rapidly:
If you are too late in starting the round out and pull the controls back too rapidly to prevent a
hard touchdown, may cause a stall (accelerated stall), leading to some loss of lift. The result
would be exactly the condition to be prevented; a hard touchdown.
This may be a controlled or uncontrolled situation.
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will be able to recognize the need to add power
which will increase thrust, lift, and controllability and enable you to recover this situation and
perform a go around safely.
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AB INITIO TRAINING
Floating:
Improper pitch and power control on final and/or insufficient power reduction during round out
may lead to a too high speed at initiation of round out and flare. Extended floating (“level
gliding”) or ballooning is possible consequences.
Floating will use a lot of the runway before a touchdown at a normal speed is possible.
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will have a better SA to make the safe decision
whether a safe landing on the remaining runway is possible or a go around is the better solution.
Ballooning:
Flying too fast on final, bad trim, over-controlling or excessive improper control inputs are
reasons for ballooning, the aircraft gaining altitude during round out.
The altitude gained in each case depends on the airspeed and the rate of pitch change.
When ballooning is slight, a landing may be performed anyway. Maintain direction and hold the
attitude constant until the aircraft starts to descend again. Then continue to increase the pitch for
landing attitude as during a normal landing.
When ballooning is pronounced, go around. Do not attempt to salvage the landing.
Extreme caution must be used if ballooning during crosswind because improper crosswind
control inputs increase the possibility of ballooning. The upwind wing must be kept low,
otherwise its increased lift may cause ballooning and at the same time drift towards the runway
edge.
Using a constant and accurate cross check you will be able to recover from this situation by the
safe and early decision for a go around.
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Bouncing:
Bouncing is very similar to ballooning. The difference is that the aircraft strikes the runway hard
and will then “bounce” into the air, just like a ball will bounce. The height the aircraft reaches
during the bounce depends on the force with which it strikes the runway and the amount of back
pressure held on the controls. This height also depends on the speed at the time of bouncing.
A bounce typically occurs after a too late or too rapid round out.
The corrective action for bouncing is the same as for ballooning and depends on the severity of
bouncing. When it is light and there is no great change in pitch attitude, continue with the
landing.
When a bounce is severe, accompanied with a major and rapid rise of the aircraft, initiate a go
around immediately.
Bouncing in crosswind situations with proper crosswind controls applied may lead to a condition
where the upwind main wheel bounces while the downwind main wheel is still descending. This
results in a high upwind wing and thus results in a major lift increase on the upwind wing.
Initiate a go around immediately!
Porpoising:
Porpoising is a condition encountered during landing wherein the aircraft bounces back and forth
between the nose wheel and the main gear after initial ground contact. Porpoising is caused by an
incorrect landing attitude upon touchdown, often combined with a too high speed for landing,
which results in a nose wheel touch down before the main gear touches the runway. This often
occurs after an improper recovery from ballooning or bouncing when the pitch is actively
lowered too much.
If immediate corrective action is not initiated, the porpoising will progress to violent, unstable
oscillations of the aircraft about the lateral axis. These repeated heavy impacts of the aircraft on
the runway will eventually result in structural damage to the landing gear and airframe. There is
increased risk of undercarriage collapse in these scenarios.
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Do not try to counteract each bounce with opposite control inputs because the combined reaction
time of the pilot and the aircraft will aggravate the porpoising.
If porpoising is encountered, immediately re-position the controls to slightly aft as for a normal
landing attitude. Maintain this control input which will dampen out the oscillations and result in a
steady attitude.
If necessary initiate a go around.
Landing with Drift or Crab:
If you round out and land while the aircraft is drifting or is in a crab, it will contact the runway
while moving sideways. This will impose extreme side loads and stress on the landing gear and
may cause structural damage. Causes for drift or crab landings are:
 Improper crosswind control inputs
 The attempt to align the line of sight with the runway centerline while flying off centerline.
During landings we always try to touch down perfectly aligned with the runway, meaning that
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is parallel with the runway. For a perfect landing this should
happen exactly on runway centerline. Since we are sitting side by side in our airplanes, our line
of sight is slightly offset to the airplane’s longitudinal axis. The result is a crab landing with 5 –
10°.
To avoid this crab, keep the runway centerline between your feet during final, round out, and
touch down.
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2.7.5 Crosswind Landing
There are many methods of accomplishing a crosswind landing. The method used by BAA is a
combination of the crab and wing low method.
Perform a normal, but wind corrected traffic circuit until you start the turn to final. The stronger
and gustier the wind the less flaps may be used to maintain a high effectiveness of the ailerons
due to the higher Vappr.
The wind direction will determine the point when to start the turn to final. With headwind on
base leg delay the turn and with tailwind on base start the turn earlier than normal.
After rolling out on final still take the runway between your feet (sit on the centerline!), but
establish a heading into the wind (crab) so the ground track will be straight down the runway’s
extended centerline.
Stabilize on final and stabilize Vapp and perform the Landing checklist.
Maintain the crab until on short final, then apply rudder opposite to wind direction or crab in
order to parallel the longitudinal axis of the aircraft with the runway. At the same time lower the
upwind wing to prevent drift. This is performed by applying aileron into the wind. By that we
simulate a turn into the wind and counteract it by opposite rudder. In this situation you should
only apply sufficient into wind aileron to counteract the drift. Excessive angles of attack close to
the runway should be avoided.
In an ideal situation the aircraft’s longitudinal axis will be parallel to the runway (by use of
rudder) and exactly overhead (by use of aileron).
Maintain this attitude throughout the round out and flare. This will require some but smooth
adjustments of the control inputs due to decreasing speed.
The touchdown should be achieved on the upwind main wheel first. Then the other main wheel
will be lowered to the ground in order to achieve a better traction. At last the nose wheel will be
set onto the runway.
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Keep some crosswind controls during landing roll and during touch and go to prevent an
unplanned wing rise of the upwind wing.
2.7.6 Slips
A slip is a descent with one wing lowered and the airplane’s longitudinal axis at an angle to the
flight path (forward slip), or parallel to the flight path (side slip). It may be used for two purposes
or combination of both: to steepen the glide path without increasing the airspeed, or to make the
airplane move sideways through the air to counteract the drift from a crosswind.
Forward Slip:
The primary purpose of a forward slip is to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed. The
airplane’s direction of motion continues the same as before the slip was initiated, but with the
longitudinal axis at an angle to the flight path.
Power should be in idle and one wing lowered in the direction of the slip by use of the ailerons
and simultaneously the nose of the airplane must be yawed in the opposite direction of the bank
with rudder. The yaw should be applied preferably into the wind in case of crosswind conditions
during landing. The amount of yaw should be such that the original ground track is maintained.
The more bank angle used the more opposite rudder required.
During a slip there is a tendency to dive the airplane, so the pitch attitude must be adjusted as
required to maintain the desired airspeed.
WARNING
Do not decelerate below Vappr or the airspeed at the beginning of the slip since airspeed
indication may become unreliable during slip.
WARNING
All AFM limitations regarding slips have to be strictly applied!
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Side Slip:
The primary purpose of the side slip is to maintain the airplane’s longitudinal axis parallel to the
original flight path, but in which the flight path changes direction according to the steepness of
the bank angle.
The side slip is mainly used to counteract the wind drift during crosswind landings.
Power is maintained as required and drift correction is applied by lowering the upwind wing and
simultaneously applying opposite rudder. The amount of bank depends on the rate of drift while
rudder is used to keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the rudder. The airplane will
now be side slipping into the wind just enough that both the resultant flight path and the ground
track are aligned with the runway. As wind velocity changes, the side slip must be adjusted to
maintain the desired flight path.
Caution
Too much aileron input may be compensated by rudder and vice versa. The result may be a full
cross control situation close to the ground at low airspeed.
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2.7.7 Landing Roll
After touch down hold the back pressure on the stick/yoke so that the nose wheel will slowly
approach and contact the ground. Releasing the stick/yoke or even pushing it forward will lead to
unnecessary high stress on the nose wheel system and to heavy vibrations or wheel barrowing.
An aft stick/yoke will as well help to slow down, aerodynamic braking, and thus reduce the wear
down of the brakes.
Maintain directional control by use of rudder. Use brakes as necessary to slow down to a safe
taxi speed (maximum 15 kts for students!). Do not pump the brakes and do not turn off the
runway at high speed! The brake application should be smooth with constantly increasing
pressure.
During landing roll student pilots must not perform any After Landing checklist items. The items
will be performed first after vacating the runway. The checklist will be read when the aircraft is
at full stop, either on taxi way or on the apron at parking position.
2.7.8 Touch and Go
A touch and go is the combination of a landing followed by a take-off. It will be performed to

practice landings, mainly during traffic circuit operation to achieve a maximum number of
landings in a minimum flight time.
After the touch down reset the flaps to take off position confirm that position and set trim to take
off setting.
Then, after ensuring, there is sufficient runway remaining, set take-off power: Apply throttle(s)
full forward, check prop lever(s) full forward. The incapacitation call is not required.
Check the engine instruments showing the respective indications and call out:
“TAKE OFF POWER SET”
Continue with the procedure for take-off.
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2.7.9 Short Field Landings
Caution
AFM limitations and procedures have to be strictly applied.
Normally a short field landing, with or without obstacle, requires an approach with full flaps,
because this allows a steeper profile and a slower approach speed and makes it easier to control
the touchdown point.
The purpose of a short field landing is that we should only use minimum runway for touchdown
and landing roll.
To achieve this we must use an aim point slightly short or at the very beginning of the runway,
normally the runway threshold or the runway numbers, where we have to be in the position to
start a round out. On short final the speed should be reduced to VREF for minimum floating
overhead the runway during flare.
Short field landings require the pilot to fly the aircraft in one of its more critical performance
envelopes while close to the ground and to land within a confined area. A short field landing
requires to lower the nose wheel immediately after the touch down and to apply the brakes
smoothly to stop the airplane with minimum ground roll.
The popular assumption is that a lower, shallower approach will give better results. In reality,
a normal (or slightly steeper) sliding path gives a more consistent performance.
Caution
Do not touch with brakes applied, since this may cause immediate tire failure!
The traffic circuit procedures stay the same as for normal landings.
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2.7.10 Soft Field Landings
Touchdown on a soft or rough field should be performed at the lowest possible airspeed with a
nose high pitch attitude. Therefore full flaps should be used for the approach and landing.
In low wing airplanes the flaps, ailerons and wings may be damaged from mud, rocks or ice
thrown up by the wheels.
After touchdown the nose wheel must be held clear of the surface as long as possible. After the
nose wheel has been lowered to the ground the stick/yoke has to be held in the full back position
for landing roll and all taxi operations
Braking should be used with caution to prevent excessive loads on the nose gear. On soft
surfaces braking is usually not required due to the high roll drag.
When performing soft field landings, extra caution should be maintained because of the unknown
condition of the runway surface. Whilst taxiing often a soft field landing try to keep the aircraft
moving until on its parking slot. On soft ground the aircraft will require more power to taxy and
will often get stuck when stopped.
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2.8 Go Around
During your pilot training you will be taught the ability to make safe decisions. A safe decision
during a poorly executed approach is eventually to terminate that approach and execute a go
around. Do not try to prove to anybody that you are able to land out of any poorly executed
approach.
There are different reasons for a go around (G/A), i.e. poor stabilization during final approach,
traffic situation, blocked runway, no Final Check, any stalled situation, any of the previously
discussed situations, being ordered to execute a G/A, etc, or if it just feels wrong.
In this discussion, only the procedures and techniques for a G/A from short final or during the
landing phase will be considered. In any case a G/A is a normal maneuver leading to a safe flight
condition.
A G/A from other positions in the circuit, i.e. base leg, turn to final, may require some alterations
of the described G/A procedure.
Start the maneuver with the announcement
“GO AROUND“
Set G/A Power and rotate to Take Off attitude
Set and check Throttle(s) full forward
Set and check Flaps T/O if a Flaps down approach was performed
Accelerate to initial climb speed with Flaps set for T/O or climb speed with Flaps UP as
applicable. Confirm positive rate of climb and select Gear UP (according to a/c type)
Continue as depicted in the T/O profile Advise ATC with correct RT phraseology
“LY-BAA – GOING AROUND”
In any case try to stay in your circuit and follow the normal ground track as possible.
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Caution
If the Go-Around was initiated in low altitude at a speed below VREF it might be
possible that the aircraft cannot be held off the ground.
Do not pitch up beyond normal takeoff pitch. This may result in a tail touch down or
in a stalled situation close to the ground!
Note
If a go around was initiated out of a flaps up approach leave the flaps in up!
It may be necessary to keep an object on the runway in sight. In this case, fly slightly to the right
side of the runway unless instructed otherwise (observe BAA bank limitations). Cross-check
airspeed and pitch attitude. Unless instructed otherwise, do not turn crosswind until past the
departure end of the runway and passing 500 ft AAL. Continue with Normal Traffic Circuit or
Departure Procedures.
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2.9 After Landing

During the entire landing roll continue to apply crosswind control inputs to avoid a wing up
movement. During the landing roll stay on the runway center line until intercepting a yellow taxi
line to vacate the runway. There will be no After Landing Checklist items performed by student
pilots as long as the airplane is moved on the runway.
Only exception: When the runway has to be used for taxi operations, like back track, the items
may be performed at taxi speeds below 15 kts.
Apply aero dynamic braking by application of back stick/yoke inputs. This will help as well to
avoid vibrations due to too much weight on the nose wheel. Use brakes as necessary to slow
down to safe taxi speed. Do not taxi off the runway at high speeds. The brakes may be checked
once for operation. Use as much runway as necessary to slow down the airplane with minimum
use of brakes.
Being asked by ATC to expedite vacating the runway, is not a clearance to exceed aircraft and
BAA limitations. The responsibility for the safe aircraft control stays with the pilot.
2.9.1 Taxi
After vacating the runway the airplane may be stopped, after the stop-hold-line is passed by the
entire airplane, to perform the After Landing items and checklist.
This is mandatory for students in the VFR phase until cleared by their instructor to perform the
items while taxiing.
Nevertheless the aircraft should be taxied on the yellow taxi line during all taxi operations for
ground safety. Reading a checklist during taxi is not permitted.
At wind conditions with more than 10 kts crosswind control inputs shall be applied during taxi.
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2.9.2 Parking
When you maneuver the aircraft into a parking slot use extreme caution and look out to stay clear
of other airplanes, persons, vehicles and other obstacles.
If in doubt about the available space for safe operation, stop taxiing and shut down the engine at
that present position. After shutdown with battery off and ignition key removed pull/push the
airplane into the parking position.
Do not provide marshalling signs to other crews! This is not the duty you are trained for!
2.9.3 Engine Shutdown
Perform the Engine shutdown check list as published (read and do list).
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2.10 Post Flight

After completion of the Parking checklist refuel the aircraft according to BAA refueling
procedures. Do not work on the aircraft or move control surfaces while the aircraft is refueled!
The instructor pilot is responsible to complete the aircraft and technical logbook during dual
missions. During solo missions the student pilot is responsible for the entries in the aircraft
logbook. Entries in the technical logbook will only be performed by instructor pilots!
Solo students have to inform the solo watch, dispatcher, maintenance or at least any other
available instructor about a technical problem.
Any entry into the technical logbook must be reported as soon as possible to the next crew,
maintenance and dispatch or CFI. The aircraft shall be left in a clean and tidy condition, with seat
belts latched in their locked position.
Any information about the aircraft, even if it does not have to be entered in the technical
logbook, shall be at least passed forward to the next crew.
Whenever the aircraft is left unattended, the aircraft has to be secured by use of tie downs, the
pitot boom has to be covered and the cockpit has to be fully closed.
In heavy or gusty wind conditions additionally the control locks have to be installed.
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Chapter 3 Airwork and Maneuvers

The Flight Circuit or graphical descriptions of BAA procedures are not illustrated in this chapter.
They are appendices of the Flight Training Manual.
Nevertheless, the relevant Flight Circuit should be available for reference during the study of this
chapter.
Note
The following chapter requires fundamental knowledge and understanding of the Pitch and
Power concept and the principle of Basic Aircraft Control as discussed in this training manual.
The expressions estimating and calculating, if used in this chapter, shall express the application
of the Pitch and Power concept, the techniques, and the rules of thumb introduced in this training
manual.
3.1 General Information
The airwork practiced during the training assists in achieving the following goals:
 The handling characteristics of the different airplanes shall be understood.
 The coordination of all possible control inputs in all kinds of operations shall be practiced to
achieve a smooth and coordinated flying.
 The pitch and power concept shall be understood and practiced.
 The capability of integrated flying shall be achieved. That means that the student shall
become able to achieve desired attitudes and parameters by use of a combination of outside
references (VMC) and/or instrument indications (VMC and IMC).
 The ability that all AFM/POH limitations shall be observed at all times.
 The ability to recognize a trend towards or an actual dangerous flight conditions as they
develop and to be able to recover those to safe flight conditions.
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The air work maneuvers described in this chapter start from very basic maneuvers up to complex
maneuvers. They will be flown in VFR and IFR training, with single engine and multi engine
airplanes. They will be a part throughout the entire life as a pilot.
The tolerances allowed will get smaller and smaller as training progresses and flying skills
develop.
For VFR training use mainly outside visual references for all maneuvers and cross check with
instruments. The natural horizon is a lot more precise than the attitude indicator.
For IFR training the maneuvers may be flown in VMC and IMC, with or without hood,
depending on the stage and purpose of training. For IFR training in actual or simulated IMC the
references used for the maneuvers will be purely instruments. The maneuvers may be performed
as well in simulated partial panel conditions.
All airwork maneuvers must be performed and completed at or above the respective Minimum
Safe Altitude. If the pilot detects the altitude been descended below the MSA during the
maneuver, an immediate corrective action or termination of the maneuver should be initiated.
3.2 Air work Preparation
All BAA maneuvers shall be performed according to FCTM in designated training areas or along
a route segment if granted by ATC.
When entering a training area or when requesting air work, establish and/or request a safe
altitude block of at least +/- 500 ft of the intended air work altitude.
For a better parameter control select an air work altitude at 1000s or 500s and initial headings of
North, South, East and West.
WARNING
Although the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) for air work is 2000 ft AGL full stall maneuvers must be
performed at altitudes above 3000 ft AGL and only with an instructor and clear visible horizon.
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Clearing Turns:
 Before performing any type of air work maneuver, perform the clearing turns.
 Normally they consist of two 90° medium bank turns, right or left, then back to the original
heading, or one 180° clearing turn with a short roll out after 90°, where terrain ahead
dictates course reversal.
 Clearing turns may also be performed in other combinations when turning for a visual
reference.
 Check the area carefully, especially into direction of the clearing turn and below. Steep turns
are not sufficient for clearing turns.
 Clearing turns however may be used for area orientation and management.
 The purpose of clearing turns is to check the airspace and not to perform a perfect turn!
During IFR operation in VMC the student will at most times wear the hood or IFR goggles.
Nevertheless the student and instructor shall check the airspace as well during clearing turns.
Flight Safety overrides training!
Airwork Preparation:
Before performing any type of airwork maneuver the PF announces:
"HASELL CHECK"
and then performs the following items with a call out:
 Height Sufficient AGL
 Airframe Configured
 Security Straps and loose articles
 Engine No annunciations
 Location Airfields, built up areas, clouds etc.
 Lookout Clearing turns
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Note
The PF is responsible for setting Training Cruise power. Since airspeed is primary value
(according to maneuver profile) and prop control is full forward (RPM) parameter, power setting
will vary with current conditions (temperature, gross weight, fuel status etc.).
Once you have cleared an area, stay in it. Do not fly several maneuvers in one direction.
Performing several different air work maneuvers, the PF may announce, the changed items of
HASELL prior to each maneuver.
For example “Airframe now approach configuration.”
In uncontrolled airspace clearing turns, however, must be performed before each maneuver.
Before you start a maneuver select a visual reference and a reference heading, check and
announce the entry parameter (altitude, speed, heading/reference), and review briefly the
upcoming procedure. Don’t rush into a maneuver!
For stalls it is mandatory to brief the stage of stall or a speed when the recovery will be initiated.
A maneuver is complete when the aircraft is stabilized again on entry altitude, desired heading
and training speed.
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Air Experience
Aim:
To introduce the student to the physical sensations of flight.
Essential Background Knowledge
Explain:
a) The purpose of the flight;
b) That there will be no formal instruction, but if the student wishes to handle the controls, an opportunity
will be given when a suitable occasion arises;
c) Introduce the importance of keeping a good look-out and reporting the position of other aircraft by the
clock-code method. The student should point out any aircraft seen.
Exercise plan (Instruction and student practice)
1. Carry out a short familiarization flight. The flight should be made in the vicinity of the aerodrome to one
of the training zones.
2. During flight check if student‘s seating position and seat-belts adjustment are comfortable.
3. Point out the main easily identifiable local landmarks. After the student has settled down and is taking an
active interest, his attention can be drawn to indications of altitude, airspeed, etc. which may be of interest.
4. Hold the students attention throughout the flight by referring to instruments, checks and procedures where
applicable.
5. Introduce student to aircraft's intercom and check that headset is adjusted comfortably.
Advice to Instructors
1. Avoid going into detail which may confuse the student.
2. Emphasize that this is a new experience. Procedures which seem very complicated at this time will
become easier with continued exposure and use.
3. Although it is not intended that there be any serious instruction at this time, the student should be allowed
to handle the controls for some of the simple exercises.
4. It is desirable on this flight that turbulent conditions, sudden attitude changes, steep angles of bank, etc.,
should be avoided as much as possible so as not to upset the student.
5. This exercise should be enjoyable and leave the student with a sense of accomplishment.
6. If the student shows signs of becoming airsick, the flight should be discontinued and if he is sick, do not
reveal any annoyance or show undue concern, but make light of the incident and assure him that his
behaviour is not uncommon in the early stages.
7. Have airsickness bag at hand in case the student feels sick.
Airmanship
Common errors
Private Pilot completion standards (Practical Test Standards)
Commercial Pilot completion standards (Practical Test Standards)
References
Things to Remember
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Aircraft Familiarization and Preparation for Flight

Aim:
To familiarize the student with the purpose of pertinent documents, the aircraft, and how to determine
if it is ready for flight.
Documents, which should be carried on board of an aircraft. Identify and explain the use of:
a) Certificate of Registration;
b) Certificate of Airworthiness and Airworthiness Review Certificate;
c) Aircraft Radio Station Licence;
d) Aircraft Weight and Balance Charts;
e) Aviation Insurance Policy;
f) Aircraft Flight Manual;
g) Aircraft Journey Logbook - how to determine that the aircraft is airworthy.
1) Main aircraft systems.
2) Cockpit layout. Explain:
a) Control operation and response;
b) Ancillary control operation;
c) Aircraft instruments;
d) Emergency exits and equipment.
3) Explain the procedure to carry out, and the importance of, the external pre-flight inspection, and
emphasize:
a) Determination of sufficient fuel and oil for intended flight, security of fuel and oil tank caps;
b) Procedure for inspection of the aircraft for serviceability, reasons for the inspection, items that should
be inspected, and how defects are detected;
c) Importance of the proper loading and securing of baggage and equipment;
d) Proper positioning of aircraft to prevent damage or nuisance from slipstream when engine is started
and during run-up.
4) Explain the proper use of check-lists. Importance of using the appropriate checklist.
5) Demonstrate:
a) Check of cockpit;
b) Proper arranging and securing of essential materials and equipment in the cockpit;
c) Proper use/adjustment of such cockpit items as safety belts, shoulder harnesses, rudder pedals, and
seats;
d) Use of parking brakes;
e) Pre-starting checks, adjustment of engine controls during start;
f) Starting engine, safety considerations, prevention of airplane movement during and after start.
g) Engine warm-up and how to determine when the engine is ready for run-up;
h) Run-up;
i) Pre-take-off checks;
j) How to check the ELT and how to turn it off after inadvertent activation.
6) Explain the precautions to be followed when:
a) Parking on various surfaces, e.g. ice;
b) Brakes are overheated;
c) Removing of ice and frost.
7) Use of external power.
8) Explain the need to wear proper clothing and footwear for existing and anticipated weather conditions.
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Do not make this a complex exercise. The final level of competency should not be expected in the initial
stages, rather the student should demonstrate continuous improvement as the course progresses.
The instructor must show by example that this exercise plays a most important part in achieving safe
flying practices.
Airmanship
Common errors
1. Failure to use or the improper use of checklist.
2. Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection.
3. Inability to recognize discrepancies.
4. Failure to assure servicing with the proper fuel and oil.
5. Failure to place and secure essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight.
6. Failure to maintain accurate records essential to the progress of the flight.
7. Improper adjustment of equipment and controls.
8. Excessively high RPM after starting.
9. Improper preheat of the engine during severe cold weather conditions.
10. Failure to assure proper clearance of the propeller.
Preflight Inspection
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to preflight inspection. This shall include which items must
be inspected, the reasons for checking each item, and how to detect possible defects.
2. Inspects the airplane with reference to an appropriate checklist.
3. Verifies the airplane is in condition for safe flight.
Cockpit Management
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to cockpit management procedures.
2. Ensures all loose items in the cockpit and cabin are secured.
3. Organizes material and equipment in an efficient manner so they are readily available.
4. Briefs occupants on the use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, doors, and emergency procedures.
Engine Starting
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to recommended engine starting procedures. This shall
include the use of an external power source, hand propping safety, and starting under various
atmospheric conditions.
2. Positions the airplane properly considering structures, surface conditions, other aircraft, and the safety
of nearby persons and property.
3. Utilizes the appropriate checklist for starting procedure.
The same as Private Pilot.
References
Aircraft Flight Manual, checklists.
Things to Remember
Preflight inspection - done before every flight.
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Effects of Controls
Aim:
This exercise is an introduction to the aircraft’s controls, their method of operation and how these
controls affect the aircraft during flight. The purpose is to give the student a good understanding of the
principles involved in the use of the basic flight controls.
To teach the student:
1) The range of attitudes through which the aircraft will normally be operated.
2) How the movements necessary to achieve and maintain the desired attitudes of flight are produced
and controlled.
1. The planes and axes of movement.
2. The function and initial effect of the three primary flying controls:
a) Elevator (stabilator) – control the aircraft in pitch and airspeed changes.
b) Ailerons – control the aircraft in roll.
c) Rudder – control the aircraft in yaw.
3. The further effects of the three primary flying controls:
a) Ailerons – continuous roll, slip, yaw, resulting in spiral dive.
b) Rudder – continuous yaw, skid, roll, turn, resulting in spiral dive.
c) Elevator – none.
4. The effect of differing airspeeds - the feel and effect of controls at slower and faster airspeed..
5. The effect of propeller slipstream - the feel and effect of controls at the increased and reduced power
settings.
6. The effect of differing power settings - aircraft reaction to increased and reduced power.
7. The trimming controls.
8. The effect of flaps - changes in pitch and airspeed.
9. Operation of carburettor heat, cockpit heating and ventilation controls.
1) Establish and define cruise attitude (point out reference datum):
a) Position of nose and wings relative to the horizon;
b) Power setting used (1700-1800 RPM);
c) The airspeed for level flight in this configuration (80 kt).
2) Lookout (before beginning every manoeuvre).
3) Demonstration of the initial effect of elevator:
a) Apply back pressure to the yoke – the aircraft pitches nose-up, the nose rises above the horizon;
b) Return the yoke to the neutral position – the pitching stops;
c) Regain cruise attitude;
d) Apply forward pressure to the yoke – the aircraft pitches nose-down, the nose falls below the
horizon;
e) Return the yoke to the neutral position – the pitching stops;
f) Regain cruise attitude.
NOTE: There is little actual movement of the control column required, it is more a matter of applying
forward or rearward pressure. The aircraft responds to how far and how fast you move the controls.
4) Demonstration of the initial effect of ailerons:
a) Yoke is moved to the left – the aircraft rolls to the left;
b) Centralise the yoke to stop the roll;
c) Reverse the yoke movement to level wings and regain cruise attitude;
d) Yoke is moved to the right – the aircraft rolls to the right;
e) Centralise the yoke to stop the roll;
f) Reverse the yoke movement to level wings and regain cruise attitude.
5) Demonstration of the initial effect of rudder:
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ATO FCTM FCTM-82
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
a) Choose a prominent landmark ahead;
b) Apply left rudder – the aircraft yaws to the left;
c) Centralise the rudder to stop the yaw;
d) Apply right rudder – the aircraft yaws to the right;
e) Centralise the rudder to stop the yaw and regain cruise attitude.
6) Demonstration of the further effect of ailerons:
a) From the cruise attitude roll the aircraft to a banked attitude using the ailerons;
b) Centralise the ailerons to stop the roll;
c) Without any use of rudder, the aircraft yaws towards the lower wing;
d) The spiral descent gradually steepens with increasing roll, yaw and loss of height;
e) Level the wings and regain the normal attitude.
7) Demonstration of the further effect of rudder:
a) From the cruise attitude apply left rudder – the aircraft yaws to the left;
b) Without any movement of the yoke, the aircraft rolls in the same direction as the yaw;
c) The spiral descent gradually steepens with increasing yaw, roll and loss of height;
d) Level the wings and regain the normal attitude.
8) Demonstration of the effect of differing airspeed:
a) At the normal cruising airspeed assess the feel and effect of the three primary flying controls;
b) Without altering the power setting, reduce the airspeed by pitching the aircraft to a nose-up attitude;
c) At this slower airspeed assess the feel and effect of the three primary flying controls – they will be
less effective and larger control movements are needed;
d) Increase the airspeed without changing the power setting by pitching the aircraft to a nose-down
attitude;
e) At this faster airspeed assess the feel and effect of the three primary flying controls – they will be
very effective and only small control movements are needed;
f) Back at normal cruising airspeed, again reassess the normal feel and effectiveness of the three
primary flying controls.
9) Demonstration of the effect of propeller slipstream:
a) At the normal cruising power setting and airspeed, note the feel and effect of the three primary flying
controls;
b) Increase the power, but maintain the normal cruising airspeed;
c) Note the more effective feel of the rudder and elevator. The ailerons feel the same as they are outside
the slipstream;
d) Reduce the power, but maintain the normal cruising airspeed;
e) Note that the rudder and elevator are less effective. The ailerons retain the same effectiveness.
10) Demonstration of the effect of differing power settings:
a) With the normal cruise power setting and at the normal attitude, fly a properly trimmed aircraft
‘hands-off’;
b) Increase the power without any other yoke movements – the aircraft pitches nose-up and yaws to the
left;
c) The power is returned to the normal cruise setting and the controls are used to return to the normal
attitude;
d) Reduce the power without any other yoke movements – the aircraft pitches nose-down and yaws to
the right;
e) The power is returned to the normal cruise setting and the controls are used to return to the normal
attitude.
11) Demonstration of the effect of flaps:
a) At the normal attitude check the airspeed indicator that the airspeed is below VFE;
b) Lower the T/O stage of flap – note change in pitch attitude, airspeed will reduce;
c) Lower full flap – note further change in pitch attitude and airspeed will reduce further;
d) Raise the flap – airspeed will increase and the aircraft should pitch back to the normal attitude.
12) Demonstration of the effect of elevator trim:

a) With the normal cruise power setting and at the normal attitude - properly trimmed aircraft maintains
its attitude without the need to use undue control force;
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ATO FCTM FCTM-83
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
b) Use the trimmer to trim the aircraft nose-down – feel the need of increasingly strong pull on the yoke
to maintain the attitude;
c) By trimming nose-up, remove the pressure on the yoke;
d) Trim the aircraft further nose-up – feel an increasingly strong push on the yoke required to maintain
the same attitude;
e) By trimming nose-down, remove the pressure on the yoke.
13) Demonstrate the operation of carburettor heat, cockpit heating and ventilation controls.
1. As this is to be the student's first flight training exercise, spare no pains to explain everything carefully.
Emphasis is necessary since all future flight training exercises are based around the basic principles of
this exercise.
2. Emphasize that all aircraft attitudes are relative to the horizon, while movements are relative to the pilot
and the aircraft.
3. Keep all movements slow and attitude changes small, increasing only when it is obvious that this will not
distress the student.
4. Stress the importance of a complete and continuous look-around.
5. Explain to the student that you will often be referring to the nose of the aircraft to judge its attitude relative
to the horizon.
6. In this and future exercises, it is essential that a routine be followed when control of the aircraft is
exchanged between the instructor and student.
7. Indicate to the student that co-ordination will be achieved progressively with each successive air exercise.
8. Avoid a tendency to stretch out this exercise. Keep it simple, but meaningful.
Airmanship
Handing over/taking over control.
Following through.
Lookout.
VFE.
Common errors

Exhibits basic knowledge of flight control usage.
References
Aircraft Flight Manual
Things to Remember
Flaps are normally operated in stages, not in a continuous movement.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-84
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Straight and Level

Aim:
1) To fly straight and level (at a constant altitude in a constant direction) at a specified airspeed.
2) To use the combination of attitude and power to achieve performance.
1) The four forces acting on an aircraft in flight, equilibrium.
2) Lift and factors affecting lift.
3) Drag and factors affecting drag.
4) Stability in pitch.
5) Stability in roll.
6) Stability in yaw.
7) Power + Attitude = Performance.
8) Slow safe cruise (10 knots above stalling speed).
9) Maximum range airspeed.
10) Maximum endurance airspeed.
11) Flight at critically high airspeed.
12) Look-out - collision geometry and scanning techniques.
1) Scanning techniques: demonstrate correct method of searching the sky for other traffic. Lookout before
every manoeuvre.
2) Straight flight to maintain constant level (Power – Attitude – Trim):
a) Set the normal cruising power (1700-1800 RPM);
b) Use the elevator to select level attitude;
c) Holding the yoke in selected position, relieve with trimmer any force on it;
d) Cross-check altimeter and airspeed indicator;
e) Make minor corrections as necessary.
3) Straight and level to maintain constant direction:
a) Set the normal cruise attitude, keep wings level;
b) Use a distant landmark to maintain constant direction;
c) Cross-check the flight instruments – heading indicator, altimeter and airspeed indicator;
d) Make minor corrections as necessary.
4) Straight and level to maintain balanced flight:
a) Set the normal cruise attitude, keep wings level;
b) Cross-check turn coordinator – the balance ball should be in the centre;
c) If the ball is displaced, the same side rudder is required until the ball is centered (tread on the ball).
5) Straight and level at an increased airspeed:
a) Establish straight and level flight;
b) Increase power, compensate for the pitch and yaw changes;
c) As airspeed increases, the nose attitude must be progressively lowered to maintain level flight until
the target airspeed is attained (100 kt);
d) Trim to relieve any control forces.
e) Cross-check altimeter and airspeed indicator;
f) Make minor corrections as necessary.
6) Straight and level at a decreased airspeed:
b) Reduce power, compensate for the pitch and yaw changes;
c) As airspeed decreases, the nose attitude must be progressively raised to maintain level flight until the
target airspeed is attained (60 kt);
d) Trim to relieve any control forces;
7) Straight and level in approach configuration (flaps T/O, speed 70 kt):
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ATO FCTM FCTM-85
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
b) Reduce power (1500 RPM), compensate for the pitch and yaw changes;
c) When airspeed is below VFE, lower T/O flaps;
d) Adjust the nose attitude to attain the airspeed (70 kt);
d) Adjust power to maintain the target airspeed, trim to relieve any control forces;
8) Straight and level slow safe cruise:
b) Reduce power, compensate for the pitch and yaw changes;
c) When airspeed is below VFE, lower T/O flaps;
d) Adjust the nose attitude to attain the target airspeed (50 kt);
d) Adjust power to maintain the target airspeed, trim to relieve any control forces;
1) Every airspeed will have a different attitude to hold level flight. Instructors should initially develop the
sight picture for straight and level flight at a cruise speed and give the student practice obtaining this sight
picture. As the student gains proficiency in this attitude, new airspeeds should be introduced that will
cause the pilot to make attitude and power changes to maintain level flight.
2) Level Flight is defined as flight at a constant altitude and airspeed, and should not be confused with
simply keeping the wings level with the horizon.
3) Emphasize the proper use of trim between each attitude change (Power, Attitude, Trim). Students should
be taught to trim the airplane by feeling the pressures in the yoke, not by releasing the control wheel to
see what happens. It is the development of the pilots sense of the incorrect pressures that must be
recognized. This allows the pilot to then eliminate the undesired control pressures.
4) Give the student ample time to practise this exercise. It helps to produce co-ordination and mastery over
the aircraft.
5) Introduction to the magnetic compass and heading indicator in this exercise, and review and practice in
subsequent exercises, will ensure proficiency in maintaining accurate headings prior to the cross-country
exercises.
Airmanship
VFE.
Location – local area landmarks, developing mental picture of position of the aircraft in relation to the
airfield.
Lookout.
Common errors
1. Attempting to use improper reference points on the airplane to establish attitude.
2. Attempting to establish/to correct attitude using flight instruments rather than outside visual reference.
3. Attempting to maintain direction using only ruder control.
4. Habitually flying with one wing low.
5. “Chasing” the flight instruments rather than adhering to the principles of attitude flying.
6. Overly tight grip on the flight controls resulting in over control and lack of feel.
7. Pushing or pulling on the flight controls rather than exerting pressure against the airstream.
8. Improper scanning and/or devoting insufficient time to outside visual reference. (Head in the cockpit).
9. Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) reference point.
10. Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.
11. Failure to make timely/measured control inputs when deviations are detected.
12. Inadequate attention to sensor inputs in developing feel for the airplane.
13. Forgetting the location of preselected reference points on subsequent flights.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-86
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING

1. Exhibits basic knowledge of flight control usage.
2. Maintains a definite heading +/-10°.
3. Maintains a definite altitude +/-150 feet.
4. Uses power setting to maintain airspeed +/-15 knots.
5. Trims for level flight.
6. Makes smooth and coordinated control adjustments.
The same as Private Pilot except:
1. Maintains a definite altitude +/-100 feet.
2. Uses power setting to maintain airspeed +/-10 knots.
References
Things to Remember
Power – Attitude – Trim.
TRIM…. TRIM… TRIM……
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ATO FCTM FCTM-87
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Climbing
Aim:
1) Climbing:
a) At recommended normal climb speed;
b) At recommended best rate of climb speed;
c) At recommended best angle of climb speed;
d) At various airspeeds - en route climbs.
2) Levelling off at specified altitude.
1) Forces in the climb.
2) The best rate of climb airspeed.
3) The effect of flap.
4) Effect of altitude.
5) Effect of weight.
6) The best angle of climb airspeed.
7) The cruise climb.
8) Effect of wind.
9) Engine considerations.
10) Where to find recommended climb airspeeds in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
1) Lookout before beginning the climb especially ahead and above. Choose an outside reference to monitor
direction (cloud or position of the sun could be used);
2) Entering the climb:
a) Set full power (anticipate the effect of yaw) and use the rudder to stay in balance;
b) Pitch up to the climbing attitude;
c) Trim to relieve any control forces.
NOTE. Do not ‘chase’ the airspeed. After selecting a pitch attitude allow the airspeed some seconds to
settle before making a further adjustment.
3) Maintaining the climb:
a) Maintain climb airspeed through the nose attitude;
b) Maintain wings level, cross-check outside reference and heading indicator;
c) Maintain balanced flight, cross-check the balance ball;
d) Monitor the engine temperatures and pressures;
e) Monitor the altimeter to anticipate required altitude.
4) Levelling off:
a) Anticipate required altitude by about 50-100 feet;
b) Lower the nose to the straight and level attitude;
c) As airspeed reaches normal cruise, reduce power to normal setting;
d) Maintain balance and trim to relieve any control forces;
e) Cross-check altimeter and airspeed indicator, make minor corrections as necessary to maintain
straight and level flight.
5) Demonstration of the effect of flap:
a) In the established climb, note the nose attitude and rate of climb;
b) Check the airspeed within flap operating range, lower T/O stage of flap;
c) Pitch nose down to maintain climb airspeed, trim;
d) Note the lower nose attitude and reduced rate of climb;
e) Lower full flap, pitch nose down to maintain airspeed, note further reduced rate of climb;
f) Raise flaps in stages. To maintain airspeed pitch nose up, note improved rate of climb.
6) Demonstration of best angle of climb:
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ATO FCTM FCTM-88
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
a) Set full power, pitch up nose to higher attitude to maintain best angle of climb speed (Power –
Attitude – Trim);
b) The higher nose attitude and slower airspeed will require more accurate pitch control;
c) Note the rate of climb is less than in a normal climb, but the angle of climb is steeper.
7) Demonstration of cruise climb:
a) Set full power, maintain cruise airspeed (Power – Attitude – Trim);
b) Nose attitude is only slightly higher than for straight and level flight;
c) Note normal cruising airspeed, better view ahead and reduced rate of climb.
8) Demonstrate reduced climb performance with carburettor heat applied.
1) This is a progressive exercise, and you don’t necessarily need to teach all aspects of climbing in one
lesson.
2) Many accidents can be attributed to poor climb techniques when close to the ground. Monitor the student
carefully and correct bad habits before they are entrenched.
3) One of the major faults a student can develop in a climb can be keeping the right wing low to prevent a
yaw to the left. Use rudder to prevent yaw.
Airmanship
Lookout.
Engine considerations.
VFE.
Common errors
1. Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by referencing the airspeed indicator, resulting in ‘chasing’ the
airspeed.
2. Applying elevator pressure too aggressively, resulting in an excessive climb angle.
3. Applying elevator pressure too aggressively during level-off resulting in negative ‘G’ forces.
4. Allowing the airplane to yaw in straight climbs, usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.
5. Fixation on the nose during straight climbs, resulting in climbing with one wing low.
6. Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant during climbing turns.
7. Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during climbing turns.
8. Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.
1. Applies proper power and pitch for controlled climb.
2. Levels off at new altitude +/-100 feet.
3. For straight climbs, maintains heading +/-10°.
4. For turning climbs, does not exceed bank angle of 20°.
5. Maintains coordination at all times.
References
Things to Remember
When levelling off from the climb: Attitude – Speed – Power – Trim. Allow the airplane to accelerate to the
desired speed and then reduce power to maintain the airspeed. This will help maintain level flight and teach
the student to trim, initially, when the airspeed is stable.
TRIM…. TRIM… TRIM….
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ATO FCTM FCTM-89
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Descending
Aim:
1) Descending at a specified airspeed, using a variety of power settings and configurations to a
selected altitude;
2) Levelling off at specified altitude.
1) The forces in the descent.
2) Gliding for best range.
3) Effect of wind.
4) Effect of weight.
5) Gliding for best endurance.
6) Effect of flap (steeper the descent, reduced stall speed).
7) Effect of power.
8) Sideslipping.
9) The cruise descent.
10) Where to find determined descent airspeeds in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
11) The reasons why and the techniques for warming the engine during a prolonged power-off descent,
particularly in cold weather.
12) The use of the carburettor heat in a power-off descent.
1) Lookout before beginning the descent especially ahead and below. Select an aiming point ahead;
2) Entering the glide descent:
a) Power – select carburettor heat ON, reduce power to idle (anticipate pitch down and yaw) and use the
rudder to stay in balance;
b) Attitude - pitch down to the glide attitude, establish glide airspeed (70 kt);
c) Trim – trim to relieve any control forces.
NOTE. Do not ‘chase’ the airspeed. After selecting a pitch attitude allow the airspeed some seconds to
settle before making a further adjustment.
3) Maintaining the descent:
a) Maintain airspeed with attitude;
b) Check external landmarks and heading indicator to maintain direction;
c) Maintain balanced flight, cross-check the balance ball;
d) Monitor the altimeter to anticipate required altitude.
NOTE. Remember to warm the engine at regular intervals.
4) Levelling off:
a) Anticipate required altitude by approximately 100 feet;
b) Set carburettor heat to OFF, increase power to normal cruise power setting (anticipate pitch and
yaw);
c) Pitch up to the normal straight and level attitude;
d) Establish normal cruise airspeed, trim to remove control loads;
e) Make minor corrections as necessary.
5) Demonstration of the effect of flap:
a) In the established descent, note the nose attitude and rate of descent;
b) Check the airspeed is within flap operating range, lower T/O stage of flap;
c) Pitch nose down to maintain airspeed, trim;
d) Note the lower nose attitude and increased rate of descent;
e) Lower full flap, pitch nose down to maintain airspeed, note further increased rate of descent;
f) Raise flaps in stages to return to the normal glide.
6) Demonstration of the effect of power:
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ATO FCTM FCTM-90
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
a) In the established descent, note the nose attitude and rate of descent;
b) Increase power to about 1200 RPM (anticipate yaw and pitch changes);
c) Pitch nose up to maintain airspeed, trim;
d) Note the higher nose attitude and reduced rate of descent;
e) Increase power further to about 1500 RPM, pitch nose up further to maintain airspeed, rate of descent
reduces further;
f) Reduce power to idle to return to the normal glide and adjust attitude.
SUMMARY: When maintaining a constant airspeed in the descent, power is used to control the rate of
descent.
7) Demonstration of sideslipping:
a) In the standard glide descent, note airspeed and rate of descent;
b) Apply about 20° angle of bank;
c) Apply opposite rudder to prevent the aircraft turning;
d) Make minor corrections to maintain airspeed, angle of bank and direction, note increased rate of
descent;
e) Centralise the controls to return to the normal descent.
8) Demonstration of cruise descent:
a) From cruise flight reduce power to 1500 RPM (200-300 RPM from the normal cruise setting);
b) Pitch down to maintain the cruise airspeed;
c) Use the trimmer to relieve any control loads;
d) Make minor corrections to maintain cruise airspeed and rate of descent (500 ft/min);
e) Note the nose attitude is higher than in a glide and rate of descent is less.
1) This is a progressive exercise, and you don’t necessarily need to teach all aspects of descending in one
lesson.
2) Particular attention must be paid to maintaining engine temperature when descending in cold weather
conditions.
3) A sound knowledge of the principles and considerations of power-off descent is a necessary ingredient of
successful forced landings. Give the student ample practice at maintaining the correct airspeed/attitude to
ensure proficiency is achieved. Use every opportunity (e.g., when proceeding to and from the practice
area) to give practice in estimating how far the aircraft can glide under existing conditions.
4) The importance of correct use of carburettor heat during a descent should be emphasized.
Airmanship
Lookout.
Altimeter (QNH, QFE).
VFE.
Engine considerations – cooling, carburettor icing.
Common errors
1. Inadequate back-elevator control during glide entry resulting in too steep a glide.
2. Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide speed prior to lowering pitch attitude.
3. Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide solely by reference to flight instruments.
4. Inability to sense changes in airspeed through sound and feel.
5. Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed indicator).
6. Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying back-elevator pressure.
7. Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder action
as opposed to turns with power.
8. Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed.
9. Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from gliding turns.
10. Inadequate pitch control during recovery from straight glides.
11. Failure to maintain constant bank angle during gliding turns.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-91
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING

1. Levels off at new altitude +/-100 feet.
2. For straight descents, maintains heading +/-10°.
3. In the descending turns, does not exceed bank angle of 20°.
4. During cruise descent, maintains ~ 500 ft/min rate of descent.
References
Things to Remember
Start descent with reducing power first, not with lowering the nose of the aircraft.
TRIM…. TRIM… TRIM….
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ATO FCTM FCTM-92
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Slow flight
Aim:
1) to recognize the symptoms when approaching the slow flight speed range to avoid inadvertent
entry;
2) the proper flight technique necessary to achieve precise control of the aircraft while operating
within the slow flight speed range;
3) to control the aircraft safely at a slow airspeed whilst accelerating to faster airspeed, i.e. when
recovering from an unintentional loss of airspeed.
1) Definition of slow flight (5-10 knots faster than the stall speed, less than minimum power required
airspeed).
2) The forces during slow flight – the slower the airspeed, the greater the angle of attack required to produce
the same amount of lift.
3) Effect of controls during slow flight:
a) Diminishing response of flight controls;
b) Effect of flaps.
4) The period just after take-off and just before landing will require the use of slow flight skills.
1) Safety precautions: HELL check – Height, Engine, Location, Lookout (minimum altitude for exercise
2500 ft MSL).
2) Straight and level flight (constant altitude):
a) Reduce power, maintain balanced flight;
b) Pitch up to maintain level flight until target airspeed is reached; (50 kt)
c) Establish a slow flight attitude;
d) Point out:
- the decrease in airspeed and ensuing loss of altitude;
- that an increase in power and an adjustment of attitude is required to maintain altitude and selected
airspeed;
- control response while in slow flight;
- control of yaw to achieve co-ordinated flight;
e) Return to cruise flight.
3) Manoeuvring in slow flight – to maintain speed and altitude, be prepared to work the throttle and to
readjust the attitude as necessary:
a) to correct speed variations – if speed increases, raise the nose and reduce power, if speed decreases,
lower the nose and add power;
b) to correct height variations – if aeroplane climbs, reduce power and lower the nose, if aeroplane
sinks, add power and raise the nose.
4) Straight climb in the slow flight speed range (full power, 50 kt) and returning to normal climb.
5) Straight descent in the slow flight speed range (1200 rpm, 50 kt) and returning to cruise flight.
6) Slow Flight Turns – level (bank 30°, 50 kt), climbing (full power, bank 20°, 50 kt), descending (1200 rpm,
bank 20°, 50 kt).
7) Repeat slow flight air exercises demonstrating effect of flaps.
1) Slow flight is defined as flight in the speed range from below the speed for maximum endurance to just
above the stall speed. This must not be taught as only a level flight exercise. The student should develop
proficiency in climbing and descending in this speed range, as well as turning with an angle of bank of up
to 30° while flying level, 20° while climbing and descending.
2) In the initial stages of training the student should be given practice controlling the aircraft in the upper
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ATO FCTM FCTM-93
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
limits of the slow flight speed range. As more experience and proficiency is achieved, slow flight at
speeds down to and including the minimum controllable airspeed must be practised while in cruising,
take-off and landing configurations and in co-ordinated turns. Slow flight practice at minimum
controllable airspeed should be performed at airspeed just slightly above the stall, sufficient to permit
manoeuvring, but close enough to the stall to give the student the feel of sloppy controls and diminished
response to control movements. Simulate, at altitude, the worst possible conditions, e.g., recovery from a
high full flap landing bounce, or commencing a turn when loading and density altitude are critical.
3) Direction is an important consideration, and every effort should be made to control adverse yaw with
rudder.
4) During the initial demonstration of this exercise, a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet above terrain is
suggested.
5) Emphasis must be placed on the importance of a good look-out at all times.
6) Initially it is desirable that this exercise should be carried out in smooth air conditions. As experience is
accumulated, less than ideal conditions should be introduced.
7) Slow flight is not an exercise to be covered and forgotten. Statistics show that many accidents might have
been avoided if the pilot had better appreciation of this exercise i.e. inadvertent entry into "slow flight" is
an almost certain indication of an approaching stall. Therefore, it is most important that the air exercise
include a practical demonstration, at a safe altitude, of the flight manoeuvres which include the operation
of the aircraft in the critical lower limits of the slow flight speed range.
8) Slow flight is practised so that a student can learn to control an aircraft at low airspeeds. It helps develop a
"feel" for flying and enables the pilot to cope with manoeuvres which may be flown at critical speeds.
Emphasize the need for co-ordination and smooth handling of the controls to achieve the desired
performance.
9) Slow flight is not an operational exercise – except in the training syllabus you would not want to fly
deliberately so close to the stalling speed for any length of time.
Airmanship
Lookout.
HASELL checks – Height, Airframe, Security, Engine, Location, Lookout.
VFE.
Common errors
1. Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in altitude loss.
2. Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid reduction
in airspeed.
3. Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during turns.
4. Fixation on the airspeed indicator.
5. Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted.
6. Inadequate power management.
7. Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering during slow flight..
2. Accomplishes coordinated straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents with flap configurations
specified.
3. Divides attention between airplane control and orientation.
4. Maintains the specified altitude ±100 feet, specified heading ±10°; airspeed +10/−0 knots and specified
angle of bank ±10°.
1. Maintains the specified altitude ±50 feet, specified heading ±10°, airspeed +5/−0 knots and specified angle
of bank ±5°.
References
Things to Remember
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ATO FCTM FCTM-94
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Stalling
Aim:
To develop the pilot’s ability:
1) to recognize the symptoms of an approaching stall (by sound, sight and feel).
2) to recognize of the stall itself.
3) of taking prompt preventative or corrective action to recover from a stall.
1) The forces in a stall.
2) Control effectiveness during the stall.
3) Factors affecting stalling airspeed – flaps, power, altitude, load factor and manoeuvring, turning
flight, weight, centre of gravity position, wing contamination, turbulence.
4) Wing drop at the stall – the use of power, the use of flaps, unbalanced flight, turning flight.
5) Symptoms of the approaching stall (sight, sound, feel).
6) Symptoms of the stall.
7) The standard stall recovery (unstall the wings, level wings with ailerons, control direction with
rudder).
8) The secondary stall.
9) Flight situations where stalls may occur.
10) The recovery from the incipient stall (normally stall-warning activation, no need to pitch as far
nose-down to get the aircraft accelerating and the height loss may be virtually nil).
 Imminent stall: The first buffet or rapid decay of control effectiveness is experienced.
 Full stall: A sudden loss of control effectiveness occurs, excessive sink rate, or sudden nose pitch
down with full up elevator is experienced.
1) Complete safety precautions - cockpit checks, minimum altitude, continuous meaningful look-out,
avoidance of built-up areas (HASELL).
2) The stall with power in clean configuration:
a) After establishing the clean configuration (altitude not lower 2500 ft MSL), the airplane should be
slowed to VX speed;
b) When the desired speed is approached, the power should be set at take-off power while establishing a
climb attitude;
c) After the climb attitude is established, the nose is then brought smoothly upward until stall occurs;
d) Recovery from the stall should be accomplished by immediately reducing the angle of attack by
positively releasing back-elevator pressure and nose should be lowered as necessary to regain flying
speed and then raised to climb attitude.
e) Then, the airplane should be returned to the normal straight-and-level flight.
3) Practice the same way power-on stalls with the airplane with flaps in take-off configuration.
4) The stall with power off in landing configuration:
a) Select an altitude not lower 2500 ft MSL (to allow recovery above 1500 ft AGL);
b) Set carburetor heat ON, reduce power to idle;
c) When airspeed is within flap operating range, extend flaps incrementally until full flaps are obtained.
d) Maintaining heading establish the approach attitude. From final approach airspeed and attitude, reduce
power to idle.
e) Continue to increase pitch until stall.
e) Recover by simultaneously moving yoke forward and adding full power (set carburetor heat OFF). Use
the rudder to prevent yaw and level the wings if necessary. Check airspeed increasing and recover
gently to the climb pitch attitude (simulate go-around procedure).
f) With a positive rate of climb, select take-off flap setting and establish VY attitude.
h) Above the appropriate indicated airspeed, retract flaps. Resume normal cruise.
5) Practice power off stalls with the airplane with flaps in take-off configuration.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-95
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
1) This is a progressive exercise and should be practised frequently.
2) Stress that an aircraft can stall at practically any airspeed, in practically any attitude, or at any power
setting, and that recovery action initiated when the symptoms are noted will prevent the stall.
3) On recovery the nose should be lowered only sufficiently below the horizon to unstall the wings. Use
power to prevent excessive loss of altitude.
Airmanship
Aircraft loading and CG limitations.
HASELL checks.
Common errors
1. Inability to recognize an approaching stall condition through feel for the airplane.
2. Premature recovery.
3. Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator while excluding other cues.
4. Inadequate scanning resulting in an unintentional wing-low condition during entry.
5. Excessive back-elevator pressure resulting an exaggerated nose-up attitude during entry.
6. Inadequate rudder control.
7. Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery.
8. Excessive forward-elevator pressure during recovery resulting in negative load on the wings.
9. Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery.
10. Failure to maintain proper lookout.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to stalls.
2. Selects an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL.
3. Establishes the take-off configuration and sets determined power setting for power-on stalls.
4. Establishes a stabilized descent in the approach or landing configuration for power-off stalls.
5. Transitions smoothly from the take-off attitude to the pitch attitude that will induce a power-on stall.
6. Transitions smoothly from the approach or landing attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a power-off
stall.
7. Recognizes/recovers promptly after the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the AOA, increasing
power as appropriate, and leveling the wings to return to a straight-and-level flight attitude with a
minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane.
7. Retracts the flaps to the recommended setting after a positive rate of climb is established.
8. Accelerates to VX or VY speed before the final flap retraction; returns to the altitude, heading, and airspeed
specified.
References
Things to Remember
How this relates to a go around, and over rotation on takeoff .
How this relates to a full-stall landing.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-96
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Turning
Aim:
1) Gentle, medium level, climbing and descending turns;
2) Turns to selected headings.
1) Forces in the turn.
2) Use of the controls (ailerons deflections, adverse yaw, application of rudder, increased back pressure).
3) Effect of turning on stall speed (reduced margin above the stall speed).
4) The climbing turns (bank angle limitations, lower nose attitude, tendency of aircraft to increase angle of
bank).
5) The descending turns (bank angle limitations, lower nose attitude, tendency of aircraft to decrease angle of
bank).
6) Effect of offset seating.
7) Turning on to selected headings – using the heading indicator.
8) Angles of bank as applicable to light training aircraft:
a) Gentle - up to 15°;
b) Medium - 15° to 30°;
c) Steep - beyond 30°.
9) Slipping turns.
1) Entering the turn from cruise flight:
a) Use the ailerons to roll in the desired direction, with the appropriate rudder in the same direction;
b) When angle of bank is attained, centralise the yoke to stop the roll (with appropriately increased back
pressure) and reduce amount of rudder applied.
SUMMARY: Bank – Balance – Back pressure – Lookout.
2) Maintaining the turn:
a) Maintain angle of bank using the ailerons;
b) Maintain balance with the rudder pedals – reference to the balance ball;
c) Maintain level flight with the reference to nose attitude through back pressure on the yoke.
NOTE: Do not trim during the turn because it is a transient manoeuvre.
3) Returning to straight flight:
a) anticipate roll out by reference to an external landmark or heading indicator (start rolling out when
within half of the bank angle of the desired heading);
b) Use co-ordinated aileron and rudder to roll out of the turn;
c) As the wings level, release the back pressure to return to the level attitude;
d) Make minor corrections as necessary.
4) Practice turns with 15° - 30° bank angles and orbits with the same landmark for starting and finishing.
5) Demonstrate the climbing turn:
a) In an established climb, note the nose attitude and rate of climb;
b) Use co-ordinated aileron and rudder to roll into the turn (limit angle of bank to 15°);
c) Pitch to a lower nose attitude to maintain the climb airspeed;
d) Notice the tendency of aircraft to increase angle of bank during turn;
e) Note the lower nose attitude and reduced rate of climb;
f) Maintain balance with the rudder pedals;
g) Rolling out of the turn, pitch up to the climbing attitude to maintain the climb airspeed.
6) Demonstrate the descending turn:
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ATO FCTM FCTM-97
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
a) In an established descent, note the nose attitude and rate of descent;
b) Use co-ordinated aileron and rudder to roll into the turn (use angle of bank up to 30°);
c) Pitch to a lower nose attitude to maintain the glide airspeed;
d) Notice the tendency of aircraft to decrease angle of bank during turn;
e) Note the lower nose attitude and increased rate of descent;
f) Maintain balance with the rudder pedals;
g) Rolling out of the turn, adjust nose attitude to maintain the glide airspeed.
7) Demonstrate the slipping turn:
a) In an established descending turn, note the nose attitude and rate of descent;
b) Gradually introduce ‘top’ rudder (opposite to direction of turn) until slipping sensation is felt;
c) Pitch to a lower nose attitude to maintain airspeed, use aileron to maintain angle of bank;
d) Note increased rate of descent – the greater the ‘slip’, the greater the rate of descent;
f) Use rudder to bring the aircraft back into balance, adjust nose attitude to maintain glide airspeed.
1) Emphasize the importance of a meaningful look-out prior to and during each turn. Set a good example
during the demonstration.
2) It is important that turns be practised in both directions to emphasize the different visual reference in
aircraft with side by side seating, and to ensure students do not favour the left turn they learn from the
beginning in most circuits.
3) One of the most common faults in turning is excessive and incorrect use of the rudder. This should never
occur if the student is taught from the beginning not to apply rudder at all unless it is necessary to correct
adverse yaw.
4) A student should be shown how to monitor instruments without sacrificing look-out.
5) A faulty turn may often be traced to inaccurate flying just before entry; therefore, until competency is
achieved, insist that the student flies straight and level before commencing
any level turn.
6) On occasion it is necessary to return to level flight while in a climbing or descending turn. Practice in this
area is also a good co-ordination exercise.
Airmanship
Lookout.
Orientation – orientate by reference to local landmarks and keep a mental check of the heading required to
return to the airfield.
Common errors
1. Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference.
2. Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to the ground, during a turn, rather than riding with the airplane.
3. Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the inability to detect slips/skids without reference to
flight instruments.
4. Altitude gain/loss during the turn.
5. Failure to coordinate the use of throttle with other controls.
6. Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during turns.
7. Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant during turns.
8. Failure to lower pitch attitude during climbing and gliding turn entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed.
9. Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder action
as opposed to turns with power.
10. Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from gliding turns.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-98
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING

Level turns
1. Right turns are performed in the same manner as left turns.
2. Rolls out to a predetermined heading +/-10°.
3. Maintains altitude +/-150 feet.
4. Maintains bank angle +/-5°.
Climbing and descending turns
7. In the climbing turns, does not exceed bank angle of 15°.
8. In the descending turns, does not exceed bank angle of 30°.
1. Rolls out to a predetermined heading +/-5°.
2. Maintains altitude +/-100 feet.
References
Things to Remember
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ATO FCTM FCTM-99
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Take-off and climb to downwind

Aim:
To teach the student to make a standard take-off and initial climb.
1) Forces during take-off.
2) Take-off run, take-off distance. Review take-off data tables in Aircraft Flight Manual.
3) Factors affecting take-off distance:
a) weight;
b) flaps;
c) air density;
d) runway surface;
e) runway slope;
f) wind velocity.
4) The pre-take-off checks, use of checklist.
5) Effect of power during take-off:
a) slipstream effect;
b) torque effect.
6) Use of power during take-off.
7) Use of rudder during take-off, directional control.
8) Use of elevators during take-off, initial positioning of flight controls.
9) Checks during take-off (engine RPM – full power, engine temperatures and pressures within limits,
airspeed rising).
10) Climb attitude and airspeed VY.
11) Radio procedures.
1) Take-off (normal conditions):
a) Complete pre-take-off check, check approach, runway, obtain take-off clearance if applicable, and
line up with take-off path;
b) Lined up on the runway, choose a landmark to monitor direction;
c) Apply take-off power, and control direction - keep straight;
d) Apply some back pressure on the yoke;
e) Check – power/RPM OK, engine temperatures and pressures OK, airspeed increasing.
f) Raise nose to take-off attitude as elevators become effective;
g) At the rotation speed, increase back pressure on the yoke to lift-off – demonstrate attitude control;
h) Once airborne, accelerate to selected climb speed progressively establishing the normal climb
attitude.
2) At 300 ft AGL - procedure for retraction of flaps, after take-off checks.
3) At 500 ft AGL – lookout and make a climbing turn (at 15° angle of bank) onto the crosswind leg, tracking
at 90° to the runway direction.
4) Level out at 900 ft AGL – Attitude – Speed – Power – Trim.
5) Lookout and turn onto the downwind leg using 30° angle of bank, tracking parallel to the runway
direction. Choose a landmark to maintain direction.
6) Instrument indications - airspeed and heading indications.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-100
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
1) Events happen quickly during a take-off; the instructor has to speak clearly and the student may have
difficulty in hearing owing to the noise, especially if the instructor's voice is not raised sufficiently. For
this reason, adequate preparatory ground instruction is particularly important in this exercise, and a quick
summary of the high points just prior to moving on to the runway is necessary.
2) The use of brakes during the take-off run should be avoided unless rudder control is insufficient.
3) Advise the student to concentrate on keeping straight by some reference at the far end of the runway.
4) Impress the student with the importance of the first few metres; if a good straight start to the run is made,
keeping straight throughout the take-off run will be easier.
5) The instructor must allow the student to make corrections, assisting only as necessary in the interest of
control. Encourage the student to relax.
6) During take-off, "wheelbarrowing" may occur at lower speeds than during landing due to the slipstream
increasing the lifting effect of the horizontal stabilizer. The use of excessive forward elevator control
pressure during take-off to hold the aircraft on the ground to speeds above normal take-off speed could, if
a "yaw" force is introduced, result in serious wheelbarrowing.
7) By example, insist that the student use the check-list. Make sure that the check is completed
conscientiously and does not become a mere formality.
Airmanship
Holding clear of active runway, not delaying other aircraft waiting for take-off.
Lookout prior to take-off – the key areas to check before calling ready for line-up are the approach, runway
and departure areas.
The checks during the take-off run and after take-off checks should be completed from memory, ensuring
that a student is properly checking each item and not just reciting the checklist ‘parrot fashion’.
Common errors
1. Abrupt use of the throttle.
2. Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power.
3. Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning tendency on initial acceleration.
4. Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
5. Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than developed feel for indications during lift off.
6. Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
7. Inadequate compensation for torque / P-factor during initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
8. Over-control of elevators during initial climb out.
9. Limiting scan to directly ahead of the airplane, resulting in allowing a wing (usually the left) to drop
immediately after lift-off.
10. Failure to attain / maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY).
11. Failure to employ attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed indicator.
12. Failure to maintain proper direction on upwind and crosswind.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a normal take-off and climb operations.
2. Positions the flight controls for the existing wind conditions.
3. Clears the area; taxies into the takeoff position and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path.
4. Rotates at the recommended airspeed and accelerates to VY.
5. Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY +15/-5 knots.
6. Retracts the flaps at the indicated altitude.
7. Maintains takeoff power and VY +15/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.
8. Maintains directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb.
9. Completes the appropriate checklist.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-101
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING

1. Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY +/-5 knots.
2. Maintains takeoff power and VY +/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude.
References
Things to Remember
Hand on throttle until 300 ft (flaps retracting altitude).
At the beginning of the take-off run, ensure that feet are well clear of the toe brakes, with heels on the floor.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-102
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Circuit, Approach and Landing

Aim:
1) How to fly a circuit pattern;
2) The techniques necessary to safely land an aircraft under normal conditions;
3) To make meaningful decisions as to what type of landing should be made under existing conditions.
1) Explain:
a) The standard circuit pattern – legs, direction, distances and heights;
b) How to fly a rectangular circuit:
- use of local landmarks;
- effect of wind on the circuit pattern;
- judging distance from the runway on the downwind leg;
- the pre-landing checks;
- other traffic and spacing in the circuit;
- judging the turn on to base leg;
- use of radio;
- wake turbulence;
- acceptance and/or compliance with Tower instructions.
2) Forces in the descent and landing.
3) Landing distance, ground run and factors affecting landing performance:
a) weight;
b) flap setting;
c) air density:
d) runway surface and slope;
e) wind velocity.
4) Landing distance tables in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
5) Headwind and crosswind component graph in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
6) Explain the initial approach to land:
a) judging the correct position to commence the descent on base leg;
b) the turn on to final approach (do not exceed 30° bank angle).
7) Explain final approach to land:
a) lowering landing flap;
b) controlling the descent angle;
c) airspeed surveillance and control.
8) Precautions for protection of nose gear from damage on landing, "wheelbarrowing".
9) The after-landing checks.
10) The touch and go procedure.
11) The bounce and balloon.
12) The go around/overshoot technique, climb-out path.
13) Radio procedures.
14) Visual illusions when approaching for a landing on an up or down slope, and on runways which are
narrower or wider than those to which the pilot is used to.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-103
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING

1) Demonstrate traffic circuit pattern:
a) how to fly an accurate rectangular circuit - drift corrections;
b) radio procedures, cockpit check, look-out;
c) when circumstances permit: circuit spacing - speed and circuit size, pilot decisions with respect to
wake turbulence avoidance, overshoot, acceptance and/or compliance with Tower instructions;
d) instrument monitoring.
2) Normal landings - demonstrate:
a) Establishment of landing approach line;
b) Use of flaps on final descent path;
c) Power-on approaches;
d) Levelling off, flare;
e) Where to look ahead of the aircraft while landing;
f) Hold-off - diminishing control response;
g) Landing attitude;
h) Touchdown - nose-up attitude;
i) Landing run - lowering nose as elevator control diminishes;
j) Keeping straight.
3) Go-around/overshoot - demonstrate:
a) From an approach;
b) From an aborted landing;
- power, attitude, transition to the climb;
- flap retraction;
- flight in relation to runway - climb path.
4) Touch-and-go considerations:
a) Directional control;
b) Operating the flaps;
c) Importance of sufficient runway remaining for take-off.
5) Post-landing procedures - demonstrate:
a) Taxiing clear of runway;
b) Completion of post-landing check;
c) Radio procedures.
6) Standard circuit pattern:
a) at 300 ft - after take-off check - flaps up, landing light off;
b) at 500 ft – lookout, pick the landmark for crosswind heading reference on the wingtip and make a
climbing turn (at 15° angle of bank);
c) level out at circuit height – attitude, speed 80 kt, power 1700 rpm, switch electrical fuel pump off,
trim;
d) lookout, turn onto the downwind leg (using 30° bank angle);
e) abeam landing threshold of the runway carry out pre-landing checks – electrical fuel pump on, 1500
rpm, check speed, flaps take-off position, landing light on;
f) lookout, judge the point to turn on to base leg, make radio call, turn (using 30° bank angle).
7) The initial approach to land:
a) at the correct point commence the descent;
b) make minor corrections to establish approach attitude and airspeed, aim to arrive to final turn at 600
ft;
c) turn on to finals, maintain approach airspeed;
d) make radio call, reduce speed below 69 kt, lower landing flap;
e) judge angle of approach, adjust nose to the aiming point, control airspeed with power.
8) The landing:
a) at 15-20 ft flare, close the throttle and maintain direction;
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ATO FCTM FCTM-104
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
b) as the aircraft slows and sinks, increase back pressure to remain flying level;
c) as the aircraft touches down, maintain back pressure on the yoke;
d) maintain direction, maintain back pressure on the yoke to allow the nose wheel to gently lower on to
the runway, use brakes as necessary.
9) The go-around:
a) make timely decision to go around if a safe approach and landing is in doubt;
b) power – to full (check carburetor heat off), attitude to a shallow climb, establish speed 61 kt;
c) check positive climb, at 150 ft retract flap to take-off position;
d) if go-around was made due to traffic ahead, position to the ‘deadside’ of the runway.
1) Insist on increasing aircraft handling accuracy and good airmanship as circuit training progresses.
2) Do not expect the student to be able to immediately memorize all circuit details and handle the radio as
well. The instructor can do all radio work until the student has a reasonable proficiency in flying the
circuit.
3) Proper circuit spacing is important, and the ability to make a correct decision to go around/overshoot
rather than proceed with a landing should be impressed on the student.
4) If the student has difficulty in judging the final turn into wind, insist on a shallow banked turn. The slow
rate of turn allows more time for judgement, and bank can be increased or decreased as necessary.
6) When power approaches are normally made, the instructor could periodically insist on a power-off
descent to improve the student's proficiency in gliding and judgement on how far the aircraft can glide.
7) The student must be taught to assess the situation before any landing, taking into consideration the effects
of wind, surface conditions, obstacles, turbulence and vortices from other aircraft, etc. When all pertinent
points are taken into account, the student should then decide whether or not it is safe to land. If the
decision is to proceed, the student should then select the type of approach and landing to use, rather than
correct for problems as they are encountered.
8) At the initial stage post-landing checks should be carried out well clear of the runway, and where available
past the taxiway holding position lines, with the aeroplane fully stopped.
9) Landings are a continual challenge. Encourage the student to watch other students landing and learn from
their mistakes.
10) During the landing, make sure the student looks down the side of the aircraft’s nose not too close to the
aircraft and not too far ahead of the aircraft to properly appreciate both the forward, vertical and possible
lateral movement in relation to the runway.
11) Allow students to correct their own mistakes. They will never learn if it is all done for them, but be ready
to take control - fully or partially, if there is a possibility of loss of control or flight safety could be
jeopardized.
12) Should it be necessary to correct a powered approach by altering the power setting, it is always advisable
to correct early so that a slight alteration will be sufficient. The student should be taught to strive for an
approach that requires minimal power variation.
13) When landing on a long runway, you may find that the student is taking advantage of the easy approach
and is not being accurate in judgement. Such a habit must not be allowed to develop. Insist that the
student land in a predetermined touchdown zone. The touchdown point should not normally be the
threshold.
14) The student should learn to use the flaps intelligently to steepen the descent path as required, but
occasionally, as an exercise in judgement, you should ask the student to land with a predetermined flap
setting. The effect of flap on the actual landing is an important consideration.
15) The change of attitude of the aircraft to bring about the required round-out and subsequent hold-off to
touchdown must be judged by visual reference to the ground rather than by mechanical movements of the
control column. This must be demonstrated sufficiently and consistently by the instructor until the student
observes the clues which will enable personal decisions to be made.
16) If, before the first solo, the student has had no trouble in landing the aircraft, you should "assist" by
making bad landings to ensure that the proper recovery action is learned.
17) Go around following a full flap approach should be demonstrated and practiced prior to the first solo
flight.
Airmanship
Lookout key points – before making turns.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-105
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Pre-landing checks.
Rules of the air – priority on approach to land.
Common errors
1. Inadequate wind drift correction on the traffic circuit legs.
2. Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach resulting in too steep or too shallow a turn
onto final approach.
3. Poor controls coordination during turn from base to final approach.
4. Failure to complete the landing checklists in a timely manner.
5. Unstabilized approach.
6. Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension, poor trim technique on final approach.
7. Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone.
8. Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a too high level off.
9. Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a too low level off.
10. Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude.
11. Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown.
12. Excessive braking after touchdown.
1. Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence.
2. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a normal approach and landing.
3. Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point.
4. Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed, and adjusts pitch attitude
and power as required.
5. Maintains a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed +10/-5 knots.
6. Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown.
7. Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed.
8. Touches down at or within 120 m beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplane's
longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center.
9. Completes the appropriate checklists.
1. Maintains a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed +/-5 knots.
2. Touches down at or within 60 m beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplane's
longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center.
References
Aircraft Flight Manual, Tecnam P2002-JF Traffic Circuit Pattern
Things to Remember
Hand on the throttle from the start of descent unless operating flap.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-106
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Instructor Notes and Visual Aids
A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures for what is considered a normal situation; that
is, when engine power is available, the wind is light or the final approach is made directly into the wind, the final
approach path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the airplane
to a stop. The selected landing point should be beyond the runway’s approach threshold but within the first one-
third portion of the runway.
The factors involved and the procedures described for the normal approach and landing also have applications
to the other-than-normal approaches and landings which are discussed later in this chapter. This being the case,
the principles of normal operations are explained first and must be understood before proceeding to the more
complex operations. So that the pilot may better understand the factors that will influence judgment and
procedures that last part of the approach pattern and the actual landing will be divided into phases: the base leg,
the final approach, the roundout (flare), hold-off, the touchdown and the after-landing roll.
BASE LEG
The placement of the base leg is one of the more important judgments made by the pilot in any landing
approach.
The pilot must accurately judge the altitude and distance from which a gradual descent will result in landing
at the desired spot.
The distance will depend on the altitude of the base leg, the effect of wind, and the amount of wing flaps
used. When there is a strong wind on final approach or the flaps will be used to produce a steep angle of descent,
the base leg must be positioned closer to the approach end of the runway than would be required with a light wind
or no flaps.
After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should start the descent with reduced power and airspeed of 70 kt.
Drift correction should be established and maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular to the extension
of the centerline of the runway on which the landing is to be made. Since the final approach and landing will
normally be made into the wind, there will be somewhat of a crosswind during the base leg. This requires that the
airplane be angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting farther away from the intended landing spot.
The base leg should be continued to the point where a medium to shallow-banked turn will align the
airplane’s path directly with the centerline of the landing runway. This descending turn should be completed at a
safe altitude that will be dependent upon the height of the terrain and any obstructions along the ground track (500
ft AGL). This will require careful planning as to the starting point and the radius of the turn. Normally, it is
recommended that the angle of bank not exceed a medium bank because the steeper the angle of bank, the higher
the airspeed at which the airplane stalls.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-107
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
FINAL APPROACH
 After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the longitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned
with the centerline of the runway or landing surface, so that drift (if any) will be recognized immediately.
 On a normal approach, with no wind drift, the longitudinal axis should be kept aligned with the runway
centerline throughout the approach and landing.
 After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the final flap setting should be completed and the
pitch attitude adjusted as required for the desired rate of descent.
 Slight adjustments in pitch and power may be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the desired
approach airspeed (51 kt).
 When the pitch attitude and airspeed have been stabilized, the airplane should be re-trimmed to relieve the
pressures being held on the controls.
 The descent angle should be controlled throughout the approach so that the airplane will land in the center of
the first third of the runway.
 Considering the factors that affect the descent angle on the final approach, for all practical purposes at a
given pitch attitude there is only one power setting for one airspeed, one flap setting, and one wind
condition. A change in any one of these variables will require an appropriate coordinated change in the other
controllable variables.
 For example, if the pitch attitude is raised too high without an increase of power, the airplane will settle very
rapidly and touchdown short of the desired spot. For this reason, the pilot should never try to stretch a glide
by applying back elevator pressure alone to reach the desired landing spot. This will shorten the gliding
distance if power is not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent and airspeed should be
maintained by coordinating pitch attitude changes and power changes.
 During a normal approach the power setting is not fixed so power/pitch attitude is adjusted simultaneously,
to control airspeed, and descent angle, or to attain the desired altitudes along the approach path.
 By lowering the nose and reducing power to keep approach airspeed constant, a descent at a higher rate can
be made to correct for being too high in the approach. This is one reason for performing approaches with
partial power; if the approach is too high, merely lower the nose and reduce the power. When the approach is
too low, add power and raise the nose.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-108
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
ESTIMATING HEIGHT AND MOVEMENT
 During the approach, roundout, and touchdown, vision is of prime importance.

 To provide a wide scope of vision and to foster good judgment of height and movement, the pilot’s head
should assume a natural, straight-ahead position.
 The pilot’s visual focus should not be fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of the airplane, but should
be changing slowly from a point just over the airplane’s nose to the desired touchdown zone and back again,
while maintaining a deliberate awareness of distance from either side of the runway within the pilot’s
peripheral field of vision.
 Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a matter of practice, dependent upon how clearly objects
are seen; it requires that the vision be focused properly in order that the important objects stand out as clearly
as possible.
 Speed blurs objects at close range. Nearby objects seem to merge together in a blur, while objects farther
away stand out clearly.
 The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused should be proportionate to the speed at which the airplane
is traveling over the ground. Thus, as speed is reduced during the roundout, the distance ahead of the
airplane at which it is possible to focus should be brought closer accordingly.
 If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too close or looks directly down, the reference will
become blurred, and the reaction will be either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’s tendency will be
to over control, round out high, and make full-stall, drop-in landings. When the pilot focuses too far ahead,
accuracy in judging the closeness of the ground is lost and the consequent reaction will be too slow since
there will not appear to be a necessity for action. This will result in the airplane flying into the ground nose
first.
 The change of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance requires a definite time interval and even
though the time is brief, the airplane’s speed during this interval is such that the airplane travels an
appreciable distance, both forward and downward toward the ground. If the focus is changed gradually,
being brought progressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval and the pilot’s reaction will be
reduced, and the whole landing process smoothed out.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-109
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
ROUNDOUT (FLARE)
 The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually
rounding out the flight path to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches above, the runway.
 When the airplane, in a normal descent, approaches within what appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the
ground, the roundout or flare should be started, and once started should be a continuous process until the
airplane touches down on the ground.
 As the airplane reaches a height above the ground where a timely change can be made into the proper
landing attitude, back-elevator pressure should be gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude.
This will cause the airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired landing attitude.
 The angle of attack should be increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to continue settling slowly as
forward speed decreases.
 The roundout should be executed at a rate that the proper landing attitude and the proper touchdown airspeed
are attained simultaneously just as the wheels contact the landing surface.
 The rate at which the roundout is executed depends on the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of
descent, and the pitch attitude. A roundout started excessively high must be executed more slowly than one
from a lower height to allow the airplane to descend to the ground while the proper landing attitude is being
established.
 The rate of rounding out must also be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground. When the airplane
appears to be descending very slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a correspondingly slow
rate.
 Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper altitude and maintaining the wheels a few inches above the
runway until eventual touchdown.
 Flare cues are primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s central vision intersects the ground (or
runway) ahead and slightly to the side.
 Proper depth perception is a factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used most are those related to
changes in runway or terrain perspective and to changes in the size of familiar objects near the landing area
such as fences, bushes, trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture.
 The pilot should direct central vision at a shallow downward angle of from 10° to 15° toward the runway as
the roundout/flare is initiated.
 Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point of visual interception with the runway to move
progressively rearward toward the pilot as the airplane loses altitude.
 This is an important visual cue in assessing the rate of altitude loss.
 Conversely, forward movement of the visual interception point will indicate an increase in altitude, and
would mean that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an over flare.
 Location of the visual interception point in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby off-
runway terrain, as well as the similarity of appearance of height above the runway ahead of the airplane (in
comparison to the way it looked when the airplane was taxied prior to takeoff) is also used to judge when the
wheels are just a few inches above the runway. The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach is
considerably lower than in a no-flap approach.
 To attain the proper landing attitude before touching down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch
change when flaps are fully extended.
 Since the roundout is usually started at approximately the same height above the ground regardless of the
degree of flaps used, the pitch attitude must be increased at a faster rate when full flaps are used; however,
the roundout should still be executed at a rate proportionate to the airplane’s downward motion.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-110
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
 Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the elevator control should not be pushed forward. If too
much back-elevator pressure has been exerted, this pressure should be either slightly relaxed or held constant,
depending on the degree of the error.
 In some cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink, or a
stall, all of which would result in a hard, drop-in type landing.
 It is recommended that the student pilot form the habit of keeping one hand on the throttle throughout the
approach and landing, should a sudden and unexpected hazardous situation require an immediate application
of power.
TOUCHDOWN
 The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface.
 The roundout and touchdown should be made with the engine idling, and the airplane at minimum
controllable airspeed, so that the airplane will touch down on the main gear at approximately stalling speed.
 As the airplane settles, the proper landing attitude is attained by application of whatever back-elevator
pressure is necessary.
 Some pilots may try to force or fly the airplane onto the ground without establishing the proper landing
attitude. The airplane should never be flown on the runway with excessive speed.
 It is paradoxical that the way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the airplane’s wheels a few inches off
the ground as long as possible with the elevators. In most cases, when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the
ground, the airplane will still be settling too fast for a gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must be
retarded by further back-elevator pressure.
 Since the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator pressure will
only slow up the settling instead of stopping it.
 At the same time, it will result in the airplane touching the ground in the proper landing attitude, and the main
wheels touching down first so that little or no weight is on the nose wheel.
 After the main wheels make initial contact with the ground, back-elevator pressure should be held to maintain
a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic braking, and to hold the nose wheel off the ground until the
airplane decelerates.
 As the airplane’s momentum decreases, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to allow the nose
wheel to gently settle onto the runway.
 This will permit steering with the nose wheel.
 At the same time, it will cause a low angle of attack and negative lift on the wings to prevent floating or
skipping, and will allow the full weight of the airplane to rest on the wheels for better braking action.
 It is extremely important that the touchdown occur with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to the
direction in which the airplane is moving along the runway.
 Failure to accomplish this imposes severe side loads on the landing gear.
 To avoid these side stresses, the pilot should not allow the airplane to touch down while turned into the wind
or drifting.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-111
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
AFTER-LANDING ROLL
 The landing process must never be considered complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi speed
during the landing roll or has been brought to a complete stop when clear of the landing area.
 The pilot must be alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown due to the
ground friction on the wheels.
 The friction creates a pivot point on which a moment arm can act.
 Loss of directional control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground, or a ground
loop. The combination of centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity (CG) and ground friction of the
main wheels resisting it during the ground loop may cause the airplane to tip or lean enough for the outside
wingtip to contact the ground.
 This may even impose a sideward force, which could collapse the landing gear.
 The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it does in the air it controls the yawing of the airplane.
The effectiveness of the rudder is dependent on the airflow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. As
the speed decreases and the nose wheel has been lowered to the ground, the steerable nose provides more
positive directional control.
 The brakes of an airplane serve the same primary purpose as the brakes of an automobile to reduce speed on
the ground. In airplanes, they may also be used as an aid in directional control when more positive control is
required than could be obtained with rudder or nose wheel steering alone.
 To use brakes the pilot should slide the toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals.
 If rudder pressure is being held at the time braking action is needed, that pressure should not be released as
the feet or toes are being slid up to the brake pedals, because control may be lost before brakes can be applied.
Putting maximum weight on the wheels after touchdown is an important factor in obtaining optimum braking
performance.
 After touchdown, the nose wheel should be lowered to the runway to maintain directional control. During
deceleration, the nose may be pitched down by braking and the weight transferred to the nose wheel from the
main wheels. This does not aid in braking action, so back pressure should be applied to the controls without
lifting the nose wheel off the runway. This will enable the pilot to maintain directional control while keeping
weight on the main wheels.
 Careful application of the brakes can be initiated after the nose wheel is on the ground and directional control
is established.
 Maximum brake effectiveness is just short of the point where skidding occurs. If the brakes are applied so
hard that skidding takes place, braking becomes ineffective. Skidding can be stopped by releasing the brake
pressure. Also, braking effectiveness is not enhanced by alternately applying and reapplying brake pressure.
 The brakes should be applied firmly and smoothly as necessary.
 During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction of movement can be changed by carefully applying pressure
on one brake or uneven pressures on each brake in the desired direction. Caution must be exercised when
applying brakes to avoid over controlling.
 The ailerons serve the same purpose on the ground as they do in the air they change the lift and drag
components of the wings. During the after-landing roll, they should be used to keep the wings level in much
the same way they were used in flight. If a wing starts to rise, aileron control should be applied toward that
wing to lower it. The amount required will depend on speed because as the forward speed of the airplane
decreases, the ailerons will become less effective.
 After the airplane is on the ground, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to place normal weight
on the nose wheel to aid in better steering.
 If available runway permits, the speed of the airplane should be allowed to dissipate in a normal manner.
Once the airplane has slowed sufficiently and has turned on to the taxiway and stopped, the pilot should retract
the flaps.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-112
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
STABILIZED APPROACH CONCEPT
 A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath towards a
predetermined point on the landing runway.
 It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual clues, and depends on the maintenance of a constant final
descent airspeed and configuration.
 An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and airspeed will be traveling in a straight line
toward a spot on the ground ahead.
 This spot will not be the spot on which the airplane will touch down, because some float will inevitably occur
during the roundout (flare), neither will it be the spot toward which the airplane’s nose is pointed.
 The point toward which the airplane is progressing is termed the “aiming point”. It is the point on the ground
at which, if the airplane maintains a constant glidepath, and was not flared for landing, it would strike the
ground.
 To a pilot moving straight ahead toward an object, it appears to be stationary. It does not “move.” This is how
the aiming point can be distinguished - it does not move. However, objects in front of and beyond the aiming
point do appear to move as the distance is closed, and they appear to move in opposite directions.
 During instruction in landings, one of the most important skills a student pilot must acquire is how to use
visual cues to accurately determine the true aiming point from any distance out on final approach.
 From this, the pilot will not only be able to determine if the glidepath will result in an undershoot or
overshoot, but, taking into account float during roundout, the pilot will be able to predict the touchdown point
to within a very few feet.
 For a constant angle glidepath, the distance between the horizon and the aiming point will remain constant.
 If a final approach descent has been established but the distance between the perceived aiming point and the
horizon appears to increase (aiming point moving down away from the horizon), then the true aiming point,
and subsequent touchdown point, is farther down the runway.
 If the distance between the perceived aiming point and the horizon decreases (aiming point moving up toward
the horizon), the true aiming point is closer than perceived.
 When the airplane is established on final approach, the shape of the runway image also presents clues as to
what must be done to maintain a stabilized approach to a safe landing.
 A runway, obviously, is normally shaped in the form of an elongated rectangle.
 When viewed from the air during the approach, the phenomenon known as perspective causes the runway to
assume the shape of a trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than the approach end, and the edge lines
converging ahead.
 If the airplane continues down the glidepath at a constant angle (stabilized), the image the pilot sees will still
be trapezoidal but of proportionately larger dimensions. In other words, during a stabilized approach the
runway shape does not change.
 If the approach becomes shallower, however, the runway will appear to shorten and become wider.
 Conversely, if the approach is steepened, the runway will appear to become longer and narrower.
 The objective of a stabilized approach is to select an appropriate touchdown point on the runway, and adjust
the glidepath so that the true aiming point and the desired touchdown point basically coincide.
 Immediately after rolling out on final approach, the pilot should adjust the pitch attitude and power so that the
airplane is descending directly toward the aiming point at the appropriate airspeed.
 The airplane should be in the landing configuration, and trimmed for “hands off” flight.
 With the approach set up in this manner, the pilot will be free to devote full attention toward outside
references. The pilot should not stare at any one place, but rather scan from one point to another, such as from
the aiming point to the horizon, to the trees and bushes along the runway, to an area well short of the runway,
 and back to the aiming point.
 In this way, the pilot will be more apt to perceive a deviation from the desired glidepath, and whether or not
the airplane is proceeding directly toward the aiming point.
 If the pilot perceives any indication that the aiming point on the runway is not where desired, an adjustment
must be made to the glidepath.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-113
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
 This in turn will move the aiming point. For instance, if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is short of the
desired touchdown point and will result in an undershoot, an increase in pitch attitude and engine power is
warranted.
 A constant airspeed must be maintained.
 The pitch and power change, therefore, must be made smoothly and simultaneously.
 This will result in a shallowing of the glidepath with the resultant aiming point moving towards the desired
touchdown point.
 Conversely, if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is farther down the runway than the desired touchdown
point and will result in an overshoot, the glidepath should be steepened by a simultaneous decrease in pitch
attitude and power.
 Once again, the airspeed must be held constant.
 It is essential that deviations from the desired glidepath be detected early, so that only slight and infrequent
adjustments to glidepath are required.
The closer the airplane gets to the runway, the larger (and possibly more frequent) the required corrections
become, resulting in an unstabilized approach.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-114
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Precautionary Landing
Aim:
To teach the student the procedures to be followed in preparation for a landing at an aerodrome where
the surface condition is unknown, an unfamiliar aerodrome or landing area, or an unprepared surface.
1) Conditions necessitating to a precautionary landing:
a) Fuel system fault or fuel shortage;
b) Health problems;
c) Deteriorating weather;
d) Lost;
e) Approaching darkness;
f) Other engine or airframe problems.
2) Selection of best available landing surface:
a) Wind direction and speed;
b) Clues indicating surface conditions;
d) Obstacles on approach;
e) Best landing path;
f) Proximity to roads and/or telephone;
g) Sufficient length for take-off;
h) Overshoot considerations.
3) The surrounding area inspection (at 300 ft AGL):
a) Applicable cockpit checks;
b) Flight configuration (flaps take-off position) and speed for circuit and field inspection (slow safe
cruise speed 65 kt);
c) Nuisance avoidance regarding persons and property on ground, livestock, etc.;
d) Landing line orientation procedure - use of heading indicator and turning points under reduced
visibility conditions;
e) Inspection circuit pattern and altitude according to existing circumstances - terrain, visibility,
obstacles, etc.;
f) Radio procedures - where feasible;
g) Considerations for overshoot after a practice approach.
4) The bad weather circuit (height 600 ft AGL, over upwind end of the runway level turn with 15° bank
angle to downwind, 20-30 seconds after abeam the runway threshold start turn on to final with 15° bank
angle, judge the point for final descent).
5) Low level illusions.
6) The landing site inspection (at 100 ft AGL) - inspection of the landing surface.
7) The landing – short or soft field landing as appropriate.
8) After landing actions.
9) Discuss considerations for landing in trees or water.
10) The instructor shall review all pertinent regulations regarding low flying as well as the necessity to
conform to applicable circuit procedures when practising at an aerodrome.
1) Outline simulated conditions such as:
a) Non-emergency conditions - landing at unfamiliar aerodromes/landing areas or the surface condition
is unknown, or both;
b) Emergency conditions - e.g., weather - cloud base and visibility, lost - fuel remaining.
2) Determine wind direction and speed - select suitable field, best landing run and overshoot flight path.
3) Set up suitable manoeuvring configuration (take-off flaps) and speed (65 kt) - and demonstrate:
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ATO FCTM FCTM-115
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
a) Safety precautions;
b) Applicable cockpit checks - passenger briefing;
c) Radio procedures - where feasible;
d) Selection of final approach and landing path;
e) Circuit size and altitude for effective inspection of landing site surroundings (keep field in sight);
f) Selection of aids for circuit pattern and line up for final approach - use of heading indicator.
4) Start the approach from 600 ft AGL with landing site well in sight and make circuit approach. The first
inspection pass is flown at 300 ft AGL, approaching in the expected landing direction slightly to the right
of the landing area to check the landing site surroundings.
5) Make a go-around back to a height 600 ft AGL and enter a bad weather traffic circuit:
a) In level flight turn to downwind using 15° bank angle to downwind;
b) 20-30 seconds after abeam the touchdown point start turn on to final with 15° bank angle;
c) Start the final descent when have a good view of the landing site in order to judge the approach
descent angle.
6) The second pass to carry out field inspection is flown at 100 ft AGL to examine the surface of the landing
site.
7) If the first two inspections and circuits are satisfactory, overshoot and proceed with a bad weather circuit
for a short/soft field landing from the third approach.
a) Safety precautions - safe airspeed;
b) Landing checks;
c) Use of orientation aids for circuit and approach.;
d) Final approach procedure, airspeed, and flaps;
e) Landing procedure - touch down on specific point of landing surface.
1) Basically, precautionary landings can be divided into two categories: a pre-planned landing where the
pilot is unfamiliar with the aerodrome/landing area, or its condition is unknown, or both; and a landing
made necessary due to deteriorating weather, darkness, fuel shortage, etc. on an unprepared surface. In
the case of a precautionary landing, make the demonstration realistic; paint a picture to the student
detailing the weather conditions, cloud base, etc., and having done so, do not change the conditions.
When the demonstration is given on the aerodrome, the height and distance from the runway at which the
pattern is flown should be consistent with the stated weather conditions, except where flight safety
considerations, such as other traffic and built-up areas, may be a limiting factor. As well, on long
runways, the portion to be used should be clearly defined. The touchdown point should not normally be
the actual threshold of the runway.
2) When conducting the inspection and the final approach to a landing, any variation from a normal circuit
and approach should be dictated by special existing conditions. The speed used for the field inspection
should not be less than that stipulated in the Aircraft Flight Manual, or if this is not given, not less than
the normal approach speed. The flight configuration, speed, and altitude selected should require minimum
pilot attention to fly the aeroplane safely. This allows more time to be devoted to effective inspection of
the intended approach and landing path.
3) A most important aspect of a precautionary landing is to make an early decision. The pilot then should
have sufficient time to select the best available landing surface.
4) Emphasize the importance of speed control during the approach.
5) Accidents have been caused by the pilot thinking too much of the landing during the approach; teach the
student to concentrate on the approach first. This, coupled with the proper use of power and monitoring of
airspeed, sound airmanship, etc., should result in a safe touchdown.
6) It should be pointed out that in the final stages of a precautionary landing, the pilot may find that the
aircraft is sinking too rapidly. This may not be apparent at heights above 50 feet. The pilot should be
prepared to give increased throttle before and at the moment of landing in order to cushion the ground
contact. This will also help to counteract any effect due to wind shear near the ground.
7) Flight instructors must realize that while they, as experienced pilots, may possess the skill to follow the
procedure whereby the throttle is closed and the nose lowered significantly when an approach obstacle
has been passed, most low time pilots do not possess the judgement necessary to consistently carry out a
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ATO FCTM FCTM-116
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
safe landing flare under conditions of low approach speed and a steep descent path. The inherent dangers
of this procedure may be compounded by ground turbulence and wind shear. Once the touchdown point
has been selected, the approach path should be set up so as to clear any obstacle, and the final approach
power should not be removed until the landing flare has been completed at a satisfactory height.
Additional power is also more readily available from a "spooled-up" engine should it be required to
cushion a flare or touchdown. If the approach speed has been correct there will be minimum "float" once
the throttle has been closed. As the graduate pilot accumulates experience, approach procedures can be
varied, but unless the landing surface is minimal, there is little advantage to closing the throttle once the
obstacle has been passed.
8) Ensure the student is made thoroughly aware of the dangerous situations presented during turns at low
altitude caused by the illusions created by drift, while practising precautionary landings. The instinctive
desire to increase the rate of turn with rudder will more likely manifest itself in turns from the base leg to
final approach, particularly in a strong cross-wind. The hazards of skidding turns at a low airspeed and
low altitude, while obvious to the instructor must be emphasized to the student.
Airmanship
Practise this exercise at an airfield with no traffic.
Keep your workload to a minimum in low level flight.
Keep the aeroplane in trim or, if anything, trim slightly nose-up so that the aeroplane will have no tendency
to descend while your attention is directed outside.
Common errors
References
Aircraft Flight Manual, Visual Flight Rules.
Things to Remember
Avoiding conditions leading to a forced landing with power.
Make an early decision to land while there is still time to do so with the aeroplane under full control and
before conditions deteriorate to a dangerous level.
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ATO FCTM FCTM-117
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Forced Landing without Power

Aim:
To teach the student to make a safe forced landing in the event of an engine failure and to develop the
student's accuracy, judgment, planning, technique, and confidence in an emergency approach and landing
procedures.
1) Explain:
a) Reasons why a forced landing may be necessary:
- fuel starvation, plugged fuel tank vents, fuel selector position;
- oil starvation;
- mechanical failure;
- carburettor icing;
- engine air intake blockage;
- other (impending power failure).
2) Outline actions to be followed in event of an engine failure:
a) Control of aircraft - correct descending attitude for best glide airspeed, trim;
b) Use of carburettor heat (simultaneous with (a));
c) Selection of field - wind, altitude and surface conditions;
d) Plan of approach - selection of key points;
e) While heading to key point, analyse situation, check for power loss – engine instruments, fuel
quantity indicators, fuel selector valve, carburettor heat, fuel pump, magnetos);
f) Make distress radio call, use distress code on the transponder, consider switching ELT on;
g) Secure the aircraft for landing - switch off fuel selector, electrical fuel pump, generator switch and
magnetos, leave master switch on until necessary flap selection have been made, tighten seat belts
and shoulder straps;
h) Final approach considerations;
i) Touchdown planning;
j) Use of brakes and other considerations during landing roll – controlled ground loop (if necessary).
1) For the first demonstration approach (from 3,000 feet MSL) before the throttle is closed for the descent,
demonstrate and have the student practice power loss checks, security checks, and radio procedure. When
the student is reasonably proficient in these areas, then:
a) Indicate wind direction;
b) Point out field and key point to be used - explain reason for selection – wind direction and surface
conditions;
c) Simulate power failure;
d) Simultaneously assume correct glide attitude, best glide airspeed, carburettor heat on and trim;
e) Plan the approach pattern, head for key point;
f) Mention that power loss check, aircraft securing for landing check, and radio procedures would be
conducted at this time;
g) Briefly explain plan of approach and engine clearing/warming procedures;
h) Emphasize:
- constant angle of descent - correct airspeed/attitude;
- while losing height at the downwind end of the field, that the key point of the final base leg will be
similar to the base leg at the home airport for a glide approach - drift or crab angle - correct
distance from field boundary for existing wind velocity;
- recognition of visual indications of the point of touchdown while descending at a constant angle of
descent;
- aiming point of touchdown - in first 1/3 of landing surface;
- final approach considerations - use of flaps, or S-turns, or side-slip, to maximize use of the field
available;
- demonstrate go-around technique.
NOTE. At all times fly the aeroplane.
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2) For student practice from 2500 feet MSL for several approaches:
a) Have student fly approaches, starting from easy situations, progressing to more complicated;
b) Coach when necessary during each practice approach.
3) After several successful approaches by student under coaching:
a) Simulate power failure without prior warning at various altitudes;
b) Insist on proper selection of field and key point and appropriate checks as approach is being flown;
c) Demand increasing accuracy.
4) Later in forced landing training exercises simulate power failure on take-off and in the circuit.
NOTE: The key can be defined as some physical feature or features on the ground which are chosen to
establish a near to normal base leg distance from a field that has been chosen for forced landing
purposes. Base leg distance in this case must be well within the into-wind gliding range of the
aircraft.
1) Key points are selected to assist the pilot to maintain a lateral distance from the landing area until
sufficient altitude is lost and the proper approach angle achieved. This will prevent crowding of the field
which may result in turns involving excessive angles of bank, and excessively high airspeeds over the
boundary of the field.
2) The key points should be established on a line that is about the same distance from the landing area as the
normal base leg for a glide approach, taking wind conditions into consideration (1500 ft AGL on
downwind abeam landing area, 1000 AGL ft on base turn).
3) Never allow a practice forced landing to become a real one through poor airmanship and improper engine
handling. The student will be expected to demonstrate good airmanship by clearing the engine at
appropriate intervals during the descent.
4) Practice should be given at every opportunity - in the circuit, on overshoot, to and from the practice area,
etc.
5) Normally, once approach flap has been extended, it is rarely necessary to descend below 500 feet on final.
However, if a student is consistently under or overshooting, it may be necessary to continue the approach
to a lower altitude when conditions permit, to prove that the approach was unsuccessful (but not below
300 ft AGL).
6) When traffic conditions permit at an aerodrome, give the student practice at an actual approach to a
touchdown by closing the throttle at a suitable position in the circuit. Approach and landing judgement
will improve considerably with this type of "for real" practice.
7) While losing height prior to commencing the final approach, all turns should normally be made in the
direction of the field. Using the experience gained in the power-off descending exercises, teach the
student to recognize the visual indications which confirm the point of touchdown.
8) When certain of getting into the field, use of flaps, S-turns or side-slip to lose surplus height and facilitate
a touchdown in the first 1/3 of the selected landing surface, should be demonstrated.
9) Make distress radio call after an attempt of engine restart. Complete engine securing procedure on base
leg or before below 500 ft AGL depending on the approach.
10) This exercise is an excellent chance to apply the Learning Factors. Do not expect the student to perform
all the various stages of a forced landing together at the start. Learning should be progressive. Making the
exercise too complicated precludes proper learning and progress. While the student is learning to fly an
approach to a forced landing, the power loss and security checks can be carried out in their proper
sequence by the instructor. The student can then progressively incorporate these checks as satisfactory
approach proficiency is attained.
11) Make good use of the time spent while proceeding to and from flying practice areas to rehearse power
loss checks and security checks. Suitable fields can be selected, and the key points located, thus giving
better utilization of the time spent actually practicing forced landings.
12) During preparatory ground instruction draw a field on the board, give an altitude, and have the student
draw and describe the path of flight to be followed in an actual exercise.
13) Approaches should be from different positions. The objective is to teach the student to arrive at the
correct position, at the correct altitude, by the simplest method, and the method will depend on the
circumstances.
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14) Stress that this approach is not something new - it is a continuation of the descending exercises and of
the use of judgement learned when flying the circuit, with respect to distance from the field and how far
the aircraft can glide.
Airmanship
Lookout.
Low flying rules.
Engine handling – warm the engine, make all the throttle movements smooth, monitor the engine pressures
and temperatures.
Checks – forced landing checks from memory.
Common errors
1. Improper airspeed control.
2. Poor judgment in the selection of an emergency landing area.
3. Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction.
4. Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation.
5. Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist.
6. Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to emergency approach and landing procedures.
2. Analyzes the situation and selects an appropriate course of action.
3. Establishes and maintains the recommended best-glide airspeed ±10 knots.
4. Selects a suitable landing area.
5. Plans and follows a flight pattern to the selected landing area considering altitude, wind, terrain, and
obstructions.
6. Prepares for landing, or go-around, as specified by the examiner.
7. Follows the appropriate checklist.
References
Things to Remember
Student’s hand on throttle (unless operating flaps or other controls) below 1000 ft.
Determine abort point and be ready to go-around.
If in doubt, go around.
Flap retraction (causes airplane to sink).
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Basics of Instrument Flying

Aim:
To teach the student to fly basic manoeuvres solely by reference to the instruments and to be able to
recover from unusual attitudes solely by reference to the instruments.
1) Physiological considerations – believe your eyes, trust the instruments.
2) Instrument interpretation – the Attitude Indicator (AI).
3) Power + Attitude = Performance:
a) The control inputs required to produce a movement or to put the aircraft into a desired attitude are the
same as those used in visual flight;
b) Use smooth control pressures, making small corrections and waiting for the results;
c) Refer to the ‘Control instruments’ (the Attitude Indicator and the RPM gauge) to establish attitude
and power;
d) Refer to the ‘Performance instruments’ (the other flight instruments) to verify airspeed, vertical
speed, or other desired performance;
e) Whenever changing the aircraft performance, the initial change is made to the control instruments,
then the performance instruments are checked to make any minor corrections;
f) The pilot must anticipate the need to change power and attitude to arrive at desired airspeeds and
altitudes when accelerating, decelerating, climbing, descending, and levelling off;
g) Correct use of trim is essential to maintenance of control.
4) Selective radial scan:
a) The instrument scan is radial – it radiates out from the AI and returns back to the AI;
b) The instrument scan is selective – select which instruments have information relevant to the
manoeuvre being flown;
c) Primary scan for the basic information instruments, secondary scan for the other instruments;
d) The standard pattern of the flight instruments.
5) Unusual attitudes – the approach to the stall and the spiral dive:
a) Check the airspeed;
b) Power, bank, pitch.
1) Maintaining straight and level flight:
a) Power – Attitude – Trim: apply cruising power setting and select the straight and level attitude in the
Attitude Indicator;
b) The primary scan – Attitude Indicator (AI), Heading Indicator (HI) and Altimeter (ALT);
c) The secondary scan - AI, Airspeed Indicator (ASI), Turn Coordinator (TC) and Vertical Speed
Indicator (VSI).
2) The climb (practice best rate of climb - speed 66 kt, and cruise climb – speed 80 kt):
a) Power – Attitude – Trim: apply full power, pitch nose-up to the climbing attitude on the Attitude
Indicator;
b) The primary scan – AI, HI and ASI;
c) The secondary scan - AI, ALT, TC and VSI;
d) As the aircraft approaches the required level, include the ALT in the primary scan;
e) Level off: Attitude – Speed – Power – Trim.
3) The descent (practice normal descent – 1200 RPM, speed 70 kt, and cruise descent – speed 80 kt, vertical
speed 500 ft/min, power as required):
a) Power – Attitude – Trim: reduce power, select a shallow nose-down attitude on the Attitude
Indicator;
b) The primary scan – AI, HI and ASI;
c) The secondary scan - AI, ALT, TC and VSI;
d) As the aircraft approaches the required level, include the ALT in the primary scan;
e) Level off: Power – Attitude – Trim.
4) The turn (rate 1 turns):
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a) Select the 20° angle-of-bank attitude on the Attitude Indicator, increase back-pressure on the yoke
slightly;
b) The primary scan – AI, TC and ALT, note the rate of turn indicated on the Turn Coordinator;
c) The secondary scan - AI, ASI, HI and VSI;
d) Approaching the required heading, include the HI in the primary scan;
e) Return to wings level flight by reference to the AI.
5) Unusual attitudes – the approach to the stall:
a) Power – check airspeed, apply full power;
b) Bank – check AI, roll wings level;
c) Pitch – check AI, pitch to level flight;
d) In summary: check airspeed – Power – Bank – Pitch;
e) as speed increases, resume to cruise flight.
6) Unusual attitudes – the spiral dive:
a) Power – check airspeed, close the throttle;
b) Bank – check AI, roll wings level;
c) Pitch – check AI, pitch to level flight;
d) In summary: check airspeed – Power – Bank – Pitch.
e) as speed decreases, resume to cruise flight.
1) Maintain a sharp lookout at all times. During flight, with the emphasis on instrument indications, you may
be distracted from keeping a vigilant watch for traffic. Have the student ask "ALL CLEAR LEFT (OR
RIGHT)?", and wait for your confirmation before entering a turn. Reassure the student that you are
watching for traffic.
2) Make every effort to explain all the principles of this lesson carefully. This first instrument training
session covers the basics upon which future lessons are developed.
3) Give the first few lessons in calm air.
4) While the student is flying with reference to the instruments, initially keep the lessons short. Then
gradually lengthen them.
5) Emphasize that when in doubt about aircraft control, keep straight with the rudder and level the wings
with the ailerons.
6) Relate instrument lessons to the equivalent visual lessons. For example, climbs, descents, and turns
require the same control inputs whether the pilot is referring to visual or instrument indications.
8) Advise the student to view the attitude indicator as though he or she is situated on the tail, looking forward
at the wings of the aircraft.
Airmanship
Before flight it is all the more important to check the flight instruments – particularly the Attitude Indicator.
In flight, check that the systems supplying the flight instruments are working properly.
Common errors
1. "Fixation," "omission," and "emphasis" errors during instrument cross-check.
2. Improper instrument interpretation.
3. Improper control applications.
4. Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, and power adjustments during altitude, bank, and airspeed
corrections.
5. Improper entry or rollout technique.
6. Faulty trim technique.
7. Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude.
8. Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by "feel" rather than by instrument
indications.
9. Inappropriate control applications during recovery.
10. Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight
attitude.
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1. Demonstrates straight-and-level flight, straight, constant airspeed climbs, straight, constant airspeed
descents and turns to headings solely by reference to instruments; levels off and maintains altitude ±200
feet; maintains a standard rate turn and rolls out on the assigned heading ±20°; maintains airspeed ±10
knots.
2. Transitions to the pitch attitude and power setting using proper instrument cross-check and interpretation,
and coordinated control application to achieve desired result.
3. Recognizes unusual flight attitudes solely by reference to instruments; recovers promptly to a stabilized
level flight attitude using proper instrument cross-check and interpretation and smooth, coordinated
control application in the correct sequence.
References
Aircraft Flight Manual.
Things to Remember
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Navigation
Aim:
To teach the student to prepare for and be able to conduct safe cross-country flights.
1) Pre-flight planning:
a) Route selection, terrain, possible hazards along the route, Controlled airspace, Restricted, Danger and
Prohibited areas, active airfields;
b) Safety Altitude / Minimum Safety Altitude (MSA) / Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF);
c) Chart preparation: plotting of track lines, measurement of distances, plotting of 10° lines and leg
segments, folding the chart;
d) Weather actual reports and forecasts;
e) Daylight;
f) Navigation calculations and completion of the Navigation Log;
g) Fuel planning;
h) Mass and Balance calculation;
i) Performance calculations;
j) Selection of alternate aerodromes;
k) Radio frequencies;
l) NOTAM’s and Pre-flight Information Bulletins;
m) Flight notification and filing Flight Plan (if necessary).
2) Departure procedures:
a) Airfield departure procedures – via overhead the airfield, via Visual Reference Point (VRP) or
entry/exit point or setting course on leaving the circuit;
b) When you level out at your assigned altitude, run through a ‘FREDA’ check and note ETO for the
first turning point or destination;
c) Check within the first five minutes that you are following the planned track;
d) ATC procedures and altimeter settings.
3) En-route procedures:
a) Principles of map reading (keep the map so that planned track runs up the page, reed from map to
ground);
b) Maintaining airspeed, altitude and heading;
c) Heading corrections;
d) ETA corrections;
e) Basic use of radio navigation aids;
f) Turning point procedure:
- Time – make a note of the actual time of arrival (ATO) in the navlog;
- Turn – turn onto new heading, look for a significant landmark to confirm the direction is correct;
- Talk – if applicable, report your position;
- Task – from your ATO, calculate your ETO for the next point;
g) Organising cockpit workload, managing the time – think ahead, plan the actions well before these
actions are needed:
- Organise your priorities – as ever, Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, in that order;
- Navigate ahead;
- Carry out checks – ‘FREDA’ check will save a lot of time and trouble.
h) Assessing weather en-route.
4) Divert procedure.
5) Lost procedure.
6) Arrival procedures:
a) ATC procedures and altimeter settings;
b) Airfield arrival procedures - via overhead the airfield, via entry/exit point (Visual Reference Point
(VRP)) or setting course to join the traffic circuit leg;
7) Check aircraft documents for validity and to determine that sufficient time remains for the intended flight.
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1) Departure procedure:
a) After the report of approaching aerodrome exit point, enter ATO of the exit point in navigation log;
b) Establish the aircraft on the calculated heading over the exit point, confirm that heading indicator is
aligned correctly with the magnetic compass, check track in relation to the landmarks at the
beginning of route leg to ensure that you are indeed on track;
c) Make a radio report on Information frequency;
d) Within the first five minutes - check that you are following the planned track, run through a
‘FREDA’ check and note ETO for the first turning point;
2) Enroute procedures:
a) Appreciate the importance of maintaining an accurate heading;
b) At a suitable intervals of time at selected checkpoints, check your position in relation to your planned
track. If you establish that you are definitely off-track, calculate the heading to regain required track;
c) Using distance markers, check time elapsed so far, and revise your ETO at next turning point;
d) Perform ‘FREDA’ checks every 10-15 minutes.
3) Turning point procedure – as you arrive at en-route turning point (in one minute before the turn), execute
four T’s:
Time – make a note of the actual time of arrival (ATO) in the navigation log;
Turn – turn onto your new heading, look for a significant landmark to confirm the direction is correct;
Talk – if applicable, report your position;
Task – from your ATO and planned leg time, calculate your ETO for the next point and enter it
navigation log, run through a ‘FREDA’ check.
4) Organising layout of the map, aerodrome charts and navigation instruments in the cockpit.
5) Use radio aids to navigation:
a) If a radionavigation aid is to be used for navigational assistance, it should be tuned, identified and set-
up as part of the pre-take-off checks;
b) Any radionavigation aid should only be used as an aid to visual navigation, not a substitute for map
reading.
6) Close Flight Plan if applicable:
a) With ATC before changing frequency to destination aerodrome;
b) After landing by the available means to the nearest ATS reporting office.
1) The solo cross-country exercise involves the application of all skills and experience accumulated by the
student throughout the training course. Before authorizing solo, assure yourself and the student that the
required competence to complete this exercise successfully has been achieved. Ensure that the student has
carried out adequate pre-flight planning and preparation unassisted.
2) Extreme care should be taken to ensure the weather is suitable, the aircraft is serviceable, with sufficient
fuel for the intended flight, and that the student has been thoroughly briefed on the correct procedure to be
followed for any probable event which may occur during the flight.
3) Prior to being authorized for a solo cross-country flight, students must have demonstrated that they can:
a) by application of a systematic pilot navigation technique, make necessary heading corrections to
maintain or regain track;
b) fly a heading with reasonable accuracy;
c) calculate reasonably accurate and useful time of arrival for the next turning point;
d) make unscheduled detours from the planned route;
e) record revised ETOs, new headings in the Navigation Log en route;
f) to identify transitional airfield and make appropriate arrival procedure.
Airmanship
Before getting into the aircraft go through a brief mental check:
- ‘I’m SAFE’ checklist: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Eating – If in any doubt – do not
fly;
- NEVER allow yourself to be pressurized into skipping checks or rushing flight planning in the
interests of saving time – you can always fly another day.
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Common errors
1. Calculations incomplete or inaccurate.
2. Failure to maintain selected heading.
3. Misinterpretation of chart symbols.
4. Failure to maintain specified altitude and speed.
5. Failure to maintain flight progress record.
6. Failure to frequently reset Heading Indicator to compass.
7. Neglected fuel flow management.
8. Inadequate cockpit workload management.
9. Failure to monitor and update ETA.
10. Becoming unsure of position.
11. Using incorrect radio frequencies.
12. Flight plan activation and/or closing ignored.
13. Collision avoidance, poor traffic scanning.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to visual navigation.
2. Follows the preplanned course by reference to landmarks and heading.
3. Identifies landmarks by relating surface features to chart symbols.
4. Navigates by means of pre-calculated headings, groundspeeds, and elapsed time.
5. Corrects for the differences between preflight heading and groundspeed calculations and those determined
en-route.
6. Maintains the airplane's position within three nautical miles of the flight-planned route.
7. Arrives at the en-route checkpoints within five minutes of the initial or revised ETA and provides a
destination estimate.
8. Maintains the appropriate altitude ± 150 feet and headings ±10°.
1. Maintains the airplane's position within two nautical miles of the flight-planned route.
2. Arrives at the en-route checkpoints within three minutes of the initial or revised ETA and provides a
destination estimate.
3. Maintains the appropriate altitude ±100 feet and headings ±10°.
References
AIP Enroute Part - Visual Flight Rules, Altimeter Setting Procedures, Flight Planning.
Things to Remember
Try to plan on one day and fly on another. Leave the final wind calculations to the day of the flight.
If confused, maintain the heading.
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Arriving and Departure Procedures to Uncontrolled Aerodrome

Aim:
To teach the student the arrival and departure procedures to uncontrolled aerodrome.
1) Radio procedures and altimeter settings.
2) Arrival procedures:
a) Standard overhead join.
Overhead joining provides a pilot with the best option for gaining situational awareness of the traffic
situation at an aerodrome, with no air traffic control service, and to safely integrate into the traffic
pattern. It is a sound safe procedure to carry out which takes into account the human factors of
airmanship and situational awareness. This standard overhead joining procedure has been adopted
for any piston-engine light aeroplane approaching to land at an airfield by convention rather than laid
down by regulation.
The overhead join on most occasions will be the best way to join. It takes very little extra time to join
overhead, especially if you have planned for the most likely scenario. Then you simply need to
confirm that the conditions are as you expected, and make good use of the opportunity an overhead
join gives you to see other traffic.
b) Joining traffic circuit directly. When there is no possibility for overhead join or you are inbound to an
airfield which is well known to you, and you are aware of the current runway in use and its
serviceability, it may not be necessary to overfly the airfield and the circuit may be joined anywhere
on the circuit path i.e. on crosswind, downwind or base leg. When joining any leg you should already
be at the circuit height.
3) Departure procedures.
4) Preparation.
If you are planning to join an unfamiliar aerodrome circuit, then your preparation begins on the ground:
- study the appropriate up-to-date aerodrome charts in Airfield Guide Lithuania;
- read NOTAM’s thoroughly;
- note any prominent reference points, spot heights and terrain that will be in the vicinity of the
aerodrome.
- think about: aerodrome elevation, circuit directions, radio frequencies, runway length, surface and
displaced thresholds, windsock locations, obstacles on the approach.
- start forming mental picture of how you will locate and approach the aerodrome.
Standard Overhead Join
1) When approaching the aerodrome, get the aerodrome chart and orientate it with respect to your heading.
Review the runway layout and note the position of the windsocks.
2) Descend or climb to joining height: 1000 ft (at least 500 ft) above the circuit height. If the aerodrome
plates don’t indicate specific traffic circuit height, use our common 900 ft AGL.
3) Approximately 3 NM (two minutes) before ATZ boundary change to aerodrome frequency and make a
radio call on entering aerodrome traffic zone to state your intentions so other pilots know you are joining
the circuit: “LY-..., 6 NM south-west of your field, 2500 ft by 1016, approaching for overhead join”.
4) Maintain established heading, follow the landmarks and be sure to identify an airfield positively. Use an
airfield visual approach chart to make identifying easier.
5) Having airfield in sight, track towards the runway’s threshold you are going to land on, maintaining your
altitude. Aim to position so that you arrive with the whole aerodrome suitably positioned on the left of the
aircraft.
6) Keep the aerodrome a suitable distance on your left side. Observe windsock, determine runway in use,
check the airfield area and boundaries for hazards – animals, power lines and other wires, ditches,
obstructions. If unable to do so straight away, continue circling. Lookout for other traffic. Make another
radio call: “LY-..., overhead 2500 ft”. Do not descend until you are sure of the runway in use. Look and
listen for traffic already established in a circuit. Overhead joining height (or greater) must be maintained
until the descent begins.
7) Positively identify a suitable runway (runway in use) and reconfirm the circuit direction. Start a descent
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over runway’s threshold towards the dead side of the determined (active) runway. Make radio call: “LY-
…, descending deadside1500 ft for runway xx”. From this point all subsequent turns during the descent
should be made in the applicable circuit direction. The aim of the descent on the dead side is to join the
crosswind leg over the upwind end of the runway in level flight at circuit height. Look carefully for other
aircraft in the circuit, and plan your descent to ensure adequate spacing for the downwind leg. Aircraft
already established in the circuit have the right of way. If the position of other aircraft in the circuit
doesn‘t allow you adequate spacing, continue circling at joining height on the dead side until you are
satisfied you can sequence comfortably.
8) Pass over the upwind threshold of the runway in level flight at circuit height so make sure you adjust your
path in order to do so.
9) Make radio call before you are turning downwind: “LY-…, joining left/right downwind runway xx”. At
the end of your crosswind leg join the circuit on downwind and proceed with the remainder of the circuit
as normal. Do not turn on to downwind too early.
10) It should go without saying that maintaining a good lookout is of paramount importance. There is always
the potential of a mid-air collision between you and traffic already established in the circuit, so an active
scan must be maintained at all times. Remember to scan both inside and outside the circuit pattern for
traffic.
Joining the circuit directly
Also it is possible to join the circuit directly (i.e. via the downwind, base leg, or final) by observing the
movement of other traffic.
Options for joining traffic circuit directly at the traffic circuit height:
a) When approaching from live side of the runway, join downwind or base leg, or make straight in
approach to final;
b) When approaching from dead side of the runway start the crosswind leg over upwind threshold of
the runway to join the downwind leg.
Maintain a careful lookout and listening watch for other traffic to help you determine your position in
the circuit sequence.
Aerodrome Departure Procedures
Departure is usually done by 3 methods:
1) Depart overhead. Proceed straight out on the runway heading until at circuit altitude, then turn as
desired and keep climbing to over the middle of the aerodrome (at least 500 ft above traffic circuit
height). Plan your track to level-off before the overhead point and on the next planned heading.
Watch out for aircrafts arriving overhead.
2) You can set the course on leaving the circuit. Climb straight away from the airport on upwind or
proceed normal circuit pattern and in the intended place make a turn to heading to your next
point. When clear of the traffic circuit climb to your planned altitude.
3) At the airfields with exit/entry points leave traffic circuit at the appropriate place and proceed to
the exit point at the traffic circuit height.
1) After starting the descent from overhead all manoeuvring should be done so that the airfield activities
always remain in sight (all turns must be made in the circuit direction). Care should be taken when joining
overhead as other aircraft can also be joining.
2) Non-standard joining procedures may apply at some airfields. Always check if there are special
procedures for the airfield into which you are flying.
3) Note that only the pattern of the standard circuit is fixed, its dimensions, e.g. the length of the downwind
leg or its distance from the runway, are variable; but it is good practice to fly a nice, tight circuit. This
also allows a forced landing to be safely accomplished on the airfield should power be lost.
4) Maintain a good lookout around the aircraft and a continuous listening watch on the radio. Both are
critical to a safe overhead join. Formulate a picture of where other aircraft are and what their intentions
might be. Keep in mind there may be non-radio equipped aircraft joining or already established in the
circuit.
5) Try to determine the prevailing wind direction by aircraft drift, smoke, dust, clouds shadows movement on
the ground. Don‘t let a preconception fool you though. You must identify the correct runway in use by
sighting the windsocks. Extra care should be taken in light or nil wind conditions. These are the days
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when different pilots may choose different (possibly opposing) runways.
6) Avoid high rates of descent, high angles of bank, and high airspeeds at all times during your join.
7) It is generally easier to see the aerodrome layout and windsocks by making lefthand orbits. Don‘t get too
tight in the orbit, and position yourself so that only medium angles of bank are required. You can take
plenty of time to identify the correct runway – several laps of the aerodrome may be required.
8) If the runway is long, after descent it can be safer to cross more towards the centre of the runway, while
leaving yourself enough time in the downwind leg. This will lessen the chance of conflict with any high
performance aircraft on takeoff.
9) It is important to be at circuit height before crossing the runway – this makes it easier to see aircraft in the
downwind leg against the horizon and eliminates the possibility of descending on top of other circuit
traffic.
It is equally important not to descend lower than circuit height, to keep separation between yourself and
any aircraft taking off.
10) Joining traffic circuit directly does not allow you to view all the windsocks, inspect the surface condition
of the runway, note any ground movements or hazards, or assess any other unexpected situations. If you
do choose to join this way, expect the unexpected.
Airmanship
On approaching to the airfield it is the responsibility of the joining aircraft to integrate safely into the
existing circuit pattern.
The key to a successful circuit join is situational awareness. Get it and keep it. If you lose it, remove yourself
from the circuit until you have it back.
Be well organised and anticipate each step of the process.
Common errors
References
Aircraft Flight Manual, Visual Flight Rules.
Things to Remember
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Lost Procedure
Aim:
To explain and execute lost procedures, selecting the best course of action when given a lost situation.
1) There is quite a difference between being lost and being temporarily uncertain of position. Being uncertain
of position may happen, for instance, when flying over featureless terrain where good landmarks may be
10 – 20 minutes apart. In between such landmarks you can estimate your probable location, but this is just
educated guess until the next landmark is identified. If you have been uncertain of your position for more
than 20 – 30 minutes, you should consider yourself lost.
2) No one likes to admit they are lost and pilots are no exception. However the ability to recognize when you
are lost and to take decisive steps to rectify the situation is of great importance to pilots. If the check point
you are expecting does not appear when you expect it or what you see outside no longer matches what
you see on your chart you may well be off course.
3) The lost procedure is a high workload activity and can lead to significant stress, especially if you are lost
because of the fear factor, and you have likely opened yourself to unknowns such as new airports, new
terrain, will I have enough fuel, etc. Success depends on your ability as a pilot to keep a cool head and
carefully follow the recipe (a procedure) for success. Using a lost procedure check list is a good idea.
Success in all aviation high work load situations has the same demand: a cool, analytical head and clean
execution of the proper procedure, one step at a time.
Don't panic, perform the five C's:
a. Confess to yourself that you are lost;
b. Climb to the route (airspace) ceiling or above minimum safe altitude;
c. Conserve fuel (slow down);
d. Communicate to appropriate controlling agency;
e. Comply with controller's instructions (fuel permitting).
4) If there are no pronounced ground references in sight to search for features you can use an expanding
square search. Starting over the orbiting landmark turn onto a quadrantal heading, e.g. north, and fly that
heading for 2 minutes then turn 90°, e.g. west, and fly that for 2 minutes. Log the times and headings.
Systematically scan the surrounds starting with the area closest to the aircraft then moving out to the middle
distance. Repeat for two more legs but fly these for 3 minutes each. The next 2 legs are flown for 4 minutes
each and so the expanding pattern is repeated, extending each pair by one minute, until a position is
pinpointed or you are well outside the circle of uncertainty and a precautionary landing might be a wise
action. Do not fly around in increasing circles, always fly planned (and logged) headings and durations.
Being lost is not an emergency in itself and there is usually no reason why you should not be able to
locate your actual position before too long. Follow the procedure to recover your position:
1) Why are you lost? Did you incorrectly fix your position earlier? Check the heading indicator against the
magnetic compass. Has the planned heading been flown (it is possible to confuse 300°, 330° and 030°
especially)? Does the planned heading and ETA look sensible? Have you been flying the correct heading
for this part of the route?
2) Maintain the original heading, or hold your present position over a prominent landmark.
Start by circling, climbing and determining your position. Circling (flying race tracks or figure-8 orbits)
keeps you over the same place. Find a ground reference and keep it in sight. A barn, a pond, etc. work
fine. A circling strategy is to reduce power and attain a safe cruise airspeed, don't get carried away as you
are trying to conserve fuel and you aren't going anywhere because you are lost.
Do a gentle slow climb (being mindful of airspace limits and weather). Greater altitude widens the
horizon and increases radio and navigation reception range.
3) Assess your situation. What is your remaining fuel endurance? How much daylight is left? Make a note of
the time. Are you flying at a safe height – what is the safety altitude?
4) If you have to establish your position without outside help, draw a circle of uncertainty. This is done by
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estimating your position (based on time since last positive position fix, the distance that will have been
flown in that time and the direction flown) and then drawing a circle around it, whose radius is 10% of the
distance since the last known position fix.
Now read from ground to map, looking for prominent landmarks and features that can be related to a
position inside the circle of uncertainty. When you have a reasonable idea of your location attempt to
identify further distinct features to confirm your identification such as bridges, crossroads or other
geographical features. If you are still unable to locate your position, consider following a line feature. For
example railway lines normally run into towns.
If you see something you know is on the chart, point the aircraft at that object until the magnetic compass
is stationary and note the heading on the compass, then resume your position hold by restarting the bank
you had a moment ago. If you use the reciprocal of the direction to the object you aimed at, you can draw
a line of position (LOP) on your chart from that object. You are on this line.
5) If you are unable to determine your location visually, use available radio navigation aids. Crossing two
different VOR radials or using a radial and a range (DME value) will allow you create a position on your
chart. Use GPS as appropriate.
6) Use the radio. There is no reason to remain lost for long if you are able to contact an ATC/ATSU station.
Transmit on the frequency you have been using and tell them you are lost.
Use PAN PAN call if necessary. If unable to establish contact, you are lost and low on fuel or unable to
maintain VFR conditions, transmit your situation on the emergency frequency – 121.5 MHz and place
code 7700 in the transponder. Follow the instructions you receive, but remain in visual flying conditions.
7) Periodically re-assess your situation, especially with regard to fuel, deteriorating weather and daylight
remaining. If you do not see an airfield during your search, consider making a precautionary landing in a
suitable field before the situation becomes critical. Remain in control of the aircraft and make use of
available fuel and daylight - don’t push beyond your own endurance and ability or that of the aircraft.
8) If you established your location (identified the feature) decide to continue on, return home or divert.
Should a diversion become necessary use the diversion procedure.
A good way to practice lost procedures is to have student fly by instruments for a while using a view limiting
device and then ask him to establish his position visually or by using radio navigation.
Airmanship
Common errors
1. Not having the heading indicator set to the Magnetic Compass.
2. Failure to find a prominent landmark and identify it on the map.
3. Failure to have sufficient altitude to gain a better view of the terrain.
4. Failure to utilize the radio aids in the area/GPS to help determine position.
5. Failure to ask for assistance if unable to determine position.
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to lost procedures.
2. Selects an appropriate course of action.
3. Maintains an appropriate heading and climbs, if necessary.
4. Identifies prominent landmarks.
5. Uses navigation systems/facilities and/or contacts an ATC facility for assistance, as appropriate.
References
Things to Remember
Keep clam and fly the plane.
If you don't know where you are at, don't go somewhere else - keep your present position.
The basic rule for self-correcting a lost situation is to follow the axiom - Aviate, Navigate and Communicate.
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Chapter 4 Norma Operations IFR

The graphical descriptions of BAA procedures are not illustrated in this chapter. They are
appendices of the Flight Crew Training Manual.
Nevertheless, the relevant valid Flight Circuits together with a valid Training Manual (General
section) must be available and cross read during the study of this chapter.
The techniques described in this chapter are complementary to the general procedures described
in OM and AFM and were developed for standardized application of these procedures during
initial IFR training.
4.1 General
All BAA flights require a complete flight preparation according to BAA OM.
Good mission preparation is essential for good mission conduction. E.g. preparation of TODs for
different altitudes will help in the beginning of the IFR training as well as preparing a “script” for
the conduction of an IFR flight. The basis for that script is a well prepared and detailed flight log.
This will definitely help in the planning and conduction of more complex missions.
The Mission Briefing shall be used by students and instructors to raise possible problems or
expected difficulties together with their possible solutions.
The Mission Briefing is, like the Crew Briefing in Airline Operation, the point to ensure that the
mission preparation is completed and that all crew members have the required and up to date
documentation, charts and maps available.
Note
The Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) calculation for Single Engine flying over water must be
considered as well for IFR flights with SEP (land) airplanes!
This may result in a MSA to be flown which is higher than the published MEA/MOCA/etc.
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The IFR procedures described in this chapter are in accordance to ICAO Doc.8168 and shall be
applied at all times during operation.
BAA applies some procedures which require the use of different speeds compared to the AFM.
The speeds flown during these procedures are higher than the standard VAPP and approach
speeds for some portions of the approach.
Purpose of these procedures is training and preparing the students towards their future work as an
airline pilot. Compliance with these procedures guarantees a safe operation, a maximum of
flexibility in a constantly increasing traffic density and allows crew compatibility.
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4.2 Instrument Flight Maneuvers
4.2.1 General
The maneuvers described in this section are those most commonly used during instrument flight.
Additional maneuvers, or some modification thereof, may be required for training purposes. The
degree of proficiency attained in accomplishing these maneuvers is the basis for precise
instrument flight. An instrument flight, regardless of its length or complexity, is a series of
connected basic instrument flight maneuvers.
Keeping this in mind, the pilot will find that she/he is always performing a familiar maneuver, a
maneuver which has been practiced during the “Air work” phase of an IFR training mission.
In the beginning of the IFR training the student pilot has to develop her/his instrument scan and
cross check as well as the ability to stabilize an aircraft by pure reference to instruments.
The application of the control performance concept and the use of the provided pitch and power
tables are fundamental for the success in IFR flying.
This will be accomplished by practice of the Basic Maneuvers as described in and the Air work
Maneuvers.
The next step is to practice different phases of IFR procedures in an air work environment. This
means no ATC, radio calls, clearances, local procedures etc. required and thereby full
concentration on flying is possible.
Only thorough practice of IFR procedural steps and maneuvers during air work will enable a
pilot to consider the information received from the navigational instruments or traffic controller
as advising the pilot, what maneuver to perform, where to perform it, and what adjustment, if
any, is required. Instrument approach charts, however, should be considered as pictorial
presentations of a series of connected instrument flight maneuvers.
By visualizing the next maneuver, the pilot can plan ahead and know exactly what technique to
employ.
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4.2.2 Attitude Flying

In the beginning of IFR training Attitude Flying will be practiced in different levels to develop
the student’s cross check and ability to understand and use the provided pitch and power tables.
The basic level of Attitude Flying consists of a sequence of different speeds while maintaining
straight and level flight. The instructor will order the next speed and the student will apply the
necessary pitch and power changes to achieve and stabilize that speed in straight and level flight,
always in consideration of the pitch and power tables.
During this exercise the student will as well develop the ability to anticipate an upcoming
required power change and thereby to avoid a deceleration or acceleration through given speeds.
The technique to be consolidated is called “leading the power”. Since bigger speed changes are
usually achieved by initially setting an anticipated power setting it is very possible that the
desired speed will be undershot in decelerations or overshot in accelerations. In order to avoid
that, a pilot should have the awareness to adjust the power setting when reaching the desired
speed. For BAA used training airplanes the power setting should be adjusted about 5 knots prior
the desired speed.
The next level of Attitude Flying includes configuration changes. The instructor will order a new
speed and a configuration while maintaining straight and level flight. In this exercise the student
shall solve the problem of combining the required pitch and power changes for the speed change
and for the configuration change. The student must as well develop and show the situational
awareness to stay within the aircraft specific speed limitations for flaps and as appropriate for
gear extension or retraction. This exercise is used to prepare the student for IFR approach
procedures out of a level profile like under radar vectors.
In the next level of Attitude Flying the instructor will include climbs and descents and turns. It is
still the instructor’s responsibility to “order” the next parameters and to stay in the training area.
The ROD used should be appropriate for a 3° glide path and the ROC shall be either given by the
instructor or according to normal go-around and climb out procedures.
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Nevertheless this phase shall train the student to apply all single phases of IFR flights including
the final approach and the go-around / Missed Approach.
As a next step the student shall train to establish and maintain given parameters while following
a complex procedure. The student will also be responsible for area management.
BAA uses 2 basic IFR air work circuit which represent a sequence of standard IFR procedures
like procedure turns.
Circuit A
Circuit A is based primarily on time and standard rate turns. Time all turns and roll out according
to clock.
FNPT II C172S P2006T
NORMAL CRUISE XXX KIAS 110 KIAS 130 KIAS
LOW CRUISE XX KIAS 90 KIAS 110 KIAS
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Circuit B:
Circuit B is based primarily on headings.
Time only the straight sections and roll out of turns on proper headings. Use Flaps Full and
consider calm wind for Vapr calculation.
Execute go-around procedure with a climb to original altitude.
FNPT II C172S P2006T

NORMAL CRUISE XXX KIAS 110 KIAS 130 KIAS
LOW CRUISE XX KIAS 90 KIAS 110 KIAS
Finally these Circuits can be flown including intercepting and maintaining predetermined
courses and or partial panel.
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4.2.3 Timed Turns and use of the Magnetic Compass

Heading indicator failure may require using the magnetic compass for heading information.
Remember that this instrument provides reliable information only during straight, level, and
constant airspeed flight. Because of this limitation, timed turns are recommended when making
heading changes by reference to the magnetic compass.
A timed turn is accomplished by establishing a bank attitude on the attitude indicator that will
result in a desired rate of turn as shown by the turn needle. A single needle width deflection on a
2 minute turn needle indicates 3°per second rate of turn (standard rate), while a double needle
width deflection indicates 6° per second rate of turn (double standard rate) and a half deflection
indicates a 1.5° per second rate of turn (half standard rate).
The required AoB for a standard rate turn should be pre-determined by the pilot because of the
very unsteady indication of the turn needle. The following formula provides a rather precise AoB
for standard rate turns:
AoB = (TAS/10) x 1.5 or (TAS/10) +5
The heading change is accomplished by maintaining the desired rate of turn for a predetermined
time. Timing should be started when control pressure is applied to begin the turn, and roll out
when the time has elapsed, i.e. 120 sec for 360° heading change, 60 sec for 180° heading change,
30 sec for 90° heading change, 15 sec for a 45° heading change.
Although timed turns are preferred when using the magnetic compass as a heading reference, an
alternate method may be used. Turns to headings can be made by applying control pressures to
roll out of a turn when reaching a predetermined lead point on the magnetic compass. The
aircraft’s angle of bank should not exceed 15° in order to minimize dip error. Dip error must also
be considered in computing the lead point at which to begin rolling out of a turn. The dip error is
biggest when turning to a heading of north or south, and the smallest when turning to a heading
of east or west.
Turning to a northerly heading, the compass lacks behind the actual heading. The roll out has to
be initiated undershooting the desired heading.
Turning to southerly heading the compass will be turning ahead of the actual heading. The
desired heading has to be overshot.
UNOS – Undershoot North, Overshoot South
The number of degrees, undershooting north or overshooting south, are biggest when turning
directly north or south.
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The Lead Point where the roll out should be started is depending on Angle of Bank and the
latitude where the turn is flown.
Lead Point = Desired Heading +/- LAT +/- 1/3 AoB Latitude Correction:
Left turn: + north / – south
Right turn: – north / + south
BUT:
Reduce the “Latitude correction” by 10% for every 10° the Desired Heading is off
180° or 360°.
Desired Heading 360/180 = 100% Latitude correction Desired Heading 090/270 =

0% Latitude correction
Example:
Start Heading 240° Desired Heading 360° Latitude 30° Lead Point = 360 – 30 – 5 = 325°
BUT:
Start Heading 240° Desired Heading 330° Latitude 30° Lead Point = 330 – (30 x 70%) – 5 =
330 – 21 – 5 = 304°
Due to the design and functionality of a Mag Compass it is additionally influenced by

acceleration and deceleration forces. The resulting misleading indication will be biggest when
flying directly west- or eastbound.
Acceleration will cause an indication deviation to the north, deceleration to the south.
ANDS – Accelerate North, Decelerate South
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4.2.4 Vertical S
As basic Attitude Flying is used in the beginning of the IFR training to train basic skills
regarding changes of speed and configurations in straight and level flight, a pilot must as well be
able to change within the conditions of level flight, descent and climb while maintaining other
parameters like speed, heading or a rate of turn.
The main objective of flying Vertical S maneuvers is to apply the pitch and power principle, to
maintain a complex cross check and to anticipate the right moment and intensity of control input
changes.
All Vertical S maneuvers will be flown with the following speeds:
FNPT II xxx KIAS
C172S: 100 KIAS
P2006T: 120 KIAS
ROD/ROC 500 ft/min
Standard rate turns (if required)
For all types of Vertical S maneuvers it is essential that the pilot knows the exact amount of pitch
and power change to establish the required descent, climb or level flight while maintaining the
given speed.
The required pitch change at a specific TAS for a given ROD/ROC can be calculated by use of
the 1:60 rule. Applying the 1:60 rule we know that at 60 NM 1° change of angle equals 1 NM
(= 6000 ft)
If we substitute 60 NM by speed 60 kts or 60 NM/hr or 60 NM/60 minutes or 1 NM/minute or

6000 ft/minute, we get a calculation we can use to compute the required pitch change for a
certain ROD:
At a TAS of 6000 ft/minute a 1° change of pitch will result in 1/60 x 6000 ft/minute or 100
ft/minute. The resulting formula is:
ROD (ft/min) = (TAS / 60) x degrees pitch change x 100
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Example:
TAS 120 kts pitch change 3°
ROD = (120 / 60) x 3 x100 = 2 x 3 x 100 = 600 ft/min
If the desired ROD or ROC is known the formula should be changed to:
Degrees pitch change = ROD / ((TAS / 60) x100) or ROD / ((NM/min) x 100)
Example:
TAS 120 kts desired ROD 500 ft/min
500 / ((120 / 60) x 100) = 500 / 2 x 100 = 500 / 200 = 2.5
The required pitch change is 2.5°
Since the climbs and descents should be performed with a constant TAS or IAS, a pilot has to
know about the required power change. Altitude, speed and power are “energies”. If the speed
stays constant a pilot must know about the relationship between power and altitude or in this case
between power and rate of descent/climb.
For BAA used training aircraft this relationship can be expressed as approx.
100 RPM = 100 ft/min for the FNTP II / C172S / P2006T
Adjusting the power by this rule we will get parameters “in the ball park” of what we want. Some
adjustments may be necessary.
The calculations above should be already done during the mission preparation. During the
maneuver the pilot must concentrate on his/her cross check to stay within 5° heading, 5 knots and
100 ft/min ROD/ROC.
The biggest challenge during this maneuver is the change over from descent to climb and vice
versa. Like for a normal level off the changeover should be initiated about 10% prior the
respective altitude out of descents and 5% out of climbs. The pitch changes must be coordinated
with the power changes to stay within the given allowed deviations, especially regarding the
speed.
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There are multiple versions of Vertical S maneuvers. BAA uses 3 standard versions:
4.2.4.1 Vertical S1
The Vertical S 1 will be flown straight ahead
Initial Altitude
X –200 ft
X – 300 ft
X – 500 ft X – 400 ft
4.2.4.2 Vertical S2
During the Vertical S2 standard rate turns will be performed by changing the direction of turn
every time the pilot changes over from descent to climb and vice versa.
Perfectly the pilot will have turned exactly the number of degrees as shown in the graph below.
At the end of the maneuver the aircraft’s altitude and heading should be the same as at the
beginning of the maneuver.
Initial Altitude X X/H X/H X/H X/H Initial Heading

H
X-500ft X-400ft X-300ft X-200ft

H +/- 180° H +/- 144° H +/- 108° H +/- 72°
4.2.4.3 Vertical S3
During the Vertical S3 standard rate turns will be performed by changing the direction of turn
after 180° of turn.
This way the student will have to change the direction of turn only once, at the bottom of the
descent and once at the top of the climb after the first vertical curve. All the other changes must
be performed during the climb or descent which appears easier but as well the change over from
climb to descent must be performed while performing a standard rate turn.
Initial Altitude X X X X X Initial Heading

H
X-500ft X-400ft X-300ft X-200ft
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4.2.5 Interceptions
The pilot’s capability of intercepting radials, QDM/QDR, courses of any kind depends on
instrument interpretation, two dimensional imagination and practice. Like in many other
situations in aviation some “Rules of Thumb” will help to come to a fast and reasonable solution
if told by ATC to intercept a course. Although there is not really a law about how to do an
intercept, some basic rules and considerations apply:
The pilot is expected to leave his/her present course with an angle of at least 30°. The pilot is
expected to intercept the new course with an angle of at least 30°
An interception inbound a station shall of course lead the aircraft onto the new course before the
station. An outbound interception shall be performed in a way which is reasonable for the aim to
fly outbound The resulting intercept heading shall not exceed 90°
Interceptions beyond the station are not discussed in this chapter.
In order to fulfill these rules and considerations the D+30 technique is the most spread way of
calculating interceptions and is used at BAA. The following graphical descriptions show
examples for inbound and outbound interceptions using the RMI.
For use of HSI and OBS the same rules and techniques apply but demand some additional work
handling the CDI knob!
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4.2.5.1 Inbound Interception
Inbound:
Follow the compass rose of the RMI from your desired course towards your present QDM /
bearing / inbound course and add 30°. There is the intercept heading to be flown.
Example:
Flying on the present QDM 055 / Radial 235 inbound and ordered to intercept QDM 090 /
Radial 270 inbound.
“Calculation”: Go from Desired Course 090° to present course 055° and continue by 30° Result:
Intercept Heading is 025o
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4.2.5.2 Outbound Interception
Outbound: Take the difference between your present and your desired course and add the fixed
value of 30°. This number will be added/subtracted to/from the desired course (to be intercepted)
Example:
Flying on the present Radial / QDR of 270° and ordered to intercept Radial / QDR 235°
Calculation: D = (270 – 235) = 35 + 30 = 65
Desired Radial /QDR 235 – 65 = 170° intercept heading
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4.3 Preflight Procedures and Ground Operation

The IFR preflight procedures and ground operations stay basically the same as introduced and
practiced during VFR operations with the following exemptions:
A.) The minimum aircraft equipment required for IFR operation differs from the minimum
equipment required for VFR operation. The limitations and required equipment according AFM
and laid down in national regulations have to be strictly adhered to!
B.) The ATC call after the BEFORE START check-list includes the request for startup if so
required by local procedure.
C.) After receiving the clearance the student has to do a NAV setup by maximum use of all
available instruments and NAV equipment. Pre-selected frequencies should be used according to
the clearance or alternatively according flight plan and the planned mission flow. The LOC/ILS
frequency of the departure airport should only be pre-selected if that approach is the first planned
approach to be flown.
If available the cleared SID and cleared route have to be entered in the flight plan up to and
including the first planned approach. This flight plan has to be constantly updated during the
mission.
If available MFD is set to the MAP menu.
For IFR operation all instrument indications have to be checked in limits:
Each altimeter has to indicate +/- 60 ft of the reference altitude with the correct QNH set.
If any G950/1000 data base is invalid according the date displayed, the respective NAV
information must not be used for primary navigation. The respective NAV information may only
be used as secondary navigational reference if the PIC ensures primary navigation by other
means at all times (VOR, DME, NDB and RNAV).
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The indication of the directional gyro has to be cross checked with the magnetic compass.
If the VSI does not indicate level flight the difference must be kept in mind and considered
during the flight. If the indication differs of more than +/- 100 ft/min on ground the VSI should
rather not be used for primary control of a descent.
The ADF and VOR indications shall be checked as soon as possible within 3° of a known
radial/QDM and if equipped with 2 independently operating instruments the difference must not
exceed 4°.
All selected Nav aids will be identified, if possible and if required for departure already on
ground. Pre-selected Nav aids will be identified after being selected for the use of the Nav aid.
Every time a frequency is deselected and selected again, the Nav aid has to be identified again.
Then the Student / PIC will brief the departure after the NAV setup and while briefing
crosscheck correct Nav Set up.
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4.4 IFR Flight Operations

4.4.1 General
IFR flying bases on the ability to apply the Pitch and Power concept, to stabilize the aircraft in all
phases of flight and to apply aircraft and company specific procedures while flying along and
adhering to departure, en route, arrival or approach procedures.
Executing a professional IFR mission will only be possible with that proper flight preparation
and planning BEFORE the flight and maintaining a high Situational Awareness DURING the
flight.
All these abilities combined with “good judgment” and procedural knowledge will enable the
pilot to stay “ahead of the aircraft”. Only then the pilot will be able to act and not only to react!
Since IFR flight plans will not provide the pilot's entire and exact plan of an entire mission to the
ATC controllers, the pilot has to be in the position to tell ATC his/her requests and what he/she
intends to do next. The procedures used at BAA are the pilot's tools to maneuver the airplane
precisely and without delay. The knowledge about the effects of the present wind, the aircraft's
performance (i.e.: turn radius) and the ability to identify and monitor the aircraft's position in
space are essential for IFR flying.
Inflight planning does not only mean that the pilot knows where to go next. The pilot must also
have a plan about:
 the selection of next or best available/required NAV aid,
 updating the G1000 (FMGC or FMS in Airline Transport Airplanes),
 when to turn to the next course,
 how to intercept the next course,
 descent planning
 the time available for the next duties,
 STAR/approach planning,
 aircraft configuration and
the effects of the wind and the fuel situation at all times.
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Updating the NAV equipment continuously and throughout the entire mission by use of all
available NAV equipment is a result of preflight and inflight planning and will help to maintain a
high situational awareness. Therefore a selected course, or NAV aid, or a procedure set in the
GNS flight plan, which is not used or required anymore will be replaced as soon as possible by
the next required or at least useful one.
Good inflight planning can be achieved by some questions a pilot should ask himself/herself
continuously during flight:
“What is next? When do I have to do it and when does it make sense to do it?”
Since IFR rated pilots have to be able to fly in IMC without any visual references, these
conditions will be simulated during training by the use of the “hood” or foggles. Both are vision
limiting devices to take away other than instrument references from the student pilot.
This way the student pilot will develop a pure instrument scan and cross check.
The Auto Pilot will be used on the instructor's discretion. Nevertheless the student pilot shall be
prepared to handle all aircraft systems, all available navigational systems and the Auto Pilot at all
times.
The Auto Pilot modes used are HDG, ALT, VS and NAV. The APP mode may be introduced to
the student but will not be used for normal operations during initial multi-engine training.
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4.4.2 Flight Control Techniques
For a standardized flight operation the following additional techniques will be used:
A) Turns:
All turns for heading changes up to 30° will be performed with an AoB of half the heading
change but maximum standard rate.
Example:
A heading change of 20° requires an AoB of 10°.
All other turns above 500 ft AGL will be performed as standard rate turns but applying not more
than 25° AoB. Since a pilot should set a planned attitude, he/she must have an idea about the
required AoB before starting the turn.
Formula: AoB (stand. Rate) = TAS / 10 x 1.5 or TAS/10+5
B) Descents:
In jet operation descents are generally planned and performed as idle descends.
In BAA operation a constant glide path angle of 3° will be performed whenever possible.
Alternatively a fixed power setting descent (simulated “idle jet”) with the following standard
cruise, descent speeds and power settings may be used in order to train the student toward jet
handling characteristics:
FNPT II xxx-xxx KIAS
C172S: 120-130 KIAS
P2006T: 140-150 KTAS
Idle power descents are not recommended for piston aircraft because this may lead to an
excessive cool down rate of the cylinder heads (see AFM for limitations).
The power settings for 3° descents for FNPT II / C172S / P2006T will be calculated by the rule
of thumb which is.
100 RPM= 100 fpm ROD.
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This combination of speed and power will approximately produce a 3° descent path and required
descent distances can be calculated accordingly. The required ROD for this angle has to be
calculated according this publication. In this case the power setting will vary in order to maintain
ROD and IAS/TAS as required.
Note
Monitor and adjust the power setting during all descents for a constant speed and ROD.
4.4.3 Use of Stopwatch
The proper use of stopwatch is vital even in highly automated cockpits. It is a primary means for
the pilot to monitor critical time dependent events like fuel ignition when starting a jet engine,
proper spacing after an aircraft in order to avoid wake turbulence, complying with engine power
limitations (e.g. T/O power for a maximum of 5 minutes) or timing during a non-precision (2D)
approach without DME.
In order to operate our training aircraft properly and in order to train for the future the following
rules apply:
Only onboard time keeping devices shall be used, wristwatches may only serve as backup.
Always check and set clocks as precisely as possible.
Use the following equipment for timing purposes:
FNPT II / C172S / P2006T: Watch and time up/down counter on G1000
Besides for navigational purposes as required by procedure or other technical requirements (e.g.
engine cool down time etc.) a timing is always mandatory at:
• Starting T/O run (T/O PWR limitation and determination of T/O time)
• Fix passage
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4.4.4 Cockpit Organization
Pilots have to assure that at all times during flight all necessary maps, charts and documents are
readily available and stored for use in an orderly manner. It has to be noted that even with
upcoming paperless cockpit technologies, the organizational task stays the same and that only the
physical handling of paper will not occur. So if you develop a suitable organizational structure
according to the conventional way, this will help you in the paperless cockpit too.
In order to be able to achieve that in a tight cockpit with limited storage capability and under the
possible stress of a mission the following rules will help to organize and improve your work:
A.) After final flight preparation sort and pre store your maps, charts and documents as follows:
The FLIGHT LOG together with the Performance Sheet, ATC flight plan, METAR/TAF, SIG
and WIND charts and NOTAMS are called “Briefing Package” and represent the same order in
which you will receive it during airline operations.
B.) All required charts (DEP, DEST, ALTN) as well as all suitable airports which you can reach
for safety reasons and maps shall be pre stored in an A5 folder from which you can take out maps
or charts as required. As no chart holders are installed in BAA aircraft yet the use of a suitable
kneeboard for chart is mandatory.
C.) When arriving at the aircraft assure that all checklists and the QRH are in place and arrange
your folders so that they are in easy reach.
D.) When in flight take out only one set of airport charts out of your folder and stow them back
in the correct order of the pages when you depart to another airport and when you do not need
them anymore. This will reduce the risk of mixing charts or losing them in the cockpit.
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4.5 Takeoff, Departure and Climb

A Takeoff shall only be commenced when the pilot is completely prepared for the departure.
The Takeoff will be conducted as shown in Flight Circuit for Takeoff and Departure.
After being airborne let the aircraft roll slowly to the wind corrected heading while releasing the
crosswind controls used in the T/O run.
After passing minimum 200 ft AAL the pilot may initiate a turn towards a heading for a course
interception with a maximum Angle of Bank (AoB) of 15°. Major turns shall not be performed
below 500 ft AAL unless required by the respective SID.
The pilot has to transition from mainly visual references to mainly or even solely instrument
references during the lift off and initial climb phase. For practice of that transition and to
simulate IMC the student pilots will use a hood or foggles in order to eliminate visual references.
The hood or IFR foggles will be used upon instructor's decision.
Situation permitting but not below 1500 ft AAL the student pilot shall start with the flight log
entries up to airwork or the first airport where an approach is planned.
The Auto Pilot may be used during the departure on the instructor's discretion. Bear in mind that
the close monitoring of the autopilots performance by the pilot flying is mandatory and vital
during every flight phase!
Deviations from SID courses, tracks and headings or altitude restrictions are only acceptable in
case of emergency or after receiving an appropriate clearance.
Note
The graphical description of a published SID is not to scale and shows rather, if at all, a possible
track of the fastest aircraft category.
The course lines and interceptions illustrated will differ from the actual track hence the resulting
interceptions flown are depending on aircraft speed and wind conditions.
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4.6 Cruise and Enroute Navigation

4.6.1 General
The procedures and duties during IFR and VFR enroute flying are almost identical: The duties
approaching an IFR waypoint are:
 waypoint (VOR, NDB, Radial/DME, Fix, GPS fix, ...) identification.
 selecting the next course/radial to be flown on the HSI or OBS,
 pre selecting the next required Nav aid,
 determining the required WCA for the next leg,
 recheck of G950/1000 set up and operation,
 determining the Distance of Lead (DOL) or intercept
 briefing of the next leg,
 completing the FLIGHT LOG (ATO, next waypoint ETO and fuel entry)
At the determined DOL to the way point a standard rate turn or Auto Pilot turn will be initiated to
roll out on the desired course. BAA philosophy is to maintain the original inbound course until
that DOL is reached from where the new course will be intercepted in one turn.
If required a position report will be performed during or after the turn to the new course. After
these duties an OPS check will be performed including the directional gyro.
If the previous and the next waypoints are NDBs, BAA crews will
• either change the ADF frequency at the published change over point or
• follow the QDR of the previous waypoint NDB and change to the next ADF frequency after
1/3 up to half of the distance to follow the QDM toward the next waypoint NDB.
This way the aircraft will be maneuvered within the most precise possible area.
The aim is to turn onto and maintain a desired or planned or published course with a maximum
deviation of 5°.
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4.6.2 Homing
Homing is defined as flying inbound to a specific point (VOR, NDB, Fix, ...) without correcting
the heading for the influence of wind. This will result in the aircraft's longitudinal axis pointing
continuously towards the VOR/NDB, respectively the ADF needle pointing to the RMI lubber
line/12 o'clock position. Since the aircraft will drift due to the wind, the heading will constantly
change and the flight path will be a curved line instead of a straight track.
Homing is not desirable and shall be avoided because
 the flight distance will be considerably extended,
 thus the time and fuel calculation will be influenced in a negative way and
 the maximum allowed margin of flying +/- 5° of the published course will not be
maintained.
4.6.3 Tracking
Tracking is defined by flying on a given course line. That means making desired course and
flown track identical.
Tracking can be performed using the HSI or OBS. The Course Deviation Bar (CDI) will show
where the pilot’s desired track is. The goal is to keep the CDI centred.
Tracking can also be performed using the RMI. The goal is to keep the Course Indicator needle
steady.
Whatever instrument is used the key to successful tracking is to find that specific wind corrected
heading that will keep the aircraft on a ground track which is identical to the desired course.
The limits for tracking are to stay within 5° of a given course. This requires the pilot’s awareness
about the aircraft’s position in relation to the station (VOR, NDB, …) regarding bearing and
distance and the ability to detect a deviation as soon as possible. If the deviation from the desired
course has already occurred the pilot is expected to correct back to the desired course and re-
establish the tracking as soon as practical to stay within 5°.
A course deviation of more than 5° is likely and covered by the respective procedure as the
VOR/NDB is approached. There is no specific distance specified by official regulations at which
the 5° may be left. PANS OPS refer to “a reasonable distance from the station”.
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Headings will be selected to maintain a track.
Headings will already be calculated during the flight preparation (FLIGHT LOG!) using a
calculator. Deviations from the planned route require in flight planning and
Variations from the forecasted wind require in flight re-planning.
Tracking can be easily achieved by calculating and applying the correct WCA while flying
coordinated. The WCA is either calculated by
 taking the difference between directional gyro heading and the track information provided
by the G1000 system,
 using known wind information for WCA calculations,
 using the experience of the previous legs, or
 monitoring and correcting for the actual drift.
If in flight and the wind is known but WCA or track information is not available the WCA can be
easily calculated using the rule of thumb:
WCA = (wind angle x wind speed) / TAS
Example: Desired Course 360, wind 330/20, TAS 120 kts WCA = ((360 – 330) x 20) / 120
WCA = (30 x 20) / 120
WCA = 600 / 120
WCA = 5°
Since wind is never steady in speed and direction along a route, in the same or even different
altitudes and over a certain time span, the consequence is that the pilot has to
 monitor the tracking in his/her cross check,
 identify a possible drift,
 correct the WCA
 correct back to the desired course and
 establish a new wind corrected heading.
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This has to be a continuously repeated process throughout an entire flight because tracking starts
during the departure flying a SID, enroute and eventually has to be applied during any kind of
approach.
If the aircraft drifts off a given course the necessary correction should be applied as soon as
practical
 using an intercept of about the double drift error,
 anticipating the intercept of the desired course to avoid an overshoot and
 considering the distance from the station we fly to or from.
If we look at the legal limit of 5° we should be aware what flying within 5° of a given course
means expressed in distance from that course.
Applying the 1 : 60 rule we get at 60 DME: 1° = 1NM → 5° = 5 NM
30 DME: 1° = 0.5 NM → 5° = 2.5 NM
15 DME: 1° = 0.25 NM → 5° = 1.25 NM
10 DME: 1° = 0.167 NM → 5° = 0.833 NM
6 DME: 1° = 0.1 NM → 5° = 0.5 NM
2 DME: 1° = 0.033 NM → 5° = 0.167 NM or 1000 ft
This information helps a pilot to stay within the legal limits of SIDs, airways, STARS and
approach procedures, but it should as well give the pilot an idea about appropriate corrections
and intercept angles. The accuracy of VOR and NDB indications changes with the distance from
the station. Additionally, NDB indications are influenced by several other factors like dip error,
coastal and mountainous effect. Additionally, these instruments do have legal inaccuracies. All
these factors and facts may add up to a rather incorrect indication or equalize each other.
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To increase the Situational Awareness (SA) it is not only a good technique to use all resources of
navigation at all times including the GNS information about bearing and distance to a station.
Using the GNS during the navigational cross check will enable the pilot to minimize the
discussed effects on radio navigation equipment.
This way a pilot will be able to avoid an overshoot to a QDR/QDM which is wrongly displayed
on the RMI during the turn due to the Dip error. Due to the Dip error the NDB indication will fall
during a turn by about 1/3 to 1/2 of the AoB into the turn.
4.6.4 Distance of Lead
As discussed the pilot should at all times plan ahead to be able to take the necessary actions to
avoid deviations in the first place and if that was not possible to correct as soon as practical.
During many procedures and enroute flying it is therefore essential that the pilot determines a
point when to turn for a new course. Unnecessary over- and undershoots will result in follow on
actions, corrections which will influence the pilot’s capability of flying a procedure.
To avoid these over- or undershoots the pilot must have an idea about the aircraft’s turn radius to
plan ahead and determine a point ahead of a station or arc or a new course or way point. The
distance between that point where the turn has to be started and the i.e. way point is called
Distance of Lead (DOL).
Since the turn radius depends on the ground speed (GS) and IFR turns are performed as standard
rate turns, the following formula will be used to compute the Turn Radius or DOL:
Turn Radius (NM) = GS / 100 / 2
If groundspeed cannot be determined, use TAS instead.
The result is slightly less (~ 0.1 NM) than the mathematical correct turn radius. For turns other
than 90° use the following table:
90° Turns: Full Turn Radius

60° Turns: 1/2 Turn Radius
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Knowing the DOL start the turn to the next course at DOL prior the i.e. way point onto the new
wind corrected heading. The resulting track may not always be identical with the desired course
but it will under normal conditions result in only minor corrections.
Since the distance between radials is extremely small close to the station, the pilot should by use
of the DOL technique roll out on the desired heading and keep a track which is at east parallel to
the desired course.
A few miles after a NDB or VOR the course deviation, which should be rather small, can then be
easily corrected.
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4.7 Holding
4.7.1 General
Holdings are in general used to delay the arrival of an aircraft. Reasons may be ATC, weather,
emergency situations, …
Since holdings are used to “loose” time they are normally flown at minimum fuel flow speeds,
maximum endurance.
Since holdings will be practiced a lot during training the student pilot may use the holding to
complete her/his approach preparation. Nevertheless, in airline operation holdings should be
avoided, if possible, to minimize flight time and costs.
Holdings are defined by
• a fix (VOR, NDB, radial/DME, …),
• an inbound course,
• an outbound timing or distance or fix and
• a direction of the holding (left or right).
The holding fix may as well be the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) or the Final Approach (FAF).
There are holdings defined as part of most Missed Approaches.
Holdings consist of four parts:
• The outbound Turn
• The outbound Leg
• The inbound Turn and
• The inbound Course
The outbound turn, outbound leg and the inbound turn have the purpose to ”most appropriately
position the aircraft onto the inbound course”.
The goal is to
• stay in the defined holding airspace,
• definitely not fly into the non-holding side and
• to stabilize for at least 30 seconds on the inbound course.
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The geometry of a holding:
In a perfectly flown no wind holding the aircraft will be positioned at the end of the outbound leg
at a point 30° of the holding fix, like during an offset entry. This point, often called the gate, will
not be calculated for every holding situation and will differ in position as wind changes.
If the aircraft’s position is 30° off the inbound course at the end of a no wind 1-minute outbound
leg, it should be about 15° off the inbound course after 90° of the inbound turn and about 5° off
the inbound course within the last 30° of turn.
The pilot’s knowledge about that 30° point will enable him/her to have a better situational
awareness about the aircraft’s position in the holding circuit and thus avoid under- and
overshoots during the holding turn inbound.
Application:
If the aircraft’s position after 90° turn inbound is at a point definitely more than 15°, a brief roll
out should be considered to avoid an undershoot. If the angle is definitely less than 15° a non-
standard turn using up to 25° AoB may avoid but at east limit an overshoot.
The 30 second stabilization on the inbound course has to be established latest during the third
holding.
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4.7.2 Holding Entry
Entry Procedures. (See Above)
(a) Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the
parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound
on the nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding circuit through
more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
(b) Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the
teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30
degree teardrop entry within the circuit (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then
turn in the direction of the holding circuit to intercept the inbound holding course.
(c) Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the
direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding
circuit.
The purpose of an expertly executed holding entry is to enable the pilot to establish as soon as
possible a holding track outbound which will lead to a stabilized holding track inbound.
Expertly executed holding entries will enable the pilot to perform other tasks simultaneously, like
approach preparation, checklists etc.
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Whenever a holding is expected or cleared, the pilot has to perform a holding briefing as stated
below:
 Holding fix
 Inbound course
 Holding direction
 Entry procedure
 Wind corrected entry heading and
 Wind corrected timing
 Minimum Holding Altitude
The holding briefing may be combined with the approach briefing if the holding is part of the
approach.
Approaching the holding the landing lights have to be switched own in order to avoid collision
hazards. Whenever the holding is causing an additional delay (airport congestion or temporary
closure) a fuel check has to be performed in order to calculate the available holding time.
4.7.3 Wind Correction
The wind correction procedure used by BAA ensures an appropriate wind correction for 1 minute
holding in reasonable wind conditions.
4.7.3.1 Wind Correction Angle (WCA)
The wind corrections regarding heading (WCA) used during BAA training depend on the entry
procedure. The wind correction will be calculated or estimated enroute to the holding fix (see
4.6.3 Tracking). In an ideal case the route to the holding fix is the inbound course or directly
opposite.
In all other cases the required WCA towards the holding fix must be adjusted for the holding
using standard WCA rules of thumb and techniques.
All WCA applied should ideally lead to a perfect positioning onto the inbound course. This will
be very hard to achieve. Thus, a WCA during the outbound leg should rather lead to a small
undershoot than to an overshoot when turning inbound.
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For Parallel entries a single WCA will be flown in order to achieve an exactly opposite and
parallel outbound track. The inbound leg will be flown tracking directly to the station, but a brief
interception of the published inbound track is acceptable.
For Offset or Teardrop entries the WCA will be doubled in order to compensate for the drift
during the outbound leg and the turn inbound.
For direct entries and when established in the holding the WCA will be tripled and applied
during the outbound leg. If the outbound leg has to be extended, a single WCA shall be flown
after 1 minute (wind corrected).
As mentioned earlier the application of this procedure in strong cross wind situations may lead to
unreasonable wind corrections.
In certain cross wind situations the standard rules of thumb and wind correction techniques must
be adjusted by the pilot, in order to stay within the holding airspace. Therefore it is very
important that the pilot is aware of the aircraft’s position and the wind at all times!
4.7.3.2 Timing Correction
For all entries or when established on the regular outbound leg of a holding, the timing will be
adjusted by +/- 1 second for every knot of head-/tailwind present on the outbound holding leg.
In general timing will be started
o when the outbound turn is initiated,
o upon station passage during parallel and teardrop entries,
o when abeam the holding fix after the outbound turn or
o when wings level after the outbound turn in case of strong headwinds and thus the abeam
holding fix position has already been passed.
Timing will enable the pilot to change to timed turns if directional gyro problems are
encountered. Timing will as well improve the pilot’s SA throughout the entire holding.
Timing of the inbound leg is not mandatory required as long as the requirements are met:
o 30 seconds stabilized for EASA

o 1 minute inbound leg for FAA operations
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4.8 Approach Planning, Preparation and Briefing

In order to practice many approaches during the training and to achieve a certain proficiency,
most approaches will end in a Missed Approach, some in a Touch and Go and only one per
mission in a full stop landing.
By design of approach procedures, the Missed Approach procedure does not necessarily lead to
the IAF for the next approach or into a SID. It is the pilot’s responsibility to find a connection
between the different procedures during the mission preparation and briefing. Solutions for this
problem are very depending on local procedures and ATC.
4.8.1 General
All instrument approaches contain certain basic requirements including good descent planning,
careful review of the Instrument Approach and Landing (IAL) chart, accurate flying, good
coordination, and efficient cockpit management abilities.
In the later training and if the situation allows BAA standard is to plan and commence a
deaccelerated approach in order to save training time and fuel and to reduce noise.
The pilot must always be able to handle an abnormal situation that occurs, set priorities and
continue to fly a stabilized approach.
All this requires the ability to make decisions based on published procedures, experience,
procedural knowledge, flexibility and good judgment. The pilot must have complete position
awareness at all times and if necessary, request altitude changes and adjust airspeed to arrive at
the IAF, ready to fly the approach.
If, despite proper pre planning, the pilot realizes that she/he will not be ready for the approach,
she/he should request and be prepared for a holding to complete the approach preparation. If a
holding is not feasible time could be gained by slowing the approach speed or asking for delay
vectors. If that also does not lead to the desired outcome, the pilot may continue the approach
applying the progressive approach preparation and briefing method while complying with all
requirements laid down in the OM. If this cannot be achieved safely the approach has to be
discontinued or a go around has to be performed!
During training flights, the pilot must even plan further ahead because most approaches will end
in a Missed Approach or sometimes a Touch and Go. Therefore, the student pilot must plan
ahead for the next approach or departure procedure and coordinate with ATC well in advance.
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Remember: Always tell ATC your intentions, how you are planning to terminate the approach,
what you are planning next. This will enable ATC to plan ahead as well and organize their
airspace for your requirements. Don’t wait until Final or even Missed Approach to coordinate
with ATC.
In preparation for the approach the student pilot may use the autopilot to reduce the workload as
required by the situation.
4.8.2 Briefing and Sequence of Events
During IFR training the acronym WARNBIC will be used again to ensure that the pilot has
accomplished a complete approach preparation.
WARNBIC should be started by achieving the ATIS or weather and NOTAM information well
in time prior the descent to avoid a descent from cruising level if
i.e. the weather or runway conditions don’t allow an approach.
The W (Weather/ATIS) will as well provide the information which approach may be expected.
W tells the pilot her/his options.
The A (ATC clearance) reminds the pilot to coordinate with ATC for her/his intentions based on
her/his plan and the options (W!) available. Start the coordination, after initial radio contact is
established and then coordinate for the next planned procedure, not for the entire flight.
The A may be delayed if the approach option is clear to the pilot but the time is critical to
complete the approach preparation. Example: Airwork followed by a radar vectored approach
into an airport nearby. Complete the R, N and B in the training area before getting rushed by
ATC.
The R and N (Radio and Nav set up) should then be worked off in an expeditious way and
circuit according to the approach procedure and if necessary the follow on plan, i.e. a SID. Use
all instruments and equipment!
The B (Approach Briefing) is the conclusion of the approach preparation. There should not be
any open question when the briefing is started. The briefing is not performed to please the
instructor! The briefing is performed for the “crew”, although in training this is only the student
pilot herself/himself and the instructor. But it shall and will give the student pilot confidence.
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The I and C (Approach Items and Checklist) are performed last, but:
WARNBIC shall be finished prior leaving the IAF or the holding or latest on base leg if under
radar vectors.
As “W”, “A”, “I” and “C” are somewhat self-explanatory; the following items need further
discussion:
Radio and Nav Setup Communication:
Comm. 1 is used for primary communications, i.e. tower, ground, approach and departure, but
the pre-selected frequency should make sense according the mission flow.
Comm. 2 is normally used for ATIS, OPS, clearance delivery, etc. Nav Aid Setting:
In general all available Nav resources should be used. Not using an available Nav aid or
instrument may lead to an unnecessary and early Missed Approach in case of navigational
failures. It will definitely lead to a degraded situational awareness.
NAV 1 (HSI) is always used for primary navigation. NAV 2 (CDI); is used for back up and to
identify check and cross radials, i.e. intersections.
In general NAV 2 should be used to back up NAV 1.
The RMI should be used at the pilot's discretion, for orientation and position awareness. For
precision approaches NAV 2 will be tuned to a VOR if a VOR approach is collocated with the
ILS until the LOC course is positively identified on the HSI.
In all cases during a precision approach NAV 2 should be set to the LOC frequency to back up
NAV 1, when no longer needed, but no later than the OM or equivalent fix.
The DME can be set to NAV 1 or NAV 2
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Warning
If the DME is used in the hold feature or various DME distances can be displayed, always ensure
positive identification of the DME station received and used for navigation. The use of incorrect
distance information is potentially hazardous.
G950/1000 set up:
Although the GNS is for secondary guidance only it shall be used as an additional reference for
position awareness and has to be set up for every approach (if available) up to and including the
Missed Approach Procedure.
The PF announces
"APPROACH BRIEFING"
and verifies that all crewmembers are ready to monitor with the appropriate approach plate at
hand.
For Approach Briefing see FCTM Appendix section.
Progressive Approach Briefing:
In exceptional cases (i.e.: workload is high, when RT is very busy or when the approach can not
be delayed) a Progressive Approach Briefing should be performed. In this case, the pilot will
announce:
“PROGRESSIVE APPROACH BRIEFING"
and brief those items that are next whenever flight progress allows. The pilot will brief the
Clearance Limit (if other than the airport), MSA, Initial Altitude and IAF.
Passing the IAF, the pilot will brief the Intermediate Altitude/Final Altitude and FAF.
Passing the FAF, the pilot should perform normal procedures, brief the Minimum and if
applicable, the VDP and MAPt and latest here the Missed Approach procedure. The runway
length and conditions, if either/both considered critical would also be briefed.
The Missed Approach procedure may be briefed at any point during the approach when time
allows. A Progressive Briefing must be completed prior 1000 ft above threshold elevation!
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Note
The Marker Beacon audio and lights, DME and RMI selector switch should be checked at this
time but not briefed.
All items briefed "by memory" should be verified with the approach chart during the actual
approach. Flying an approach by memory is not recommended due to the high probability of
error, especially during a high work load situation.
Note
The NAV set up should be checked and updated but not necessarily briefed.
Note
If the same approach is to be flown again PF may announce: "APPROACH BRIEFING

REMAINS THE SAME “omitting all briefing items except final altitude, minimum and missed
approach procedure.
4.8.3 Stabilization Criteria:

Latest at 1000 ft above threshold elevation all standard IFR approaches require the aircraft to be
stabilized in the following conditions:
 Landing Configuration established
 Established on final course (+/- one dot for ILS +/- 5 deg non precision)
 Established on vertical profile (+/- one dot ILS or safe 3deg descent non precision)
 Aircraft stabilized (on glide, Vapp -5 +10 KIAS)
 Landing checklist completed.
If these conditions cannot be met at 1000 ft above threshold a go around and Missed Approach
have to be initiated without delay.
For training purpose the instructor may decide to continue the approach nonstandard although the
Landing Checklist was not completed at 1000 ft above threshold by the student pilot if the
instructor can ensure that the Landing Checklist will be completed latest 500ft above threshold.
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Exceptions:
In case of circling and non-standard speed approaches the speeds and configurations differ from
standard landing configurations and speeds.
In case of a circling approach the Landing Items and Checklist will be completed within the slot
on Final.
4.8.4 Terrain awareness, descend below MGA/MSA and down to prescribed altitudes
The pilot has to assure proper terrain clearance and awareness, regardless of ATC responsibilities
at all times. No clearance must be accepted which cannot be verified by the pilot in terms of
adequate terrain clearance. Starting descend, the pilot has to check which altitude is safe
according MGA, MSA or other published applicable minimum altitudes down to touchdown.
Respective regulations published in the OM have to be observed at all times.
4.8.5 Visual Descent Point (VDP)
The VDP is defined as follows:
The position where to leave the MDA, following the published (normally a 3°) glide path, to land
in the touch down zone starting at 1000 ft beyond threshold.
During a orderly performed NPA final and constant glide path descent the MDA will be crossed
exactly at the VDP. The VDP could thereby as well be understood as the (in USA: published)
MDA crossing point.
It must be possible to clearly identify the VDP by DME or crossing of a fix (Marker/cross
radial/Nav aid,…)
Virtually all European NPAs are now designed with a continuous and constant glide path descent
from final altitude to touchdown but some approaches may require observing a VDP if a NPA is
not designed for such a descent.
NPAs in USA are usually not designed for a constant glide path descent and in case of a NP
DME approach a VDP is already published.
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For BAA IFR operation a VDP calculation is mandatory for several reasons:
o BAA training aircraft are not equipped for the selection of a specific NPA glide slope like
in some airliners.
o In single pilot operation a pre calculated VDP helps to maintain situational awareness in a
high workload situation in order
o To identify the point during an NPA where it does not make sense anymore to continue the
approach on MDA, although it would be legal.
As a conclusion in BAA operation a go around and missed approach will be commenced

whenever the VDP is reached but the runway is not in sight!
The VDP calculation is part of the flight preparation before flight. The following calculation
should be avoided during flight.
If not published on the approach chart, the VDP must be calculated for the respective NPA
according the following guideline:
A.) If DME distance is not available, timing may be used to identify the VDP.
B.) The VDP must not be beyond the MAPt.
C.) Use respective MDH from the Jeppesen chart (difference between MDA and TDZ
elevation), multiply it with the factor 3 and divide the result by 1000. The result is the
distance “d” required to descend from the MDA on a 3° glide path to the threshold elevation.
d (at MDH in NM) = (MDH X 3) / 1000
D.) Since published distances are referenced to the threshold but the touch down zone normally
starts 1000 ft beyond the runway threshold, these 1000 ft or 0.16 NM (0.2 for practical purpose)
have to be subtracted from d resulting in “D”, which is the distance between VDP and the
threshold
D (NM) = d – 0.2
E.) Determine THR DME position by adding (DME in front of threshold) or subtracting (DME
behind threshold) the distance from MAPt to THR (see approach chart) to the MAPt DME
position.
F.) Calculate VDP DME position by adding (DME behind threshold) or subtracting (DME in
front of threshold) distance D to the THR DME position.
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4.8.6 Decision to Land Point (DLP)
Definition:
The position where to leave MDA descending at the maximum rate allowed of 1000 fpm for a
landing at the minimum landing distance required and available.
Since there are no performance charts available to calculate the DLP and since it is not practical
and not safe to judge this point while flying, the DLP will not be practiced and instructed during
BAA IFR training.
4.8.7 Descent planning during approach
Descent planning itself is one of the most important tasks a pilot has to accomplish during
approach planning. Setting the correct pitch and power upon passing the calculated or published
descend point is essential to achieve the desired performance.
The goal is a smoothly flown and well-prepared approach for optimum passenger comfort. If
possible, the pilot should coordinate for a continuous descent to avoid intermittent level offs.
In airline operation a descent for a level off at the Final Altitude approximately 2 NM prior the
FAF/FAP is required for all Non-Precision Approaches and recommended for Precision
Approaches. (This is necessary for jet aircraft in order to be able to establish the required
approach configuration without the use of speed brakes. It is also necessary in order to cope with
special auto flight design features of some fly by wire aircraft.)
This procedure will be applied wherever required or practical in BAA operations (see procedure
descriptions for Basic and Deaccelerated approaches for more details).
A continuous descent will be performed flying standard cruise speeds.

This procedure assures to be at Final Altitude passing the FAF or FAP and will leave the pilot
with enough distance and time to
• slow down the aircraft for configuration according approach procedure,

• establish final approach configuration and speed,
• stabilize the aircraft prior passing the FAF/FAP and
• start the final approach using constant glide path (final) descent in a coordinated way.
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A descent to FA 2 NM prior FAF/FAP may be omitted
• if the altitude flown (radar vectors, intermediate altitude,...) is within 1000 ft of the FA
when cleared for the approach,
• if all altitude restrictions can be met and
• during approaches if the glide slope can already be monitored at or above 2000 ft AAL,
or
• if ATC directions do not allow to do so.
The descent can be achieved by using BAA standard descent procedures (standard 3° descent
calculation or simulated idle jet descent) during descent and approach, calculating required
distance to descend and adding 2 NM in order to determine the TOD.
Calculating the required ROD for the descent from the FAF/FAP to touchdown is fairly simple
using GS (calculated or by GNS readout) and the Descent gradient published in Jeppesen
approach Charts or the tabulated ROD values for GS between 70 and 160 KT.
For the EYVI ILS Rwy 01 Jeppesen published the following data:
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Note
A 3° GP corresponds (normally) to a gradient of 5.2%.
Flying a GS of 90 kts the calculation
ROD (fpm) = GS (KT) X Descend Gradient (%) Example: RCFN LDA Rwy 04
Descent Angle 3.0°, published Gradient 5.2 %,
ROD = 90 x 5.2 = 468 fpm, results in a ROD of 468 fpm for the 5,2% Gradient, although
the published ROD is 478 fpm for 90 kts GS.
As we see, the published data are different and may be slightly confusing as the example above
shows. If a Descent gradient (like for all Jeppesen US NPAs) or GS/ROD table is not available or
the actually flown ground speed differs from those provided in the GS/ROD table the required
ROD has to be calculated by use of a rule of thumb. The commonly used formula
ROD (fpm) = GS (KT) X 5
Example: ROD = 90 kts x 5= 450fpm, will result in a ROD slightly less than the required one.
But since BAA follows a constant glide path descent on NPA finals, the requirement is to meet
the VDP at MDA. Applying a too small ROD would never allow being at the required MDA
+50/-0 ft at the VDP / MDA crossing point or cause a major correction on short final using a very
high ROD. Both situations shall be avoided.
Therefore, the rule of thumb for a 3° GS is adjusted and shall be used throughout training and
operation:
ROD (fpm) = GS (KT) X 5 + 10 %
Example: ROD = 90 x 5 +10 % = 450 + 10 % = 495 fpm
The difference is actually very small and, in many cases, to be neglected, but understanding the
difference will help the pilot to avoid unnecessary Missed Approaches.
Note
The difference is smaller than the achievable practical flight tolerance and even on
modern jet aircraft V/S is only selectable in full 100fpm steps!
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4.9 Approach Segments

4.9.1 Arrival Route (STAR)
In Europe an Arrival Route (STAR) is a route subject to be mostly mandatory entered in the
flight plan form.
Although an Arrival Route is not considered a part or segment of an approach, it is used as the
connection between the enroute portion of a flight and the approach. A STAR normally starts at
an airway fix and leads to one or more Initial Approach Fixes of one or more approaches into an
airport.
A STAR may consist of one or several legs, therefore a STAR shall be briefed either like an
enroute leg or like a procedure. Before a STAR can be flown an ATC clearance is required.
STARs include mandatory leg altitudes and, if cleared, a STAR without any further comment
ATC expects the pilot to adhere to the published altitudes.
Consequently, an early coordination is required if the pilot’s intentions differ from the STAR
entered in the flight plan form or if a continuous descent is desired.
STARs will be planned, filed and practiced as published but ATC will as well offer radar vectors
for different reasons, like traffic, weather avoidance, change of runway or just because ATC
intends to help the pilot. Radar vectors are the easier option because ATC will provide headings
and altitudes. It is ATC’s responsibility to do the descent planning, nevertheless the pilot must
always monitor her/his position, terrain clearance and altitude in respect to the approximate
tracking distance to touchdown during radar vectors. When under radar vectors ATC expects that
the pilot will exactly fly the ordered headings. Do not apply any wind corrections! This is ATC’s
task!
A descent on pilot’s discretion will normally not be cleared when under radar vectors. Descent,
climb, speed and V/S clearances or restrictions have to be complied with without delay. ATC
controllers expect and plan with 500 fpm ROD for small and 1000 fpm ROD for large A/C if not
otherwise prescribed. If thoroughly familiar with local ATC procedures and traffic requirements,
a continuous descend in the radar circuit can be flown This is definitely not a favorable option in
cases where parallel vector 2 A/C on parallel approach intercepts.
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4.9.2 Initial Approach Segment
The purpose of the initial approach segment is to provide a method for aligning the aircraft with
the intermediate or final approach segment. This is accomplished by using a DME Arc, a course
reversal, such as a procedure turn or holding circuit, or by following a terminal route that
intersects the final approach course.
The initial approach segment begins at an IAF and usually ends where it joins the intermediate
approach segment or at an IF. The letters IAF on an approach chart indicate the location of an
IAF and more than one may be available.
Course, distance, and minimum altitudes are also provided for initial approach segments. A given
procedure may have several initial approach segments. If more than one initial approach
segments exist, each will join a common intermediate segment, although not necessarily at the
same location.
Occasionally, a chart may depict an IAF, although there is no initial approach segment for the
procedure. This usually occurs at a point located within the en route structure where the
intermediate segment begins. In this situation, the IAF signals the beginning of the intermediate
segment.
Reversal and Racetrack Procedures are commonly used to align the aircraft with the intermediate
or final approach.
Procedure turns may be published with or without track guidance, meaning that the pilot is
responsible to identify the right way of how to fly that procedure.
Normally a track guided reversal procedure will be printed in bold lines including the mandatory
magnetic track. In this case a single WCA will be applied to fly as exactly as possible the
published track.
In case of procedures without track information the following wind correction technique will be
used:
For procedures identical and similar to holding circuit apply the wind correction technique for
holdings and holding entries.
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4.9.3 Intermediate Approach Segment
The intermediate segment is designed primarily to position the aircraft for the final descent to the
airport. Like the feeder route and initial approach segment, the chart depiction of the intermediate
segment provides course, distance, and minimum altitude information.
The intermediate segment, normally aligned within 30° of the final approach course, begins at the
IF, or intermediate point, and ends at the beginning of the final approach segment. In some cases,
an IF is not shown on an approach chart. In this situation, the intermediate segment begins at a
point where you are proceeding inbound to the FAF, where you are properly aligned with the
final approach course, and where you are located within the prescribed distance prior to the FAF.
An instrument approach that incorporates a procedure turn is the most common example of an
approach that may not have a charted IF.
The intermediate segment in this example begins when you intercept the inbound course after
completing the procedure turn.
Besides standard procedures DME Arc procedures and Radar Vectors are commonly used for
final course alignment.
4.9.4 Arc Approach
DME arcs also provide transitions to the approach course, but DME arcs are actually approach
segments. When established on a DME arc, the aircraft has departed the en route phase and has
begun the approach and is maneuvering to enter an intermediate or final segment of the
approach.
DME arcs may also be used during SIDs and as an intermediate or a final segment, although they
are extremely rare as final approach segments.
An arc may join a course at or before the IF. When joining a course at or before the IF, the angle
of intersection of the arc and the course is designed so it does not exceed 120°. When the angle
exceeds 90°, a radial that provides at least 2 NM of lead shall be identified to assist in leading the
turn on to the intermediate course.
DME arcs are predicated on DME collocated with a facility providing omni directional course
information, such as a VOR. A DME arc cannot be based on an ILS or LOC DME source
because omni directional course information is not provided.
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Required obstruction clearance (ROC) along the arc depends on the approach segment. For an
initial approach segment, a ROC of 1,000 feet is required in the primary area, which extends to 4
NM on either side of the arc. For an intermediate segment primary area the ROC is 500 feet. The
initial and intermediate segment’s secondary areas extend 2 NM from the primary boundary area
edge. The ROC starts at the primary area boundary edge at 500 feet and tapers to zero feet at the
secondary area outer edge.
During approaches and departures a DME arc is sometimes flown around a station at a specific
distance. In general there is no difference regarding the procedure to be applied for the approach.
The arc is just part of one or more segments of the approach.
The differences compared to “straight” approaches are that
• distances have to be converted into degrees and vice versa,
• an arc cannot be flown as a continuous turn and
• the effect of wind is changing all the time.
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4.9.4.1 Radial to ARC Interceptions
The arc will be intercepted from a radial inbound or outbound at a specific DME indication or
Distance of Lead (DOL).Normally the radial towards the arc and the arc are based on the same
VOR station. But there are exceptions. A thorough chart study is essential.
See 4.5.4 for calculation of DOL. RMI:
Initiate a turn 85° left/right at the DOL and check for a RMI needle indication 5° before the
wingtip (3 or 9 o’clock) position.
HSI:
Initiate a turn 85° left/right at the DOL and monitor the course selector of the HSI to roll out 5°
before the wingtip (3 or 9 o’clock) position is reached.
Both the RMI and the HSI course selector should point towards the station, but the RMI will
always show the actual magnetic bearing and the HSI course selector will show a “selected
Bearing”.
4.9.4.2 Tracking the ARC
RMI: Maintain heading until RMI indicator has changed by 10° (5° behind the wingtip position)
Turn towards the station to place the bearing pointer again 5° ahead of the wingtip position.
HSI: With the radial inbound selected maintain heading until the course deviation bar of the HSI
has changed to 5° (half scale deflection) behind the aircraft symbol. Dial the course selector 10°
to place the course deviation bar 5° ahead of the aircraft symbol. Then turn towards the station (~
10°) to place the course selector on the wingtip position. (Rule: Left arc, left turn, dial left and
vice versa).
Distance Correction:
For each 0.5 NM deviation greater than the desired arc, turn 10° towards the station. If the
deviation is less than the desired arc, maintain heading until the correct distance is reached.
In windy conditions an additional heading change may be necessary to correct the offset.
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Note
Depending on the size of the arc, ground speed, airplane position and position relative to the arc,
the rate of deviation will change.
Vary the amount of correction accordingly.
4.9.4.3 ARC to Radial Interceptions
The arc will be left by a single direct turn onto a radial inbound or outbound at the calculated
Angle of Lead (AOL).
Note
A turn to achieve a 30° or 45° intercept is not advisable, because this technique will shorten the
track distance and may thus lead to a high glide path or in some cases to a too late course
interception!
Since the turn radius depends on ground speed and expressed in distance, normally NM, a
formula should be used to convert that turn radius distance into radials.
There are 2 ways of calculating the AOL or Lead-Radial and both may be used.
The first one should be used when time permits, the second one should be used in a higher
workload situation.
The difference regarding the result is marginal and in both ways mathematically not absolutely
correct. Nevertheless the results will provide an AOL which will lead the pilot onto the desired
course within 5°.
Version 1:
Compute the turn radius as described in 4.5.4.
Divide 60 (1 : 60 rule!) by the Arc DME and multiply the result with the turn radius.
Lead Radial = (60 / Arc DME) x Turn Radius Example: (See ARC picture above)
TAS 120 kts Arc 10 DME
Turn Radius = TAS / 100 / 2 = 120 / 100 / 2 = 0.6 NM
Lead Radial = (60 / ARC DME) x Turn Radius (60 / 10) x 0.6 = 6 x 0.6 = 3.6 = 4
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Version 2:
Lead Radial = TAS / (3 x Arc) Example: GS 120 kts Arc 10 DME
Lead Radial = 120 / (3 x 10) = 120 / 30 = 4
Start turn 4 radials prior the radial to be intercepted.
4.9.5 Final Approach
For general information and company requirements about and for the conduction of the final
approach segment refer to OM.
The final approach segment for an approach with vertical guidance or a precision approach
begins where the glide slope intercepts the minimum glide slope intercept altitude shown on the
approach chart. If ATC authorizes a lower intercept altitude, the final approach segment begins
upon glide slope interception at that altitude. For a non-precision approach the final approach
segment begins either at a designated FAF, depicted as a cross on the profile view, or at the
point, where the aircraft is established inbound on the final approach course. When a FAF is not
designated, such as on an approach that incorporates an on-airport VOR or NDB, this point is
typically where the procedure turn intersects the final approach course inbound.
This point is referred to as the final approach point (FAP). The final approach segment ends at
either the designated MAP or upon landing.
The procedures to be applied during approaches and their final segment will be discussed in
chapter 4.9.
4.9.6 issed Approach
The missed approach segment begins at the MAPt and ends at a point or fix where an initial or en
route segment begins.
For a precision approach the MAPt is defined by the intersection of the GS with DA or DH.
For a non-precision approach the MAPt is either a fix, NAVAID, or after a specified distance
converted to a period of time to be elapsed after crossing a fix the FAF.
Refer to OM which describes conditions for a go around and missed approach.
Although training is conducted in the single pilot concept, both, the student and the instructor,
shall call for a go around if a situation arises that require a go around.
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Whenever the decision for a go around and missed approach is made, stop the descent
immediately, rotate smoothly to take off pitch, set T/O power, retract flaps according procedure,
check for assure a positive rate of climb (attitude, V/S and altitude increasing) and continue with
normal go around procedure while climbing.
When a go around is initiated before reaching the MAPt, the MAPt or in case of a precision
approach the RWY THR, has to be over flown before starting the missed approach procedure
regarding lateral navigation.
A missed approach procedure may include a climb restriction. In this case level off according to
the restriction and continue climb where indicated.
4.9.7 Radar Vectors to Final
The approach gate is an imaginary point used by ATC as a basis for vectoring aircraft to the final
approach course. The gate will normally be established along the final approach course one mile
from the FAF on the side away from the airport and will be no closer than 5 NM from the
landing threshold.
Controllers are also required to ensure the assigned altitude from which the final descent starts
conforms to the following:
For a precision approach an altitude not above the glide slope/glide path and not below
Minimum Radar Vectoring Altitude (MRVA).
For a non-precision approach, at an altitude that will allow descent in accordance with the
published procedure.
Further, controllers must assign headings that will permit final approach course interception
without exceeding the following:
A typical vector to the final approach course and associated approach clearance is as follows:
“…four miles from XXXX, turn right heading three four zero, maintain two thousand until
established on the localizer, cleared ILS runway three six approach.”
Other clearance formats may be used to fit individual circumstances but the controller should
always assign an altitude to be maintained until the aircraft is established on a segment of a
published route or IAP.
The altitude assigned must guarantee IFR obstruction clearance from the point at which the
approach clearance is issued until the aircraft is established on a published route.
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The altitudes assigned by the controller may be lower as the published MSA but they must not be
lower than the Minimum Radar Vectoring Altitude (MRVA). Note that the MRVA is not
published for all airports and may not available at all due to technical reasons in some chart
publications.
However STRICTEST adherence to OM:
An airplane being radar vectored for an approach may be flown below the MSA if the flight crew
is able to monitor its position by use of:
• GPS navigational equipment certified for primary means of navigation or
• radio navigational aids
and terrain/obstacle clearance can be assured and monitored by use of appropriate approved
charts. If weather conditions permit, the pilot may as well request a visual/practice approach and
cancel IFR.
The required terrain/obstacle clearance is 1000ft and approved charts are Jeppesen Approach
Charts with and without Terrain contours (in the later case spot elevations have to be considered
in a conservative manner) or MRVA charts usually showing terrain contour layers together with
spot elevations.
If specifically requested and/or accepted by the pilot, aircraft may be vectored to intercept the
final approach course inside the approach gate (short approach).
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4.10 Approaches
4.10.1 General
In an increasing traffic saturation and complex airspace structure it is very important that airline
pilots show flexibility and maintain a clear communication.
Every professional pilot must be able to fly approaches with different initial speeds, change over
from one to another procedure where this is practicable and allowed and react on ATC clearances
and without undue delay while being able to meet all flight safety and OM requirements for an
approach.
In order to accommodate this requirement in our training we use different ways, types of flying a
specific kind of approach.
As already discussed in the approach briefing includes the items
• Kind of Approach,
• Type of Approach
• and the way How an approach is flown.
Type of Approach defines what approach at an airport shall be flown: ILS, VOR, NDB, LCTR,
LOC, RNP, Circling…
Kind of Approach defines the operational procedure to be used: Standard, or Deaccelerated

(High speed).
The Standard (Basic) Approach procedure will be used mostly
• in the early stage of IFR training,
• if non-precision approach
• if the approach is started at or from a point very close to the FAF/FAP and/or from a
holding
• if a lower speed is requested by ATC,
• if no DME or glide path information is available,
• if the approach is based on timing
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The Deaccelerated approach defines the BAA company standard and shall be used whenever
possible for ILS app. to prepare students for further career to save time and fuel, and to reduce
the noise. It shall definitely be used if the approach is started out of cruise without any speed
restriction in connection with a continuous descent whenever possible.
Timing:
During all approaches, all legs of reversal procedures and naturally the time from FAF to VDP
and/or MAPt (if applicable) must be timed if required (no DME or Bearing fixes). Observing
timing will always be performed passing fixes.
Consequently a timing will always be performed during final descend either if required or as
backup.
Note that when proceeding at MDA with the time elapsed and the runway not in sight, a go-
around must be performed.
During all approaches, outbound and inbound legs of the procedure shall be timed with the
stopwatch. During Non-Precision Approaches without DME timing is mandatory.
Timing is as well a backup during DME based approaches to identify the aircraft’s position on
final and the Missed Approach Point in case of a DME failure.
Generally a published instrument approach chart will list the timing values from the FAF to the
MAPt.
4.10.2 Precision Approach – ILS (Basic)
Intercepting and tracking the localizer:
The HSI is the primary navigational instrument used during a raw data ILS approach. Once
established on an intercept heading by radar vectors or on own navigation, the airplane can be
easily maneuvered through the intercept phase until being established on the localizer by either:
FNPT II, C172S and P2006T: Using the HSI symbolic airplane: Wait until extended symbolic
airplane axis points towards top of CDI bar and turn towards the final course keeping that
picture.
In a crosswind, it will be necessary to adjust the heading a few degrees into the wind. After
capture, keep the localizer deviation bar centered. Cross check the CDI position and/or
movement with the heading and the track (if available) and adjust the heading to stop or to
reverse the CDI’s movement.
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The HDG bug will be set to the published final approach course! The required WCA in normal
wind conditions is usually within the HDG bug width.
The pilot must be aware of the fact that the CDI shows a deviation in degrees not in distance.
During an approach the distance between the center course and the legal limit of a half scale
deflected CDI (= 1.25°) will become significantly smaller as the distance to the localizer station
decreases
As a consequence the correction/interception angles must be adjusted during the approach. As a

rough guideline a correction/interception angle of about 1° for every dot of CDI deflection during
final approach will result in an appropriate correction. Correction angles of more than 5° should
not be applied to avoid over corrections.
Only small AoB (up to 10°) will be required to stay on the localizer.
Any necessary wind correction angle should be flown, however; leave the heading bug set on the
final course heading during “normal” wind conditions.
Caution
By design of the ILS it is possible to receive “Side Lobes” of the localizer and glide slope signal.
The indication on the HSI or OBS may be a perfectly centered CDI or glide slope bar, with the
A/C positioned far off the required course or glide.
In order to avoid intercepting and maintaining a course or glide slope side lobe, crosscheck the
correct LOC signal by either a VOR (on NAV 2 until positive LOC check but not later than 1000
ft AAL before selecting the ILS frequency) or NDB along or very close to the LOC course or
GNS and by performing checks of the descent point and of the respective crossing altitudes as
described in this document.
When passing the FAP and the OM the check altitudes have to be checked and announced.
Note
With OATs below 0°C crossing altitudes must be temperature corrected!
If deviations are excessive, (more than 100ft to the temperature corrected crossing altitude) a go
around must be initiated.
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Glide slope intercept, airspeed and descent:
There are basically 3 ways to be guided towards the intercept of an ILS:
• Via an arrival route with or without a reversal procedure (“full procedure”) with published
altitudes
• Via radar vectors and assigned altitudes
• By a combination of 1 and 2
If a “full procedure” has to be flown, the aircraft may intercept the GP on a long final and far
above 2000 ft AAL. To expedite the traffic flow and to save fuel, time and engine life, descend in
clean configuration and extend flaps passing 2000 ft AAL (= altitude above approach related
threshold).
If the GP will be intercepted at altitudes below 2000 ft AAL, extend flaps when the HSI indicates
1 dot “fly up”/below GP and configure the A/C in order to be fully established according OM at
1000 ft AAL.
Further configuration must be planned in consideration of check points and check altitudes like
the Outer Marker.
It is not required to have the configuration and Landing checklist completed immediately after
passing or leaving 2000 ft AAL or at a specific point in relation to the Outer Marker or
equivalent fix, it shall be achieved towards the 1000 ft AAL.
Establish the airplane on the glide slope, use trim as required to stabilize the aircraft with
minimum stick/yoke forces necessary.
Use power to control the airspeed and the elevator to make corrections back to the glide slope as
necessary. Aim for Vapp +5 / -0 kts.
The rate of descent will vary with the glide slope angle and the changing ground speed, as the
airspeed changes during configuration and slow down.
After passing the Outer Marker the maximum deviation from final course and glide slope is half
scale deflection. If the pilot experiences more than half scale deflection a Missed Approach has
to be initiated without delay.
After selecting final configuration decelerate gradually to Vapp. A further power reduction is
usually not required for deceleration. Adjust power as required to stabilize Vapp.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-187
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Prior passing 1000 ft AAL the aircraft has to be configured in the final landing configuration
with Landing Items and Landing Checklist completed and Vapr established.
Latest at 100 ft above DA/DH start to look out for visual references accompanied with the call
out “Hundred above”.
The pilot has to make the decision whether to continue the approach or to commence Missed
Approach latest at the DA/DH. Do not level off at that time!
All call outs during approach must be performed according to dialogue boxes in the appendix
section!
Be careful not to dip below the glide slope once visual contact is established. Continue on the
glide slope as long as possible towards the touchdown zone.
When Runway is in sight, continue on the glide slope and maintain Vapr, while you change over
to visual references for landing. Try to establish a cross check like during a VFR approach and
landing, including both, visual references and the localizer/glide information on the HSI.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-188
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.3 Non-Precision Approach
The most common non-precision approaches are RNP, VOR, NDB, and LOC. These approaches
may also be equipped with DME.
WARNING
During Non-Precision Approaches without DME, timing is mandatory.
Timing is as well a backup during DME approaches to identify the aircraft’s position on final,
minimum crossing and glide path reference altitudes and to identify the Missed Approach Point
in case of DME being not available, but timing requires a constant speed.
The Initial and the Intermediate Segment of a non-precision approach are basically the same as
for a precision approach.
A continuous descent shall be planned to a level off at FA approximately 2 NM prior to the FAF
wherever practical.
This leaves the pilot with enough distance and time to slow down the aircraft to the flap speed
and establish final configuration and Vapr before passing the FAF.
Generally, a published instrument approach procedure will list the timing values from the FAF to
the MAPt. When arriving at MDA with the time elapsed and the runway not in sight, a go-around
is mandatory.
Descend to prescribed altitudes only if within +/- 5° of inbound track. The final track must be
maintained by +/- 5°.
The HDG bug will be set on to the published final course (use caution if the final course changes
during approach).
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-189
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Course corrections on final should be applied by using a correction heading which is double the
course deviation +/- required WCA.
Leaving the FAF the aircraft has to be configured in the final landing configuration with
stabilized VAPR and the PF makes the Final Altitude call out and starts the timing.
Establish a constant glide path descent down to MDA and crosscheck with minimum or other
published check altitudes on the approach chart.
Minimum crossing altitudes must be strictly followed. Glide path reference altitudes shall be
adhered to with a maximum deviation of +/- 100 ft.
Deviations to below glide path shall be corrected without delay.
If not sufficient altitudes are published, calculate DME distance based altitudes by using a value
of 330 ft per NM (do the calculation when preparing the flight on ground or latest when
preparing the approach in flight).
Note
Most NPA require continuous and constant glide path descents as published (step downs are
NOT allowed as obstacle clearance is calculated for a constant glide path descent in these cases).
All types of A/C can be safely flown accordingly. Nevertheless for some approaches which may
allow step downs to MDA and in bad weather, smaller Aircraft may be flown accordingly in
order to increase the chance to get visual contact with the runway.
Prior passing 1000 ft AAL the Final Items and Landing Checklist have to be completed.
Observe OM limits:
• Maximum rate of descent: 1000 ft/min below 1000 ft AAL
• Maximum AoB: 25°
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-190
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
When the MDA is reached and the RWY is not in sight, initiate a level off or a go around at an
altitude of MDA + 10 % of the actually flown ROD and apply proper pitch and power technique
to achieve the desired performance and parameter.
If a VDP is defined continue at MDA +50/-0 ft towards the VDP.
If a VDP can not be defined continue at MDA +50/-0 ft until the calculated time has elapsed or
until the MAPT.
At VDP / MAPt / elapsed time and RWY not in sight or aircraft not suitably positioned for a safe
landing commence the MA Procedure as published and start a climb to G/A altitude according
MA procedure
The VASIS or PAPIS must not be used below 200 ft above threshold elevation.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-191
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.4 Deaccelerated approach (High speed)
This procedure is established to reduce noise when flying over noise sensitive communities in the
approach area, prepare students for airline career and to save time and fuel.
The high speed approach represents the BAA’s standard way to commence an approach
whenever appropriate.
It shall be applied whenever possible out of en route cruise and if the distance between the IAF
and the FAF is remarkable big, even after a holding.
The basic principle for low noise means low power and this requires low drag. To accomplish
this, a descent is performed (low power) with cruise speed (low drag) and will be maintained
until passing 2000 ft AAL.
For standard operation a level off (if possible) at FA 2 NM prior the FAF/FAP shall be planned,
but the speed will be maintained at the level segment if practical.
The Noise Abatement procedure is not to be applied during NPAs.
During Deaccelerated Approaches with a level off at 2000 ft AAL or FA the configuration
sequence will be started
• upon intercepting glide path at 2000 ft AAL or

• when passing 2000 ft AAL and established on the glide path.
The goal of the Deaccelerated procedure is to start the configuration at 2000 ft AAL and to be
finished with the configuration, Landing Items and Landing Checklist and to have stabilized
Vapr latest at 1000 ft AAL.
The configuration should happen in a smooth and coordinated way, using the entire 3 NM and
time available from 2000 ft AAL down to 1000 ft AAL.
This can be achieved by setting the right power for the descent. As the aircraft is configured and
the speed decreases, the pitch has to be adjusted to maintain a constant glide path. Since the IAS
will decrease, the groundspeed will decrease as well and thus the required ROD becomes
smaller. The higher pitch and configuration will allow the aircraft to slow down for the next
configuration step and eventually to Vapr. Big power changes should not be necessary and often
a single power change when approaching Vapr is sufficient.
The key to a well flown Deaccelerated Approach are the pilot’s ability to stabilize the aircraft on
a glide path although the speed is constantly changing and her/his planning for the configuration.
Maintaining a constant glide path is rather “easy” during an ILS approach when glide slope
information is available.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-192
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.5 PBN Operations (Not yet approved for BAA operations)
4.10.5.1 General
Currently only RNAV5 (B-RNAV) RNAV 1 (P-RNAV) and RNP APCH – LNAV or RNP
APCH LNAV/VNAV procedures are in use at BAA.
4.10.5.2 RNP APCH – Types
RNAV approaches are divided into three categories. The navigation specification for all of them
is RNP APCH.
4.10.5.2.1 RNP APCH – LNAV
Also known as RNP approach to LNAV minima. This is the traditional GPS + RAIM based non-
precision approach. Full scale CDI-needle deflection on final approach is 0.3 NM. Vertical
guidance is based on distance altitude checks as in any other non-precision approach. This
procedure can be flown as CDFA or non-CDFA. All step-down fixes shall be obeyed as usually!
Depending on your aircraft’s G1000 version, there might be an advisory glide path indication. It
shall not be used as primary!
KAUNAS INTL RNP 26
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-193
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.5.2.2 RNP APCH – LNAV/VNAV
Also known as RNP approach to LNAV/VNAV minima (or Baro-VNAV). Lateral guidance is
exactly the same as in LNAV minima, but now the vertical guidance is created by the aircraft’s
flight management system – FMS. Glide path deviation indication can be based on either aircraft
altimeter (baro input) or satellite navigation 3D position.
In these procedures the step down fixes are only advisory and the vertical path is flown
according to the glide path indication. Minima is always DA/DH – NOT MDA/MDH.
In case of altimeter based glide path indication, temperature error will be present. This is why
there is a “minimum outside air temperature at the airport” for each of these procedures. That
lower the temperature is the lower the actual glide path angle and the smaller the obstacle
clearance.
STOCKHOLM, BMA RNP 30
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-194
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.5.2.2 RNP APCH – LPV
Also known as RNP approach to LPV minima. In this procedure both lateral- and vertical guidance
is based on 3D satellite positioning – GPS + SBAS. Instead of fixed deviation scales, both lateral-
and vertical CDI’s indicate angular deflection like in ILS. This is what makes it a precision approach
like procedure.
As with LNAV/VNAV, step down fixes are only advisory and minima is always
NOTE
This procedure is not approved for BAA operation at the moment.
The BPN procedure with RNP approaches that BAA is using is described in OM 13.39.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-195
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.6 Circling Approach
The published instrument approach procedure shall be followed down to the circling altitude,
using circling configuration as per Appendix of this manual (Circle to land).
The published IFR approach may be flown as a basic or deaccelerated approach in standard
training operation.
From a point approximately 2 NM in front of the threshold or upon reaching MDA or latest at the
Missed Approach Point, but always with the runway in sight, a 45 deg offset procedure shall be
flown, preferably to the downwind side of the runway.
Turn away from approach heading, into the downwind, by 45deg entry. Initial Turn from other
directions:
If the circling approach is arriving from a direction other than depicted in the flight circuit, the
aircraft should be maneuvered to enter the traffic circuit as recommended or instructed by ATC.
If this requires to cross the active runway, the runway should be crossed mid-field and at 90° (if
possible). Start timing when overhead the runway and turn downwind after 20 seconds +/- 1
second per kt head or tail wind present on that leg.
Nevertheless care should be taken not to fly too wide a downwind to keep the runway in sight,
especially with actual weather restrictions to visibility.
The displacement of the downwind from the runway achieved by this method will be close to the
minimum necessary for a continuous turn to base and final.
Drift correction on downwind is 1 x WCA; the position abeam landing threshold must be
checked visually.
The downwind extension is 3 seconds per 100' circling height AAL +/- 1 second per kt head or
tail wind for wind compensation prior to turning base.
Target of circuit arrangement on base leg is to achieve a standard final descent with a minimum
of control inputs.
At circling altitudes lower than 1000 ft AAL you will intercept a normal 3° glide path
somewhere on base. As a rule of thumb delay the descent by 8 seconds per 100 ft below 1000 ft
AAL circling height.
Once established on the circling downwind the procedure to be applied is the same as during
normal traffic circuit.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-196
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Descent below circling altitude shall not be initiated unless the following conditions have been
satisfied:
• the airplane remains clear of clouds,

• adequate clearance from terrain and obstructions is assured,
• the airplane has arrived at a position from which a normal approach profile can be
followed to the
• runway in use, and
• either the approach threshold of the runway or the approach lights or markings
identifiable with the runway are clearly visible
The pilot shall execute the missed approach procedure for the instrument runway, make the
initial climbing turn towards the runway and remain within the circling area until obstacles are
cleared if
• sight of the airport is lost for more than a few seconds, or

• adequate visual reference to the ground cannot be maintained, or
• a safe landing cannot be performed, or
• Landing checklist is not completed at 200 ft AAL.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-197
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.7 SRE-ASR and PAR Approaches
Ground Controlled Approaches (GCA) is primarily used at military airports. The approach
procedure is similar to the Precision Approach Radar (PAR) approach used by some civilian
airports. Both approaches require that the approach controller issues heading and glide path
instructions down to the minimum. PAR/GCA approaches are precision approaches, SRE/ASR
approaches are non-precision approaches, which provide only information about recommended
altitudes on final.
An IAL chart is not available for GCA approaches and the minimum radar vectoring altitude is
usually not published as well. Consequently the MSA should be carefully calculated.
A DH (usually 200 ft) for PAR and a MDA for an ASR/SRE are published for airports where
these approaches are available.
The Approach Briefing, given by the controller, for a GCA should additionally include Missed
Approach instructions and lost communications procedures, which may be issued on final
approach.
Use all local Nav aids for orientation during the approach and as a backup in case of lost
communication. Since most of the military airports are TACAN equipped, one of the VHF NAV
receivers should be set to the respective frequency for DME indication.
All bank angles should be standard rate until established on the final approach course and then all
bank angles should be 1/2 standard rate.
The radar circuit is actually the same like the one provided by ATC when radar vectors are
provided for ILS or VOR final. The difference is the final, where the controller provides course
and for PAR as well glide path information. Actually the controller does the cross check and
orders the pilot to perform course corrections in degrees and glide path corrections by ordering to
increase or decrease the ROD.
Apply normal approach procedures for basic precision or non-precision approaches. Noise
abatement procedures may be considered when familiar with radar approaches.
The controller will order you to report Landing Checks complete. This may be delayed due to the
low approach speed until on the dog leg. Silence in the cockpit is required on final to listen to
controller instructions so accomplish the Landing Items and Landing Checklist.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-198
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Prior to turning onto the final approach course the controller will advise that further radio
transmissions are no longer required.
Final Approach Course:
Once established on the final approach course, the controller will be issuing heading instructions
every few seconds, i.e.
"LEFT OF COURSE”, "LEFT OF COURSE AND CORRECTING", or

"TURN LEFT/RIGHT ZERO TWO FIVE".
The PF must be able to make heading changes as little as two or three degrees. Heading changes
larger than requested will make it very difficult for the controller to radar vector the aircraft
along the final approach course.
Do fly the headings ordered! Do not correct for wind! Glide path:
At glide path interception the controller will announce:
"INTERCEPTING GLIDEPATH COMMENCE NORMAL RATE OF DESCEND"
Reduce power as required, use 5 X GS + 10% to fly a 3° glide path and trim the airplane. Once
established on the glide path, the controller will be giving glide path instructions every few
seconds, i.e.
"ON GLIDEPATH", "ABOVE GLIDEPATH", "BELOW GLIDEPATH",
"BELOW GLIDEPATH DECREASE RATE POF DESCENT”, or

"BELOW GLIDEPATH AND ADJUSTING".
Make small pitch corrections to adjust back to the glide path. A headwind component will
require less ROD due to the slower ground speed and a tailwind component will require more
ROD due to the higher ground speed.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-199
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
Sometime during final approach the radar controller may tell the pilot
“.. TOWER CLEARS LANDING RUNWAY XY”
This clearance is only valid when the pilot eventually reports RWY in sight.
When approaching the minimum the radar controller will say
“… APPROACHING THE MINIMUM. IF YOU DO NOT HAVE THE RUNWAY IN

SIGHT GO AROUND! CONFIRM RUNWAY IN SIGHT.”
Only when the pilot acknowledges
“RUNWAY IN SIGHT”
the previously given clearance for landing is valid.
If the runway is not in sight, the pilot must commence a go around and follow the given missed
approach instructions.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-200
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.8 Visual Approach
When it is operationally beneficial, ATC may authorize pilots to conduct a visual approach to the
airport in lieu of the published IAP. A pilot or the controller can initiate a visual approach.
Before issuing a visual approach clearance, the controller must verify that pilots have the airport,
or a preceding aircraft that they are to follow, in sight. In the event pilots have the airport in sight
but do not see the aircraft they are to follow, ATC may issue the visual approach clearance but
will maintain responsibility for aircraft and wake turbulence separation.
Once pilots report the aircraft in sight, they assume the responsibilities for their own separation
and wake turbulence avoidance.
A visual approach is an ATC authorization for an aircraft on an IFR flight plan to proceed
visually to the airport of intended landing; it is not an IAP.
Also, there is no missed approach segment. An aircraft unable to complete a visual approach
must be handled as any other go-around and appropriate separation must be provided. A vector
for a visual approach may be initiated by ATC if the reported weather conditions at the airport of
intended landing meet at least minimum VMC conditions.
The visual approach clearance is issued to expedite the flow of traffic to an airport. It is
authorized when the ceiling is reported or expected to be at least 1,000 feet AGL and the
visibility is at least 5 KM. Pilots must remain clear of the clouds at all times while conducting a
visual approach.
At an airport with a control tower, pilots may be cleared to fly a visual approach to one runway
while others are conducting VFR or IFR approaches to another parallel, intersecting, or
converging runway. Also, when radar service is provided, it is automatically terminated when the
controller advises pilots to change to the tower or advisory frequency.
Whenever a visual approach is performed a published IFR approach for available Nav equipment
for the same runway must be prepared for cross reference. The priority must be a good look out
in order to maintain visual separation to other traffic.
When cleared for a visual approach the pilot must be prepared to follow the Visual Approach
Procedure if so published for the particular airport.
____________________________________________________________________________
ATO FCTM FCTM-201
EN
AB INITIO TRAINING
4.10.9 Transition to Visual Reference and Landing
As discussed in the beginning of this chapter the instructor will use a hood, foggles and other
devices to limit the students outside view, especially to the forward sector.
The instructors are encouraged to simulate different weather situations like below minimum,
at minimum and of course variations of above minimum.
The instructor will do that by removing or not removing the view limiting device.
The PM( usually instructor) shall start to look for visual references to the runway according
the reported ceiling but latest 100 ft above MDA. If sufficient visual reference can be
established above or at MDA, a change over from solely instrument to more and more visual
references (if available) while continuing the crosscheck of instruments as required. Maintain
the normal glide path. Visual illusions during this transition often lead to a pitch down
resulting in an inappropriate landing attitude.
If the actual or simulated weather conditions allow a visual contact to the runway before the
minimum, the PM shall call out:
“RUNWAY IN SIGHT”
and performs the following calls out
For a landing or touch and go the instructor is responsible to give the student enough time to
remove the hood or foggles.
Only when visual contact to the runway and/or approach lights and/or runway
environment is established according OM, the pilot may
• continue the approach for landing,
• descend below MDA/DA and
• apply composite flying technique towards the touchdown zone and gradually increase
her/his reliance to visual cues.
____________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter 1 Aircraft Control

1.2 Normal Procedures Philosophy

Every deviation from a standard procedure shall be indicated by the announcement

1.3 Technique Philosophy

A technique must not differ from the standard procedure.

1.4 Speed Definitions

1.5 Pitch and Power Concept

Control airspeed with throttle when excess power is available. Example:

Control airspeed with pitch control when power is fixed. Example:

Airspeed, pitch and vertical speed have a direct relationship.

Speed, Altitude and Power

Applying the 1: 60 rule (of thumb) we know that

ROD (ft/min) = (TAS / 60) x pitch change x 100

Example: TAS 120 kts pitch change 3°

ROD = (120 / 60) x 3 x100 = 2 x 3 x 100 = 600 ft/min

100 RPM = 100 ft/min (Rule of Thumb!)

1.6 Pitch and Power Tables

1.7 Control and Performance Concept

1.8 Control Instruments

• Attitude Indicator (IMC and VMC)

1.9 Performance Instruments

1.10 Aircraft Control Technique

Use the following technique for aircraft stabilization:

1.10.2 Pitch Control

1.10.3 Roll Control

For instructional purpose the following definitions will be used:

Shallow Angle of Bank (AoB): up to 15° bank

As a Rule of Thumb use: (TAS / 10) x 1.5 or (TAS/10) +5

(120 / 10) x 1.5 = 12 x 1.5 = 18

For operation in IMC, some additional considerations apply:

1.10.4 Power Control

1.10.5 Torque and Yaw Compensation

Power changes at while maintaining level flight:

Recommended trim sequence at a level off after a descent:

Initiation of a descent or climb:

1.10.7 Integrated/Composite Flight (Flight in VMC)

1.10.8 Instrument Scan Technique

• knows what indication to expect,

• evaluates the actual indication.

1.10.9 Influencing Instrument Scan Technique

A factor influencing Instrument Scan Technique is the characteristic manner in which

Control - direct and immediate indication

1.10.10 Instrument Scan Analysis

If the instruments fluctuate erratically, the pilot is not sufficiently

• referring to the Control Instruments,

• performing a fast crosscheck, and

• trimming the aircraft.