Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing

Codes & Standards of NDT:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI is the primary organization that is responsible for coordinating the activities of
all other standard writing organizations. ANSI primarily reviews and certifies
that the standards are correct. ANSI has established specific guidelines for the
formation of other standard bodies such as ASME and AWS. Recently, several ANSI
piping standards (B31.1, B31.3, B31.4 and B31.8) have been reclassified as ASME
documents.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

ASME Codes are among the most widely used in the petrochemical industry and they
govern items such as pressure vessels, boilers, and piping.

The following is a list of the ASME Codes

 ASME Code B31.1
 ASME Code B31.3
 ASME Code B31.4
 ASME Code B31.8
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IV
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V
 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
ASME Code B31.1- Power Piping

Pertains to the design, materials, fabrication, test, and inspection of power and
auxiliary piping. Typical systems include steam, water, gas, oil, and air services
that support electric power generation. Refer to pages A1 through A8 of the
Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Code B31.1.

ASME Code B31.3 - Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping

Pertains to the design, materials, fabrication, test, and inspection of chemical piping
systems. Typical applications include on-plot stripping steam, crude oil, acid, caustic,
sour water, and cooling systems that are used to refine petroleum products. Refer to
pages A14 and A15 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of
ASME Code B31.3.

ASME Code B31.4 - Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid

Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols

Pertains to the design, construction, inspection, testing, operation, and

maintenance of liquid petroleum and anhydrous ammonia piping systems. Typical
applications include off-shore and off-plot cross-country pipelines, terminals,
and tank farms. Refer to pages A39 and A40 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of ASME Code B31.4

ASME Code B31.8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems

Pertains to the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, testing, and operation
of gas transmission and distribution systems (including gas pipelines), gas
compressor stations, and gas metering and regulating stations. Refer to pages A51
and A52 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME
Code B31.8.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I - Power Boilers

Pertains to the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and

certification of power boilers that exceed 15 psi for steam service and that exceed
160 psi and/or 250oF for hot water service. Refer to page A60 of the Addendum for a
more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section I.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IV - Heating Boilers

Pertains to the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and

certification of heating boilers that do not exceed 15 psi for steam service or that do
not exceed 160 psi and 250oF for hot water service. Refer to page A67 of the
Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section IV

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V - Nondestructive Examination

Provides requirements and methods for NDT that include radiographic,

ultrasonic, liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, eddy current, visual examination,
leak testing, and acoustic emission. Refer to page A74 of the Addendum for a more
detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section V.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII - Pressure Vessels

Pertains to the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and

certification of pressure vessels. The three classes of pressure vessels that are
covered by this code are welded, forged, and brazed. Typical applications include
steam generators, heat exchangers, hydrocrackers, fractionation towers, reformer
reactors, and other components that are designed to contain fluids or vapors at
high temperatures and pressures. Refer to pages A77 and A78 of the Addendum
for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section VIII.

American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)

ASNT is an organization that is dedicated to NDT. ASNT organizes and distributes

technical information that is specific to NDT.

ASNT SNT-TC-1A - Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualification and

Certification in Nondestructive Testing

Provides requirements for the qualification and certification of NDT personnel.

American Welding Society (AWS)

The AWS is an organization that provides standards for the welded fabrication of
structures and bridges with structural steel and sheet metal.
AWS D1.1 - Structural Welding Code

Provides acceptance standards and welding requirements for buildings,

bridges, and tubular structures. The requirements for the qualification
of weld procedures and welders also are included in this Code.

American Petroleum Institute (API)

 API 510
 API 620
 API 650
 API RP-2A
API 510 - Pressure Vessel Inspection Code

Provides requirements for the maintenance inspection, repair, alteration, and

rerating procedures for pressure vessels that are used by the petroleum and chemical
process industries. Refer to page A118 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of API 510.

API 620 - Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Pertains to the design and construction of large, low pressure, above ground
storage tanks. Typical applications include the storage of gases or vapors that results
from refining operations. Refer to page A123 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of API 620.

API 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

Provides material, design, fabrication, and testing requirements for above ground
atmospheric tanks. Typical applications include the storage of crude and other
liquid petroleum products. Refer to page A130 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of API 650.

API RP-2A - Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed
Off- Shore Platforms
Provides a guide for the design and construction of drilling platforms. Refer to page
A139 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of API RP-2A

NONDESTRUCTIV E TESTING : PURPOSE , ADVANTAGES , AND

IMPORTANCE
The purpose of nondestructive testing (NDT) is to prevent the premature
failure of components or weldments and to improve the reliability and the safety
of production and maintenance operations at the manufacturing facility . NDT is
used during fabrication and construction, as well as maintenance repair activities, to
check and to monitor the condition of equipment that is used in all aspects of oil
extraction and refining.
NDT is an important tool that allows the user to find potential problems that could result
in an unexpected failure of piping, vessels, or other components during normal
operation. When a problem is found, it can be fixed before a situation develops
that could result in personnel injury, equipment or production loss, or damage to the
environment.
The role of the Engineer who is responsible for the design, maintenance, or
operation of mechanical systems is to recognize when NDT can be used and should be
used to ensure or to improve the safety, quality, and reliability of Company
facilities and equipment
The following examples are of how NDT can be used in mechanical inspection
processes to improve quality, reliability, and safety:
1. To check the integrity of pipelines or vessels that contain flammable or toxic
Substances
2. To determine the effects of erosion and corrosion on pipelines, components, and
storage tanks.
3. To identify cracks or weak areas that result from cyclic stresses during normal or
severe service conditions.
4. To observe operating characteristics of equipment or systems
NDT improves reliability through the detection of potential problems that could
result in premature system or component failures. Nondestructive tests are performed
before the first installation, after repairs, and at regularly scheduled intervals
throughout the life of critical components. The continuous performance of NDT at
regularly scheduled intervals provides an added level of confidence in the continued
reliability of the component or system on which the NDT is performed. Because
components that are tested through use of NDT are not destroyed and can still be
used after they are tested, NDT is more cost effective than any type of destructive
testing. Defects that are identified through use of NDT during the fabrication of a
system cost less to repair than defects that must be repaired in the field after the system is
operational The capability of NDT to identify discontinuities has also led to an
increase in the initial quality of fabrications and repairs. When a person who
fabricates or repairs a component is aware that the fabrication or the repair will be
subjected to NDT, that person is more likely to correctly perform the fabrication or
repair because he knows that the NDT will identify any discontinuities.
Importance
NDT can be an extremely effective tool to inspect and to examine systems and
components;
however, a solid understanding of the principles of the various NDT methods is
required to properly use NDT. By understanding the basic principles of the
various NDT methods, an Engineer will be able to determine the most
appropriate NDT method for a given test scenario. Not all of the NDT methods
are equally effective. Some NDT methods are only capable of surface examinations;
other NDT methods can examine the entire volume of welds
or components. Some NDT methods cannot be used on nonferrous materials, and
still other methods are not conducive to extremely corroded or rough surfaces.
Base Metal Discontinuities
A discontinuity is an interruption of the typical structure of a material such as a
lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics of
the material or weldment. Base metal discontinuities are classified in accord with
the point in the manufacturing process in which such discontinuities occur.

These discontinuities are classified as follows:

Inherent
Primary Process
Secondar y Process

Inherent
Inherent discontinuities result from the original melt, casting, or solidification of the
ingot of primary metal or alloy.

Primary Process
Primary process discontinuities are formed during the rough shaping and forming of
metals during primary processing such as forging, casting, rolling and drawing

Secondary Process
Secondary process discontinuities are associated with final finishing operations
such as machining and heat treatments.

Weld Metal Discontinuities

Figure 1 shows cracks in welds. Cracks can be either longitudinal (aligned with
the weld bead) or transverse (perpendicular to the weld bead) and they can occur from
stresses that are developed during the welding process. Cracks also can be either
surface or subsurface. Cracks severely reduce the strength of a weld. Welds with
cracks are not reliable. Only very small cracks are acceptable, and such cracks are only
acceptable in non-critical applications.

Figure 2 shows slag inclusions. Slag inclusions are located within a weld and
they occur when gases, impurities, or flux contaminate a slag weld. Slag inclusions
do not always present a serious problem unless they are very large or if there are many
small inclusions in a given area. Slag inclusions weaken the welds.

Figure 3 shows lack of fusion. Lack of fusion generally is located at the weld metal and
base metal interface and it occurs when the molten weld metal does not completely
fuse with an adjacent weld bead or with the base material. Lack of fusion will almost
always be classified as a defect because the weld is not reliable.
Figure 4 shows incomplete root penetration. Incomplete root penetration occurs
when the weld metal does not completely penetrate into the root area and consume both
base materials. Incomplete root penetration creates a weak area in the weldment and
is unacceptable in critical applications.

Figure 5 shows weld undercut. Weld undercut is an area in which the actual weld is less
than the specific contour. Undercutting results in a depression on the surface at the point
at which the weld metal contacts the base metal. As the size of the undercut
increases, the effective cross-sectional area of the base metal is reduced and causes a
decrease in the strength of the base metal.
Figure 6 shows cold lap. Cold lap occurs when the weld metal freezes too quickly and
does not fuse with the surface of the base metal. Cold lap is most typically found on the
cover pass at the toe of the weld.
Figure 7 shows root concavity. Root concavity occurs in weld joints that are welded
from one side only, an example of which would be pipe.
The following are typical causes of root concavity:
1. Too much heat, which causes shrinkage
2. A root opening that is too wide
3. Insufficient deposits of weld metal
Figure 8 shows a crater pit. Crater pits are located on the weld bead surface and are
generally associated with Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). Crater pits result
from the rapid breaking of the electric arc so that the weld puddle freezes too
quickly and shrinks, which leaves a small void.
Figure 9 shows an arc strike. Arc strikes are caused by dragging the electrode over
the surface of the base metal in an effort to initiate an arc for welding. Such
strikes that are within the weld groove are generally acceptable as long as the arc is
properly prepared and is fully consumed in the weld.
Figure 10 shows weld porosity. Weld porosity is caused by inadequate flux or
shielding gas coverage, which allows oxygen to contaminate the molten weld metal
prior to solidification. The porosity can be located on the weld surface but is
typically located within the weld. Moisture or other contaminants, such as oil, that
are on the base metal also can vaporize during welding and can result in gas bubbles
being trapped in the weld metal.
Defects
A defect in a component or a weld is a discontinuity or flaw that would probably result
in an early failure of the component or weld. Because all discontinuities are not defects,
acceptance criteria must be established to identify which discontinuities are acceptable.
Past experience has helped to establish the criteria for an acceptable discontinuity.
These criteria are known as acceptance criteria and they can be found in the
applicable fabrication and construction codes and standards. The discontinuities must
be compared to the acceptance criteria to determine whether they actually are defects.
For example, 1/16" of weld undercut in material that is 1" thick would not be
acceptable in piping that is covered by ASME B31.1 (reference paragraph 136.4.2), but
such an undercut would be acceptable in structural materials that are covered by
AWS D1.1 (reference paragraph 8.15.1.5). Also, 1/8" of weld reinforcement on a
piping girth weld with a 3/8" wall thickness would be acceptable on an ASME B31.3
piping system; however, such a weld reinforcement would not be acceptable on an
ASME B31.1 piping system with a maximum design temperature that is above 75oF.
IDENTIFYIN G THE CODES, STANDARDS, PROCEDURES , AND

INSTRUCTIONS ASSOCIATE D WITH NONDESTRUCTIV E TESTING

American National Standards Institute (ANSI

ANSI is the primary organization that is responsible for coordinating the activities of all
other standard writing organizations. ANSI primarily reviews and certifies that the
standards are correct. ANSI has established specific guidelines for the formation of
other standard bodies such as ASME and AWS. Recently, several ANSI piping
standards (B31.1, B31.3, B31.4 and B31.8) have been reclassified as ASME documents.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME
ASME Codes are among the most widely used in the petrochemical industry and they
govern items such as pressure vessels, boilers, and piping.
The following is a list of the ASME Codes
ASME Code B31.1
ASME Code B31.3
ASME Code B31.4
ASME Code B31.8
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IV
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
ASME Code B31. 1 - Power Piping, pertains to the design, materials, fabrication,
test, and inspection of power and auxiliary piping. Typical systems include steam,
water, gas, oil, and air services that support electric power generation. Refer to
pages A1 through A8 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope
of ASME Code B31.1.
ASME Code B31. 3 - Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, pertains to the
design, materials, fabrication, test, and inspection of chemical piping systems. Typical
applications include on-plot stripping steam, crude oil, acid, caustic, sour water, and
cooling systems that are used to refine petroleum products. Refer to pages A14 and
A15 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Code
B31.3.

ASME Code B31. 4 - Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid

Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols, pertains to the design,
construction, inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of liquid petroleum and
anhydrous ammonia piping systems. Typical applications include off-shore and
off-plot cross-country pipelines, terminals, and tank farms. Refer to pages A39 and
A40 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Code
B31.4.

ASME Code B31. 8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, pertains
to the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, testing, and operation of gas
transmission and distribution systems (including gas pipelines), gas compressor stations,
and gas metering and regulating stations. Refer to pages A51 and A52 of the
Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Code B31.8.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I - Power Boilers, pertains to
the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and certification of
power boilers that exceed 15 psi for steam service and that exceed 160 psi and/or
250oF for hot water service. Refer to page A60 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of ASME Section I.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IV - Heating Boilers, pertains
to the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and certification of
heating boilers that do not exceed 15 psi for steam service or that do not exceed 160
psi and 250oF for hot water service. Refer to page A67 of the Addendum for a
more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section IV.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V - Nondestructive Examination ,
provides requirements and methods for NDT that include radiographic, ultrasonic,
liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, eddy current, visual examination, leak testing,
and acoustic emission. Refer to page A74 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of ASME Section V.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII - Pressure Vessels,
pertains to the design, material selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and
certification of pressure vessels. The three classes of pressure vessels that are
covered by this code are welded, forged, and brazed. Typical applications include
steam generators, heat exchangers, hydrocrackers, fractionation towers, reformer
reactors, and other components that are designed to contain fluids or vapors at high
temperatures and pressures. Refer to pages A77 and A78 of the Addendum for a
more detailed explanation of the scope of ASME Section VIII.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
ASNT is an organization that is dedicated to NDT. ASNT organizes and distributes
technical information that is specific to NDT. For example, ASNT developed the
manual that is used as the supplemental text for this course.
ASNT SNT-TC-1A - Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive Testing, provides requirements for the qualification and
certification of NDT personnel.
American Welding Society (AWS)
The AWS is an organization that provides standards for the welded fabrication of
structures and bridges with structural steel and sheet metal. For the purpose of this
course, only AWS D1.1, the Structural Welding Code, will be referenced.
AWS D1.1 - Structural Welding Code, provides acceptance standards and
welding requirements for buildings, bridges, and tubular structures. The
requirements for the qualification of weld procedures and welders also are
included in this Code. Typical applications include structural steel for catwalks,
landings, and buildings.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
API 510
API 620
API 650
API RP-2A
API 510 - Pressure Vessel Inspection Code, provides requirements for the
maintenance inspection, repair, alteration, and rerating procedures for pressure vessels
that are used by the petroleum and chemical process industries. Refer to page A118 of
the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of API 510.
API 620 - Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks,
pertains to the design and construction of large, low pressure, above ground storage
tanks. Typical applications include the storage of gases or vapors that results from
refining operations. Refer to page A123 of the Addendum for a more detailed
explanation of the scope of API 620.
API 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, provides material, design,
fabrication, and testing requirements for above ground atmospheric tanks. Typical
applications include the storage of crude and other liquid petroleum products. Refer to
page A130 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the scope of API 650.
API RP-2A - Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing
Fixed Off- Shore Platforms , provides a guide for the design and construction of drilling
platforms. Refer to page A139 of the Addendum for a more detailed explanation of the
scope of API RP-2A.

Determining The Appropriate

Application Of Nondestructive Testing Methods

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF VISUAL WELD EXAMINATIONS

Purpose - The purpose of a visual weld examination (VT) is to detect visible surface
discontinuities on a weldment. VT is the most frequently used method of examination,
and welders and welding inspectors continuously use VT during welding operations to
make better quality welds. VT often will identify problems during welding that can be
repaired “in process” to prevent the discovery of a discontinuity by a subsequent
nondestructive test.

Advantages - VT is the quickest and most cost-effective method of NDT for use in the
identification of a surface discontinuity on a weld. Because the VT method of NDT
requires the fewest technical and interpretive skills, VT also is the simplest NDT
method to learn. The use of VT throughout the welding process significantly
improves the success of subsequent NDT and reduces the cost of repairs.

Examination Requirements
The tool that is used to perform VT is the human eye. The following are the
requirements for the performance of VT:

Visual Acuity - Personnel who perform VT must pass an annual eye

examination in accordance with industry standards. The eye examination checks
for conditions such as visual acuity, color blindness, and depth perception.

Distance - The examiner’s eye should be located within 24 inches and at an angle
of not less than 30 degrees to the surface of the weld that is being examined to
conduct a direct visual examination. Mirrors can be used to improve the angle of
vision.

Access - If the area to be examined is not directly accessible, an examination aid can
be used. Examination aids are covered later in this Module.
Lighting - A flashlight or other additional lighting should be used to sufficiently
illuminate the area that is to be examined. A minimum of 35 foot candles of light
should be available for normal visual weld examinations. When performing VT
for small indications, a minimum of 50 foot candles of light should be available. If
required by procedure, a light meter can be used to determine the exact amount of
illumination that is available.

Examination Aids
Examination aids sometimes are used to facilitate visual examinations. The
following are examples of commonly used visual examination aids:

Mirrors
Portable Lighting
Flashlights
Light Meters
Straight Edges and Rulers
Magnifying Lenses
Boroscopes
Microscopes
Video Cameras
Weld Gages

When the use of examination aids (such as boroscopes) is necessary to perform

remote examinations, the image resolution must be at least equal to the image
resolution that is attainable by direct visual examination.
Several types of weld inspection gages are available to simplify the measurements of
complex weld configurations when conducting VTs.
The following are some of the gauges that are generally used:
Cambridge Gage - This gage can measure undercut, weld reinforcement, bevel angle,
root opening, fillet weld size, and joint mismatch.
GAL “Hi-Lo” Gage - This gage can measure joint mismatch, root opening, and weld
reinforcement.
AWS Type Gage - This gage also can measure various sizes of standard fillet welds.
Common Applications
The following are common applications for visual weld examinations
To determine the size and length of fillet welds on structural members
To inspect the weld joint fit-up including bevel angle, root opening, land,
andcleanliness of piping welds.
To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.
To inspect the proper fit-up of socket weld fittings on small diameter pipe.
The following are the common discontinuities that can be detected during a
visual examination:

Cracks
Slag
Porosity
Undercut
Cold Lap
Arc Strikes

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF LIQUID

PENETRAN T TESTING

The Purpose - The purpose of liquid penetrant testing (PT) is to detect discontinuities on
the surface of non-porous materials.
Advantages
Read the Introduction to Lesson 2 in the ASNT Manual. The introduction describes
the following major advantages of PT:
Good sensitivity
Inexpensive
Simple
Wide range of uses
Principles of Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
PT uses the principle of capillary action to detect discontinuities. When a liquid
penetrant is applied to the surface of a material, capillary action will cause the penetrant
to enter any small openings that exist on the surface of the material.After the excess
penetrant is removed, a developer is applied to the surface of the material to draw the
absorbed penetrant back out of the openings. If the application of the developer causes
the penetrant to be drawn back out of an opening, discontinuities are present on the
surface of the material
PT activity can be broken down into the following basic steps:

Clean the surface.

Apply the penetrant to the surface that is to be inspected.
Remove the excess penetrant
Apply a developer.

Common Applications
The most common use of PT is to check welds such as socket welds and
root passes on pressure vessels, storage tanks, and piping systems. PT also is the best
method for use in the identification of surface discontinuities on non-magnetic
materials, such as aluminum and stainless steel. PT also can be used on magnetic steels
when magnetic particle testing cannot be performed. The Applications section that
begins on page 2-17 of the ASNT Manual provides additional information on the
applications of PT.

Limitations

The major limitation of PT is that it cannot detect subsurface discontinuities. Because

of this limitation, PT is not a sufficient NDT for many critical weldments in which the
volume of the weld must be examined. PT also is not conducive to high
temperature applications and special penetrants and developers are required for even
moderate temperature use. PT is performed on materials that have a maximum
temperature of 125oF. Because surface coatings block discontinuity openings,
another limitation of PT is that it cannot be performed on surfaces that are covered
with paint or with other coating materials. The lengthy PT dwell time, sometimes up
to 45 minutes, can limit its application.

Common Discontinuities

Surface cracks, porosity, undercut, and cold laps are the most common discontinuities
that are detected by PT. Although these discontinuities are open to the surface, the
size of the discontinuity can be too small to allow detection by VT; therefore, PT is
used. PT is more sensitive than VT on small, tight imperfections.

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF MAGNETIC PARTICL E

TESTING

The purpose of magnetic particle testing (MT) is to detect discontinuities that are open
to the surface or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, steel, and associated alloys) are those materials
that can be strongly magnetized. Paramagnetic materials (e.g., sodium metal) can
be slightly magnetized and diamagnetic materials (e.g., copper) cannot be magnetized.

Advantages
A major advantage of MT is that, for most applications , MT uses portable test
equipment that is relatively simple to use. When compared to PT, MT also has the
following advantages:
MT is less labor intensive
After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform
MT can detect some subsurface defects.
MT has less post test clean-up
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle of magnetism. Magnetism is the
ability of one ferromagnetic material to attract other ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic fields exist within and around a permanent magnet or around a conductor that
carries an electric current. These magnetic fields are made up of magnetic lines of
force that are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current flow. When a
discontinuity exists in a ferromagnetic material, the discontinuity results in a distortion
in the magnetic lines of force and creates a leakage field in which the magnetic
testing particles are gathered. The visual gathering of magnetic particles indicates that
a discontinuity may exist in the material that is being tested.
Method:
An electric current is passed through a test object to create a magnetic field in the test
object (i.e., the test object is magnetized).
Magnetic particles are applied to the surface of the magnetized test object
The test object is evaluated for gathered magnetic particles
Test Equipment
Various kinds of test equipment are used to establish the magnetic field in the test
object. Portable yokes and prods that are most commonly used during fabrication
and construction of petroleum extraction and refining facilities. Large stationary
equipment is mostly used in manufacturing and production facilities because these
facilities require continuous MT.

The following methods are used to establish the magnetic field:

Indirect Method - This method uses an electromagnetic yoke to pass a magnetic field
through the test object. The test object completes a magnetic circuit with the yoke that
results in the establishment of a magnetic field in the test object. Yokes can use AC,
Half Wave (HW) DC, or DC current to establish magnetic fields.
Direct Method - This method uses prods to pass electrical current through the test
object. The current that passes through the test object establishes the magnetic field.
Prods also can use AC, HWDC, or DC current to establish magnetic fields.

The use of AC current results in a magnetic field that is fairly shallow in the test aterial;
the use of DC current provides a deeper magnetic field. However, DC current also has
more of a tendency to permanently magnetize the test objects.
Types of Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application
Magnetic particles can be suspended in liquid or they can be in the form of a dry
powder. The method of application depends on the test situation. The following methods
can be used:
The wet method uses magnetic particles that are suspended in a liquid such as oil or
water. The magnetic particles may be fluorescent or non-fluorescent. The mixture is
applied by allowing it to flow over the test object.
The dry method uses magnetic particles in the form of a dry powder. The magnetic
particles are non-fluorescent, but the particles are available in different colors.
The particles are applied by allowing them to lightly settle on the surface of the test
object. The particles must be applied lightly and evenly to the surface.
Stress corrosion cracking in pressure vessels consists of micro cracks that are not
visible to the human eye and which are usually undetectable using dry magnetic
particle testing. However, through use of wet fluorescent MT, the stress corrosion
cracking can be reliably detected. The wet method of magnetic particle testing
generally provides a more sensitive inspection because the wet method is able to detect
minute discontinuities.
Common Applications
Magnetic particle testing is used to inspect carbon steel weldments, socket welds on
piping, weld bevel preps, structural fillet welds, valve bodies, shafts of rotating
equipment, pump impellers, machined parts, vessels, and storage tanks. The use of MT
is particularly important for vessels and tanks that are susceptible to sulfide stress and
hydrogen induced cracking.
Limitations
The major limitations of MT are that it can only be used to find defects that are
near the surface of ferromagnetic materials, and that MT can magnetize the component
that is under test. MT will not find deep-seated discontinuities; however, this limitation
is primarily based on whether AC or DC current is used and the type of magnetic particle
that is used.

Common Discontinuities
The most common discontinuities that are found by MT are surface or near-
surface cracks, porosity, undercut, and cold lap.

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF

ULTRASONIC TESTING

The following are the primary purposes of ultrasonic testing (UT):

To detect surface and subsurface discontinuities in metallic materials
To measure the thickness of metallic materials
UT, unlike the previously discussed methods of NDT, can be used to inspect the
entire volume of the test object.
Advantages
The following advantages of UT make it a widely used method of testing for
defects in a variety of situations:
UT is extremely sensitive
UT displays the size and location of discontinuities
UT can be used on almost any type of metallic material
UT can be used on all but the very complex weldments
UT only requires access to one side of the test object.
UT can be performed through use of portable equipment.
UT is safe to perform.
Principles of Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
UT is a more complex method of NDT than is VT, PT, or MT. UT uses a pulse
generator to generate an electrical signal that is supplied to a transducer. The transducer
uses this electrical signal to generate and emit ultrasonic energy. The ultrasonic energy
causes mechanical vibrations (wave propagation) that are in the form of a sound wave
that travels through a test object. After the wave travels through the test object, the
transducer receives the return signal and sends it through a process circuit. The output
of the process circuit is sent to a cathode ray tube. If the wave encounters a
discontinuity in the test object, the return signal will reflect the disruption of the wave.
The ability of the ultrasonic system to detect small defects (e.g., the sensitivity) is a
function of the wavelength of the emitted ultrasonic energy.
When ultrasonic energy (sound wave) is transferred into a material, the distance that the
wave travels can be determined through use of an oscilloscope. If the wave does not
encounter a discontinuity, only the initial and return signals appear on the oscilloscope
screen. However, if the wave encounters a discontinuity, part of this energy is
reflected back and three indications (initial signal, return signal, and reflected signal)
will appear on the oscilloscope screen. A qualified inspector can determine the
approximate size and the location of the discontinuity from these indications.

Test Equipment

The following are the basic test equipment components that are used to perform UT
Transduce r - This device is used to convert energy from one form to another form.
As illustrated in Figure 5, UT typically uses piezoelectric devices that deliver
straight or angle ultrasonic beams to detect discontinuities in test objects. These
devices (transducers) are used both to transmit and receive ultrasonic signals.
Couplant - A couplant is a medium that is used to facilitate the transmission
ofultrasonic energy between the transducer and the test object.
Pulse Generator and Oscilloscope - The pulse generator is used to generate theinput
electrical signal to the transducer and the oscilloscope is used to display the return
signal on a cathode ray tube (CRT).
Other important pieces of test equipment are calibration blocks and reference
blocks. Calibration and reference blocks are used to help ensure that the test
equipment is properly operating. Because the operation of the test equipment can
directly affect the inspector’s interpretation of the test results, proper operation of the
test equipment is extremely important
Additionally, hand held ultrasonic thickness gages also use the contact testing
method to provide spot thickness determination. Ultrasonic thickness gages provide a
digital display of the material thickness and are capable of storing large quantities of
thickness data.

Common Applications
A major application of UT is thickness gaging for corrosion detection. UT also is used
to inspect the integrity of weld bevel prep areas, full penetration butt welds, and plate
material
Limitations
Because of the many variations of testing methods, UT is the least limited method of
NDT. However, the following limitations do exist:
UT can only be performed by highly skilled technicians
UT cannot be used on very rough surfaces without surface preparation
UT cannot always be used on course grain materials (castings).
UT cannot detect discontinuities that are parallel to the ultrasonic beam
UT cannot be used to check some weld joint configurations (i.e., socket welds).
Common Discontinuities
UT can be used to detect both surface and subsurface discontinuities. All of the base
metal and weld discontinuities like cracks, porosity, undercut, incomplete penetration,
lack of fusion, slag, and root concavity or convexity. Another common
discontinuity that is identified through use of UT is an unacceptable decrease in
wall thickness that is due to erosion or corrosion.

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

The purpose of radiographic testing (RT) is to detect surface and subsurface

discontinuities in various materials.
Advantages
The following are the advantages of RT, and these advantages are similar to the
advantages of UT:
RT is extremely sensitive
RT can identify both surface and subsurface discontinuities
RT can be used on a wide variety of materials.
RT provides a permanent record that shows the size and location
ofdiscontinuities.
RT can be used through use of portable equipment

Principles of Radiographic Testing (RT)

RT uses radioactive sources (x-ray, gamma ray, or neutron beams) to emit photons
that penetrate the test object. The energy and wavelength characteristics of these
photons allow them to be used to penetrate any material. The physical characteristics of
the test object determines the amount of the energy beam that passes through the
material. Any changes in material thickness or density will affect the amount of
energy that passes through the test object. The portion of the photons that pass
through the test object are used to expose a special type of film. The image that is
produced on the film will show any changes in the density of the areas that are
exposed to the penetrating radiation.

Sources of Radiation
Radiation is the energy that is given off due to a nuclear reaction at the atomic level.
This energy may be in the form of an electromagnetic wave or a particulate. Photons,
which are small packets of energy that are caused by radioactive decay, display both
wave and particle characteristics.
X-Ray Machine
Cobalt – 60
Iridium – 192
X-rays are generated in electronic X-ray tubes of the linear accelerator type. The tubes
may be portable to allow performance of radiographic examinations in the field.
The sources of gamma rays are the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive isotopes.
The following are the radioactive isotopes that are uses to produce gamma rays:
Iridium-192 (Ir-192)
Cobalt-60 (Co-60)
Dangers of Radiation

The penetrating nature of radiographic rays presents a danger to people. These rays
pass through the body in the same way in which they pass through the test object
and, if the exposure is excessive, the rays can cause permanent damage to the
human body. A significant danger exists when sources of radiation are not properly
handled. This danger is magnified by the fact that there are no immediate signs
that tell people that they are being exposed to harmful amounts of radiation.
Overexposure to radiation may cause radiation sickness, permanent damage to vital
body organs or, in severe cases, death.

Because of these dangers, special precautions and safety procedures must be strictly
followed by personnel who handle radiation sources. Ionizing Radiation Protection
Rules for a Radiographic Inspection Company, sets the general guidelines that all
personnel must follow to protect themselves against ionizing radiation. This
instruction is used by personnel who are involved in all aspects of storage, handling,
and use of radioactive sources.

Radiation Monitoring
Because the senses of the human body cannot detect the presence of radiation,
special monitoring equipment must be used. Personnel Monitoring Equipment ,
identifies devices that are used to measure the actual exposure of personnel during the
performance of RT. These devices include film badges, dosimeters, and radiation
survey meters.
A radiation survey meter is used to check radiation levels in a given area. This
information is needed to determine personnel stay times and shielding requirements.

Radiation Safety
The following are the basic radiation safety techniques that are used to reduce
personnel exposure to ionizing radiation:
Time - As the amount of time that is spent near a radiation source decreases, the exposure
to the radiation decreases.
Distance - As the distance from a radiation source increases, the exposure to the
radiation decreases.
Shielding - As the amount of shielding that is between the radiation source and
personnel increases, the amount of exposure decreases

The following are the most important factors that must be considered in the
achievement of the highest quality image:

The type, position, and intensity of the radiation source

The thickness, density, and configuration of the test object
The type and position of the film.
Film process time and chemical temperatures

Film Quality
A penetrameter is used to check the quality of the image that is produced on the
radiographic film. A penetrameter is typically a wire or block that is made from the
same material as the test object. The dimensions of the penetrameter are critical
because the dimensions represent the thickness of the object that is being examined.
The penetrameter is used to confirm the sensitivity of the radiograph. The
penetrameter is not used to determine the size of discontinuities. The penetrameter
image is a permanent record that proves that the technique that is used to perform the
RT produced a good quality radiograph. . ASTM wire type penetrameters and hole
type penetrameters are commonly used.
Common Applications
The major application of RT is to examine critical full penetration welds in
piping and pressure vessels for discontinuities. Critical welds require a high degree
of confidence because of the potential hazards that are associated with their failure.
RT is an effective way to achieve this confidence.
In general, RT and UT are used for similar applications. RT also is used to evaluate the
effects of erosion and corrosion on component and piping wall thickness

Limitations

The following are the major limitations for the use of RT:
RT only can be performed by highly skilled technicians
RT cannot detect discontinuities that are perpendicular to the rays.
RT exposes personnel who are in the area to radiation

The following conditions may limit the use of RT:

Weld joint geometry
Accessibility
Because RT that is performed on piping or vessels that contain fluid does not
produce acceptable results, another limitation is that piping systems and vessels must be
drained prior to the performance of RT. Also access is needed to both sides of object
being radiographed (source on one side, film on the other).

Common Discontinuities
RT is used to find both surface and subsurface discontinuities. All of the base metal and
weld discontinuities are commonly detected through use of RT. These discontinuities
include cracks, porosity, undercut, incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, slag,
tungsten inclusions, and root concavity and convexity.

EVALUATIN G THE CAPABILITIE S AND LIMITATION S OF

ELECTROMAGNETI C TESTING

The purpose of electromagnetic testing (ET) is to detect surface and limited

subsurface discontinuities in various materials or to measure material properties
(such as coating thickness) by checking for changes in eddy currents or magnetic
fields that are generated in the test object.

Advantages
The major advantage of ET is that the testing methods can be specialized to cover
a wide range of applications. For example, magnetic flux leakage techniques are
extensively used on ferromagnetic materials; eddy current testing can be used on
any material that conducts electricity. Other advantages are as follows:
ET can produce indications that are proportional to the size of the discontinuity.
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
Electromagnetic induction is the basis for the operation of electric generators,
motors, transformers, and electromagnetic testing. Electromagnetic induction is the
ability to induce a current into an adjacent object. ET uses alternating current that is
passed through a test coil to induce current into a test object. These induced
currents are closed loop currents and they are known as “eddy” currents. Eddy currents
are perpendicular to the magnetic fields. ET measures the changes in the impedance of
the test coil that results from the changes in the flow of eddy currents. The changes in
the flow of eddy currents are caused by discontinuities in the test object. Eddy currents
cannot be generated with an input of direct current.

A significant factor in the ability to perform ET is the magnetic permeability of the test
object. Magnetic permeability is a measure of the magnetic tendency (ferromagnetic,
paramagnetic, or diamagnetic) of a material and, because eddy currents are induced by a
magnetic field, the magnetic permeability of the test material will have a strong
influence on the eddy current response.
Test Equipment

The specific test equipment that is needed to perform ET depends on the specific test
method; however, all ET requires some type of oscillator (to generate ac current), a coil,
an impedance detector, and a display unit. ET equipment comes in a variety of
shapes, sizes, and arrangements that depend on the requirements of the specific test.
Common Applications
ET is a very specialized method of NDT and is commonly used for the
following reasons:

To inspect heat exchanger tubes

To perform magnetic flux leakage testing of ferromagnetic materials

To check “dry film” coating thickness of lined pipes.

To check material thicknesses.

Limitations

The major limitation of ET is that it will only find discontinuities that are
within approximately one half inch of the surface. The equipment that is required to
perform ET is very sophisticated and, as with UT and RT, ET also requires highly
skilled technicians to analyze the results

Common Discontinuities
ET can be used to find discontinuities in welds and base metals; therefore, the
discontinuities are the same as those discontinuities that are identified by the other
methods of NDT. These discontinuities include cracks, incomplete penetration (on thin
materials), and lack of fusion

SPECIALIZE D TESTING METHODS

Infrared Inspection

Infrared inspection uses a special “camera” (scanning radiometer) that captures real time
heat variation data from an electron beam to produce a heat sensed picture
(thermogram) that shows the amount of heat that is being radiated from a component.

Infrared inspections are used to monitor for heat loss in the following e q u i p m e n t s :
Boilers
Furnaces
Stacks
Bearings
Electrical switchgear and connectors
Transformers
Electric motors
Cryogenic storage tanks
Holiday Detector
Protective coatings are used to prevent corrosion in many piping systems and
components. Damage to these protective coatings can result in a corrosion problem.
Small cracks or pinholes that are in a protective coating are called holidays. A
special device that is called a holiday detector is commonly used to check the integrity
of protective coatings. The holiday detector works through application of an
electric charge to the pipe wall. After the charge is applied, the pipe is checked for
grounds. The existence of grounds or arcs indicates the presence of a defect in the
protective coating. The test equipment that is used for detection depends on the specific
application.

Acoustic Emission
Acoustic Emission (AE) uses techniques that are similar to UT. Sound waves are
passed through a test object that is subjected to stress to check for discontinuities. As
discontinuities develop, they emit mechanical vibrations that can be identified by
the AE transducer. AE is used to check for defects in composite materials, such as
fiberglass or plastic. The common defects that are found by AE include cracks,
voids, and laminations.