SEEU International Conference

Arta Toci, PhD

Faculty of Languages, Cultures and Communication
SEEU, Tetovo, Macedonia

Effects of Code Switching in EFL Classroom

Introduction

Nowadays English is used as a lingua franca even among non-native speakers from a
variety of language backgrounds. English is the second most popular world language, as
measured by the number of native speakers, which was around 402 million in 2002.
English is also the language most often studied as a foreign language in Europe and
Japan. The language is studied in English speaking countries and also in non English
speaking countries. It is studied from different ages and for different reasons. Howartt
(2004) points out that methods for language teaching and many other aspects related to
language teaching and research naturally have been imbued with this rapidity with which
practitioners have engaged themselves in carrying out professional activities (cited in
Richards & Rodgers, 2004).

In the Republic of Macedonia, until 1989 there was little serious danger of English-
American cultural and linguistic imperialism in the states of communist block but today
there are unmistakable signs of such penetration. Most ELT teaching materials are
produced and exported from the United Kingdom and the United States. The challenge
that the English language teachers are faced with is to keep the professionalism in
teaching.

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Giving high priorities to this fact, the Bureau for Development of Education in
Macedonia with the new concept of preschool, elementary and secondary education
implemented a new regulation for learning foreign languages. With this new law, in the
elementary and secondary schools in Macedonia two foreign languages became
compulsory ones.

With the decision of the Ministry of Education and Science, from the academic year
2007/08 all the pupils in the elementary schools in Macedonia have to start learning
English from the first grade, or from the age of 6. It means that by finishing the
elementary education, all the pupils have been learning English for nine years. At the
same year it was brought the decision that the secondary education is obligatory in the
Republic of Macedonia, so all the students continue to be taught English as a foreign
language till the end. By finishing the secondary education, 4 more years are added which
leads to 13 years of English learning. Usually English is only one school subject among
others which means that the pupils receive approximately the same amount of teaching in
English as they do in other subjects. As Albanian and Macedonian languages are usually
the mother tongue of both the teachers and the pupils, it is likely that there will be
situations during the lessons that their mother tongue will be used instead of English.
In the classrooms code switching is likely to occur during the English as a foreign
language classroom, especially when we take into consideration the fact that the majority,
or maybe all the foreign language teachers are non-native speakers of the language, who
share the same language with their students.

There are many definitions about code switching; however the clearest definition is given
by John Gumperz (1982, p. 59) where he describes code switching as “the juxtaposition
within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different
grammatical systems or subsystems” and this definition describes most adequately code
switching in SEEU conditions.

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Literature Review

Learners of a foreign language are known for their ability to code-switch or mix their
languages during communication. It is especially characteristic in cases when the
language they are learning is taught by the teachers who share the same L1 with their
students. They very easily substitute a word or phrase from English with a phrase or word
in their mother tongue. In those circumstances, Arnfast and Jørgensen (2003), think that
code switching may develop into a bilingual competence in learners within the first year
of intensive training. According to Byram (2000), "Just like words, the voice (the way of
pronouncing words and phrases, intonation and rhythm), gestures of various kinds, visual
signs, posture, gaze, proxemic positioning and so on contain information which can be
captured and used by the interlocutor in an appropriate and efficient manner, irrespective
of the language and culture and in spite of certain quantitative and qualitative
differences" (p. 446). Bilingual teachers use two languages for different reasons and
“they may decide on the spot when L1 should be used and when switching to L2 is
appropriate in order to enable comprehension and meaningful involvement of students”
(Cook, 2001). However, according to Tikunoff, 1985; Ovando & Collier, 1985; Mattson
& Burenhult, 1999, teachers are unaware of the fact that they are switching; i.e. switches
are made unconsciously.

Even though English language teachers have for a very long time been concerned about
reducing or even putting an end to student, or even their own use of the mother tongue in
the language classroom, still the role of L1 in the TEFL classroom dramatically changes
when you are working with people who all speak the same language. The question of
how we treat language alternation in the classroom is an issue that cannot be neglected
because of its implications in the methodology of language teaching. It has implications

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on students’ learning motivation and affinities toward the language. The L1 has already
been used in all the language methods and especially in methods that create links between
L1 and L2, such as the New Concurrent Method or Communicative Language Learning.
Nevertheless, it has been argued that exclusion of the mother tongue is a criticism of the
mother tongue and renders it as a second-class language. It is suggested by some
observers that the degradation of the mother tongue can have harmful psychological
effects…’. Cook, V. (2006), points out that treating the L1 as a classroom resource opens
up several ways to use it, such as for teachers to convey meaning, explain grammar, and
organize the class, and for students to use as part of their collaborative learning and
individual strategy use. Code-switching in itself is perhaps not a linguistic phenomenon,
but rather a psychological one, and its causes are obviously extra-linguistic. According to
Vogt 1954, (p.68) bilingualism is of great interest to the linguist because it is the
condition of what has been called interference between languages.

We should be aware of the fact that in all our schools, elementary, high and even
University level, code-switching is different from the one in natural discourse because the
circumstances when this phenomenon occurs are between the students/teacher native
language and students’ foreign language that they are expected to gain competence in.
Code-switching is used by both, the teacher and students, but in both cases it is used
unconsciously, which means that from the teacher’s perspective the outcomes and results
of code-switching are not known. On the other hand, code-switching is a natural product
of the interaction of the students’ two languages. This approach to students’ code-
switching is different from the traditional explanation of the same, where code-switching
has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished language proficiency. Very
often it was viewed as a strategy that bilinguals use because they do not know either
language completely.

SEEU does not make any exception even though the method that is used is mainly the
Current Communicative method in teaching a foreign language. This is a teaching
method which has been defined in many ways, but I will cite here Brown (2001, p.43)
who provides a very useful definition of Communicative Method in classroom settings:

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“Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative

techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order
to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use”.

The Study and Data

The purpose of this study is to describe the results of a qualitative study performed in an
ESL classroom to determine teacher and student functional uses of language particularly
language involving code-switching. The study looks at the phenomenon of code
switching in the primary and secondary school students in some schools in the Republic
of Macedonia.

The data for this study were gathered via classroom observations in primary and
secondary schools with a 70% of Albanian and 30% with Macedonian population in
Tetovo, Skopje and Struga. The research was conducted by 12 second year Master
students in the ELT MA program of the English Department in the Faculty of Languages,
Cultures and Communication.

Participants

As stated above, the data was collected by the University students in some schools of
Western Macedonia. There were 5 students who observed elementary school students
aged 11-14 in Struga, five students observed high school classes in Tetovo with students
aged 15-17, whereas 2 students observed teaching classroom in a private school and they
reflected their experience with adult learners older than 30. The number of students in
these classes was 30-35 whereas the number of students in the private school group was
14.

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Procedure

All the students observed six different classes with the same group of students and with
the same teacher. During the observation they had to focus and to fill in the checklist
which was the same for all the levels. They were also expected to describe code-
switching for every classroom component separately.

Findings

After five class observations the results were put into three groups:
- Group A: Elementary schools results
- Group B: High schools results
- Group C: Results from private courses

Group A Results:

CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3 CASE 4 CASE 5 CASE 6

Giving The teacher In the book, Complete an After explaining The teacher This is the part
instruct asked students there was an exercise that about present asked the when the teacher
ions several example where was given in simple and how students to asked the
questions in the verb “live” the book. it is formed, the complete an students to revise
English and was conjugated The teacher teacher now had exercise they had the lesson. She
students had and the teacher asked the to explain to the n their books. asked them to
to answer. asked the students to students the She told them to explain the rules
This way she students to choose the different endings write the correct of present simple
came up with look and correct form of that different form of the and how is
some example analyze that the verb. (For verbs take in the verbs. (E.g. Kate present simple
sentences in table. She gave example: He third person (watch) TV on formed. Then,
present simple the instructions visit / visits me singular. Sundays. – the she asked them
The in English in the holidays. She related this students should to give some
instructions only. – this was one to the previous write the verb examples (their
were given in of the lesson they had correctly – own examples).
English and examples in worked on watches) Then, she told
the students the book and (plural of regular them to read at
answered in the students nouns). She home and study
English, as had to chose asked the present simple

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well. the correct students to tell because they will

form) her how plural of need it in the
regular nouns is future and for the
. formed, how exam, as well.
many groups are After this, she
there and she told them that for
asked them to homework they
give some will have to
examples. (Some complete some
examples exercises they
students gave: had in their
boy-boys, apple- workbooks. For
apples, this, she used
sandwich- English only.
sandwiches, city-
cities)
Explain The teacher This was the This was an Using the noun The teacher gave The teacher
ing wrote on the case when she activity where examples that the instructions asked the
gramm board the explained to students had to students gave, in English. students if there
ar answers that the students apply the rules the teacher was something
points the students how present of present explained that they want to ask,
gave. She simple is simple tense. the same or if there was
used those formed. She Therefore, in happens with the something
sentences to explained that this part the verbs. She unclear, and the
explain to the in present teacher did not explained that students
students what simple the verb give any verbs also take answered that,
present simple takes an “S” in grammar S, ES or IES, they have no
was, where the third explanation in depending on the questions. In
and why do person particular. She group they addition, since
we use it. singular. She gave the belong. this was the end
The teacher explained all instructions in of the lesson,
gave the this in English English. . there was not any
explanation in and did not grammar activity
English and translate it into in particular.
then she asked Albanian.
some students
to repeat it to
check if they
understood it
or not. She
saw that it
was confusing
for some
students and
then she
explained

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everything in
student’s
native
language,
Albanian.
Transla She translated There was no There was no The teacher There was no The teacher
ting into Albanian need for translation explained the need for helped the
words the rule of translation, so used in this grammar points translation in this students while
and present the teacher did part. in English, but part. The teacher they were
concept simple, where not use any some students gave the answering her
s and why do translation in were confused instructions in questions
we use it. this case. and they asked English and because she
for translation, students started wanted them to
so she translated to work speak in English.
it into Albanian. immediately If they could not
after that, which continue, they
means that they would use a
understood the word in Albanian
instructions and the teacher
given in English. translated it into
English.
Checki In English, She asked the When students To check The teacher There was not
ng she asked the students to finished understanding asked some any activity in
underst students if conjugate three completing the the teacher wrote students to read particular going
anding they more verbs in exercise, the on the board the sentences on.
understood their teacher asked many verbs and they completed.
what she notebooks, so some of the asked students to
explained and she could see if students to ending that
asked the they would add read the corresponded to
students to the “S” sentences each one of
repeat the correctly. She aloud, so all them.
rule. She gave them the together could
asked them to verbs “play”, see if there are
do this in “visit” and any mistakes
English, but “work”. and correct
they could them.
also use some
Albanian
words in case
they cannot
continue. The
teacher
repeated into
English the
Albanian
words that

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students said
and the
students
repeated after.
Classro So far, After she For this After explaining For this exercise, The teacher
om students were explained to exercise, the the grammar the teacher asked asked the
manage motivated to the students teacher points in English the students to students to revise
ment participate in how we form preferred to and translating work in pairs. the lesson and all
the lesson present simple, divide students into Albanian, She asked them the students were
because the she divided in pairs, so the teacher asked to not hesitate to willing to
teacher was them in pairs they could the students to ask for help if participate.
asking and asked them work with a ask if there was they had Then she
questions, to conjugate friend. While something something explained to
which means the verbs given students were unclear. Then, unclear. One of them what they
she asked for by her. So, she working, she when checking the students had should read and
their opinion used pair work went around understanding, difficulties learn at home
and ideas and and the the classroom the teacher completing the and also
this made students were helping them wanted students exercise, and informed them
them feel all very happy or giving some to work while the others about the
more to work with a other individually and were working on homework they
comfortable. partner. They instructions complete the the task given, had to complete
She would all say related to the task given. She the teacher tried for the next
encouraged “yes” or have a exercise (all in gave them 5 to explain him in class.
them to speak, smile in their English). minutes to finish Albanian using
so they will faces. While When they the task. Some of simpler words to
not fall students were were done with the students make it sound
asleep, but completing the the exercise, asked the teacher less confusing.
concentrate in exercise, the the teacher for assistance
the lesson. teacher went asked them to and she did not
around the read their refuse to help
classroom to correct them and give
check what answers and the needed
they were other pairs explanation.
doing and see were After this, each
whether they confirming if student came to
understood the the answer the board and
instructions given is correct changed at least
and the or not. The one word from
explanations. teacher gave singular to
positive plural, according
reinforcement to the grammar
to those who rules that the
gave an correct teacher had
answer. explained.

Group B Results:

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CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3 CASE 4 CASE 5 CASE

Giving The teacher The teacher Teacher gives The teacher The teacher The tea
instructi introduces the gives explanation on gives presents the answer
ons lesson and instruction on how to fill the instructions stages that studen
informs how to listen function file about what to students should questio
students on and what to about focus on when go through in the des
what they are pay attention describing and reading the order to they sh
going to work to. She does speculating. description in the complete the write.
on during the this in both book. description about
class. Albanian and a person they
English to should choose to
make sure that describe.
they all know
what to do.
Explain Grammar is While giving The teacher Grammar is not On stage 4, the When
ing not discussed. instructions the checks discussed. teacher mentions ask abo
gramma teacher asks students the common certain
r points students to pay understanding mistakes and structu
attention to by also how they should teacher
some grammar checking always read their them a
structure that whether they writing and how to
they will have have filled in check for sentenc
to fill in the the function grammar better w
next exercise. file by using mistakes.
the correct
grammar
structure
Translat The teacher After students The teacher The teacher asks The teacher Some s
ing translates the had listened to explains some students to translates while require
words key words the recording, grammar underline the explaining some explan
and after she had they ask their points both in unknown words stages only if their m
concept asked students teacher about English and and she students ask for a tongue
s whether they particular Albanian. translates them translation.
already know words they afterwards.
the have heard and
translation. not understood.
The teacher
gives a
translation or
asks another
student to do it

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if they know.
Checki The teacher After the The teacher The teacher asks The teacher The tea
ng asks questions listening, the checks whether students to asked students to perform
underst when she teacher asks students answer questions tell her what they activiti
anding introduces the some questions understand the on exercise 2 in are expected to needed
lesson in to check new order to check if do.
order to check whether vocabulary. they have
comprehensio students have understood the
n. understood or description given
they need to in the book.
listen to it
again.
Classro The teacher The teacher The teacher The teacher The teacher The tea
om manages the prepares arranges the assigns some presents the makes
manage classroom students for the students to students to read stages one by every s
ment very well. She listening part. work in pairs aloud the one and she gets th
begins her She had also and then check description in the repeatedly asks to his/h
introduction prepared the answers from book and she questions to questio
in an CD player the function makes sure that make sure that
interactive beforehand so file with the others listen. students follow
way by asking that there are whole class
questions. no technical
difficulties.

Group C Results

CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3 CASE 4 CASE 5 CASE

Giving The teacher Teacher Teacher asks Teacher gives Teacher explains Teache
instructi introduces the discusses the students to instruction on briefly about inform
ons lesson key words read the article how to answer Past Perfect and studen
“Newspaper with the and underline the question on instructs students their h
stories”. She students. She the unknown exercise 3 on how to work.
also informs asks students words. (match the complete the
and instructs to use the key beginning of a table with had
students about words in order sentence with the and hadn’t.
what they are to fill in the other part in Teacher gives
required to do blanks on order to have a instructions on
during this exercise 1. correct when to use past
class. sentence). perfect and how
to pay attention
to the order in
which events
happen.

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 SEEU International Conference

Explain No grammar Teacher gave a No grammar Again they Past Perfect Teache
ing points were short points were together (teacher Tense was explain
gramma explained. explanation on explained. and students) go explained by the import
r points past tenses that through some teacher. No other for Pas
were included important points additional tense s
in the exercise. of grammar that materials were studen
During this, had to be used except the have d
teacher asked explained before ones from the while d
some students answering the book. their h
to explain questions.
some things
about those
tenses.
Translat The teacher Teacher asked Again, the new Key words are Most of the Everyt
ing firstly asked students to words were emphasized as things were said said in
words whether the read the written on well as translated in the mother langua
and students exercise and black board. for the ones that tongue. Every Studen
concept understood say the Students were forgot their explanation or asked t
s what they are unknown asked about translation. usage of this the unk
required to do. words. She every word Teacher said tense was given words
After that, she wrote a short whether they some words and in Albanian. careful
repeated the list of know what it asked students Also the write 5
instructions unknown means. Its about what they questions of sentenc
and some words on the translation was mean. After each students (excep
words that she black board. written on explanation, regarding the homew
thought they Even though black board. translation was Past Perfect the boo
do not know she tried to used, either by tense were in the new
(or were first explain then in the teacher or Albanian. vocabu
mentioned), English, she students. Everything was
she translated used said in Albanian,
those words translation. only some things
for her The words on were given also
students. black board in English
were translated language such as
into the the definition
Albanian and the formula.
language as
well as written
in Albanian.
Checki While Teacher had a Teacher asked Teacher had a While Teache
ng explaining for short students to short interaction explaining, some s
underst the second interaction write two with students teacher asked questio
anding time, the with students sentences about their some questions. regardi
teacher asked about their using a new understanding by She also asked home w
questions to understanding word for each asking questions some questions wanted
check their by asking sentence. After and students about the whethe

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understanding. questions and they completed responded. previous unders

giving them this task, some grammar part was sa
additional of students that that has been and tha
sentence raised their explained in the were a
examples. hands were previous class. comple
asked to read Students were work a
one sentence. also asked to say withou
Teacher used some sentences assista
this way to (and write on
check their black board)
understanding. using Past
Perfect tense.
Classro The teacher Teacher asked Teacher had a Teacher tells to Teacher This w
om starts the class students to good the students what explained and shortes
manage by introducing work in pairs. management they are students listened the cla
ment the lesson, During the during this expected to do. to what she said. Teache
giving exercise, case. She After this, she Everything was inform
explanations students were asked students gave instructions explained in about t
and asking very quiet. At to read, write on how they mother tongue, home w
questions the end, and speak, and should do it. only the also as
which led to a teacher asked at the same Teacher asked to definition and some q
short some students time she could explain the key formula were in orde
discussion to read a keep a good words. Students said in English whethe
between the sentence. After atmosphere in worked in pairs language. unders
teacher and a sentence was classroom. to answer the Student were topic.
the students. read, teacher questions. asked to give
During this gave Students who sentences using
case, comments raised their Past Perfect
management (either good or hands were tense in order to
was of a good asked other asked to read check whether
level. students their sentences they can use this
whether they out loud. tense correctly in
had a different speaking.
answer).

Findings:

In this research with all the levels of education in Macedonia, code-switching is a

common phenomenon of Albanian and Macedonian students and teachers. It is clear that

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code-switching is used in the class for linguistic reasons, that is the students and the
teachers code switch to fill the lexical gap. The data also show that code-switching is
mostly used by the teachers while giving instructions and explaining grammar rules
whereas the students code-switch when the teachers check understanding.
There were many approaches in describing and explaining code-switching as a
psychological phenomenon of the feelings of the one who speaks ‘the other’s language’;
Monica Heller viewed code-switching as political strategy of the one who speaks ‘the
other’s language’. However, it was the best described and the most realistically explained
by Bloom & Gumperz (1972):
One would either have to conclude that code-switching is without social meaning because
it is a necessary consequence of certain situational parameters, or that (in the
metaphorical case) it is dependent on an (almost) one-to-one-relationship between
language choice and situational parameters which can be purposefully violated. (Auer
1984, p.4)

References:

Auer, Peter. 1984. One Speaker, Two Languages: Crossdisciplinary Perspectives on

Code-switching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Auer, Peter. 1998. Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity.

London: Routledge.

Blom, Jan-Petter, and John Gumperz. "The Social Meaning in Linguistic Structure:
Code-Switching in Norway." Directions in Sociolinguistics. Ed. John Gumperz and Dell
Hymes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1972. 407-34.

Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. New Jersey, Prentice
Hall Regents.

Brown, H. D. (2001) Teaching by Principles: An interactive approach to language

pedagogy (second edition) New York: Longman.

Byram, Michael (ed.) (2004): Routhledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and

Learning. London: Routledge.

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Cook, V.J. (2000) Is transfer the right word? Paper presented at the 7th International
Pragmatics Conference, July, 2000. Budapest. On-line at
privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/OBS8.htm.

Gabrielatos, C. (2001): L1 use in ELT: Not a skeleton, but a bone of contention. A

response to Prodromou. TESOL Greece Newsletter 70,

Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (1994). Language transfer in language learning.

Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins North America.

Gumperz, John. 1982. Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Heller, Monica. 1988a. Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic

Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Howatt, P R Anthony. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford, Oxford

University Press.

Medgyes, P. (1994). The non-native teacher. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Prodromou, L (2002) ‘The Role of the Mother Tongue in the Classroom’ IATEFL
ISSUES

Vogt, Hans. 1954. “Language Contacts.” Word 10 (2-3)

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