Incompressible irrotational ow in two dimensions

If the ow is incompressible and irrotational then the velocity _eld is described by both
a stream function (1.45) and a potential function (1.15). The two functions are related
by
@
@y
=
@_
@x
􀀀
@
@x
=
@_
@y
: (1.47)
These are the well known Cauchy-Riemann equations from the theory of complex variables.
Solutions of Laplace's equation (1.16) which is the equation of motion for this class of ows
can be determined using the powerful methods of complex analysis. Interestingly, the ow
can be solved just from the continuity equation (1.13) without the use of the equation for
conservation of momentum. The irrotationality condition (1.12) essentially supplants the
need for the momentum equation.
1.3.5 Compressible ow in two dimensions
The continuity equation for the steady ow of a compressible uid in two dimensions
is
@ (_U)
@x
+
@ (_V )
@y
= 0: (1.48)
In this case, the required integrating factor for (1.26) is the density _ (x; y) and we can
write
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW 1-16
d = 􀀀_V dx + _Udy: (1.49)
The stream function in a compressible ow is proportional to the mass ux with units
mass=(area 􀀀 sec) and the convergence and divergence of lines in the ow over the ap
shown in Figure 1.2 is a reection of variations in mass ux over di_erent parts of the ow
_eld.
1.4 Particle paths in three dimensions
Figure 1.6 shows the trajectory in space traced out by a particle under the action of a
general three-dimensional, unsteady ow, _U
(_x; t).
Figure 1.6: Particle trajectory in three dimensions.
Using index notation, the equations governing the motion of the particle are:
dxi (t)
dt
= Ui (x1 (t) ; x2 (t) ; x3 (t) ; t) i = 1; 2; 3: (1.50)
Formally, these equations are solved by integrating the velocity _eld.
xi (t) = xi0 +
Zt
0
Ui (x1 (t) ; x2 (t) ; x3 (t) ; t) dt i = 1; 2; 3 (1.51)
We shall return to the discussion of ow patterns in both 2 and 3 dimensions when we
discuss the kinematics of ow _elds in Chapter 4.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW 1-17
1.5 The substantial derivative
The acceleration of a particle is
d2xi (t)
dt2 =
d
dt
Ui (x1 (t) ; x2 (t) ; x3 (t) ; t) =
@Ui
@t
+
@Ui
@xk
dxk
dt
: (1.52)
Remember, according to the Einstein convention, the repeated index denotes a sum over
k = 1; 2; 3. Use (1.50) to replace dxk=dt by Uk in (1.52). The result is called the substantial
or material derivative and is usually denoted by D() =Dt.
D()
Dt
=
@ ()
@t
+ _U
_ r() (1.53)
The substantial derivative of the velocity is
DUi
Dt
=
@Ui
@t
+ Uk
@Ui
@xk
: (1.54)
The time derivative of any ow variable evaluated on a uid element is given by a similar
formula. For example the time rate of change of the density _ (x (t) ; y (t) ; z (t) ; t) of a
given uid particle is:
D_
Dt
=
@_
@t
+ Uk
@_
@xk
: (1.55)
The substantial derivative is the time derivative of some property of a uid element referred
to a _xed frame of reference within which the uid element moves as shown in Figure
1.6.
1.5.1 Frames of reference
Occasionally it is necessary to transform variables between a _xed and moving set of
coordinates as shown in Figure 1.7. The transformation of position and velocity is
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW 1-18
x0 = x 􀀀 X (t)
y0 = y 􀀀 Y (t)
z0 = z 􀀀 Z (t)
U0 = U 􀀀 _X (t)
V 0 = V 􀀀 _Y (t)
W0 = W 􀀀 _Z (t) :
(1.56)
where _X
= (X (t) ; Y (t) ;Z (t)) is the displacement of the moving frame in three coordinate
directions and d _X
=dt =
_
_X
(t) ; _Y (t) ; _Z (t)
_
is the velocity of the frame. Note that in
general, the frame may be accelerating.
Figure 1.7: Fixed and moving frames of reference.
The substantial derivative of some property of a uid element, (1.53), is sometimes referred
to as the derivative moving with the uid element. Do not interpret this as a transformation
to a coordinate system that is attached to the uid element. If for some reason it is actually
desirable to make such a transformation the velocity of the particle in that frame is zero and
the substantial derivative of the velocity is also zero. The substantial derivative of a variable
such as the density of the particle at the origin of the moving coordinates is D_=Dt = @_=@t.
Both the momentum and kinetic energy of a uid particle of mass m depend on the frame
of reference. The momentum transforms linearly like the velocity.
m_U
0 = m_U
􀀀 md _X
=dt (1.57)
The transformation of kinetic energy is a little more complex. In the two coordinate
systems the de_nition of kinetic energy is the same,
kinetic energy in moving coordinates =
1
2
m
􀀀
U02 + V 02 +W02_
(1.58)
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW 1-19
and
kinetic energy in fixed coordinates =
1
2
m
􀀀
U2 + V 2 +W2_
: (1.59)
The transformation of kinetic energy between frames is
1
2
m
􀀀
U02 + V 02 +W02_
=
1
2
m
__
U 􀀀 _X
_2
+
_
V 􀀀 _Y
_2
+
_
W 􀀀 _Z
_2
_
(1.60)
which, when expanded to show the kinetic energies explicitly, becomes
1
2
m
􀀀
U02 + V 02 +W02_
=
1
2
m
􀀀
U2 + V 2 +W2_
+
1
2
m _X
_
_X
􀀀 2U
_
+
1
2
m _Y
_
_Y
􀀀 2V
_
+
1
2
m _Z
_
_Z
􀀀 2U
_ (1.61)
or
k0 = k +
1
2
m _X
_
_X
􀀀 2U
_
+
1
2
m _Y
_
_Y
􀀀 2V
_
+
1
2
m _Z
_
_Z
􀀀 2W
_
: (1.62)
The transformation of kinetic energy depends nonlinearly on the velocity of the moving
coordinate system. In contrast thermodynamic properties such as density, temperature
and pressure are intrinsic properties of a given uid element and so do not depend on the
frame of reference.
1.6 Momentum transport due to convection
The law of conservation of momentum is stated as
8<
:
rate of momentum
accumulation inside
the control volume
9= ;
=
8>><
>>:
rate of
momentum
flow into
the control volume
9>>=
>>;
􀀀
8>><
>>:
rate of
momentum
flow out of
the control volume
9>>=
>>;
+
8>><
>>:
sum of
forces acting
on the
control volume
9>>=
>>;
: (1.63)
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUID FLOW 1-20
As a uid moves it carries its momentum with it. This is called convective momentum
transport. To study this kind of momentum transfer we use the same stationary control
volume element _x_y_z that we used to develop the continuity equation. As before,
the uid velocity vector has components (U; V;W) in the (x; y; z) directions and the uid
density is _.
Figure 1.8: Fluxes of x-momentum through a _xed control volume. Arrows denote the
velocity component carrying momentum into or out of the control volume.
Figure 1.8 shows the contribution to the x-momentum inside the control volume from
the movement of uid through all six faces of the control volume. Consider a pair of faces
perpendicular to the x-axis. The ux of x-momentum is _UU with units momentum/(area-
time). The rate at which the x-component of momentum enters the face at x is _UUjx _y_z
and the rate at which it leaves through the face at x + _x is _UUjx+_x _y_z.
The rate at which the x-component of momentum enters the face at y is _UV jy _x_z and
the rate at which it leaves through the face at y + _y is_UV jy+_y _x_z. To understand
how uid motion in the y-direction contributes to the rate of x-momentum transfer into
or out of the control volume one can make the following interpretation of the momentum
transfer.