9836class Notes Heat Transfer Part One PDF

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‫ الموائع وانتقال الحرارة‬:122 ‫هـ ك‬
Heat Transfer
Part One
‫إنتقال احلرارة‬
‫اجلزء األول‬
Prepared by:
Dr. Reda Abobeah

2nd semester
2019/2020
CHE 211: Fluid & Heat Transfer ‫ الموائع وانتقال الحرارة‬:122 .‫ ك‬.‫هـ‬
Contents
MARK DISTRIBUTION............................................................................................................................. iii
COURSE SCHEDULE ................................................................................................................................ iv
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. v
Chapter One: BASIC CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................... 6
1.1. Conduction Heat Transfer........................................................................................................... 10
1.2. Convection Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................... 14
1.3. Radiation Heat Transfer.............................................................................................................. 17
1.4. Solved Problems: ........................................................................................................................ 21
1.5. Sheet One: Basic Concepts ......................................................................................................... 27
Chapter Two: One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction ................................................................ 76
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 76
2.2. Conduction for Flat Wall ............................................................................................................ 78
2.2.1. Conduction through a single Layer ..................................................................................... 78
2.2.2. Composite Systems ............................................................................................................. 81
2.2.3. Conduction through multi flat layers .................................................................................. 88
2.3. Conduction for Cylindrical Layer ............................................................................................... 91
2.3.1. Single layer of cylinder ....................................................................................................... 91
2.3.2. Multilayered of Cylindrical ................................................................................................. 94
2.4. Conduction for Spherical Layer.................................................................................................. 96
2.4.1. Single layer of Spherical layer ............................................................................................ 96
2.4.2. Multilayered of Spherical.................................................................................................... 98
2.5. Thermal Conductivity k .............................................................................................................. 99
2.6. Thermal Insulation .................................................................................................................... 100
2.7. Thermal Resistance (R) ............................................................................................................ 101
2.8. Extended surfaces (Fins)........................................................................................................... 102
2.8.1. Longitudinal Convecting Fins ........................................................................................... 102
2.8.2. Radial Convecting Fins ..................................................................................................... 104
2.8.3. Convecting Spines............................................................................................................. 104
2.9. Solved Problems: ...................................................................................................................... 105
2.10. Sheet Two: Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction.......................................................... 124
Chapter Three: Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer..................................................................... 128
Dr. Reda Abobeah Page i

3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 129

3.2. Bulk and Film Temperature ...................................................................................................... 132
3.3. Dimensionless Groups .............................................................................................................. 133
3.4. Forced Convection .................................................................................................................... 135
3.4.1. Laminar flow in tubes. ...................................................................................................... 136
3.4.2. Turbulent flow in tubes. .................................................................................................... 136
3.4.3. Laminar flow along flat plates. ......................................................................................... 137
3.4.4. Transition flow along flat plates. ...................................................................................... 137
3.4.5. Turbulent flow along flat plates. ....................................................................................... 137
3.5. Natural Convection ................................................................................................................... 145
3.5.1. Horizontal Cylinders. ........................................................................................................ 146
3.5.2. Horizontal Flat Surfaces: .................................................................................................. 146
3.5.3. Vertical Surfaces. .............................................................................................................. 147
3.6. Solved Problems ....................................................................................................................... 152
3.7. Sheet Three: Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer ........................................................ 167
Chapter Four: Introduction to Radiation ................................................................................................... 170
4.1. Thermal Radiation .................................................................................................................... 170
4.2. Thermal Radiation Properties of Materials............................................................................... 171
4.3. Black Bodies ............................................................................................................................. 173
4.4. Stefan and Boltzmann’s Law .................................................................................................... 174
4.5. The Emissivity of a Material .................................................................................................... 175
4.6. Radiation in Large Enclosure ................................................................................................... 176
4.7. View Factors ............................................................................................................................. 179
4.8. Radiation Heat Transfer between Planar Surfaces ................................................................... 183
4.9. Radiation Shields ...................................................................................................................... 187
4.10. Solved Problems ....................................................................................................................... 190
4.11. Sheet Four: Introduction to Radiation ...................................................................................... 195
Dr. Reda Abobeah Page ii

‫‪CHE 211: Fluid & Heat Transfer‬‬ ‫هـ‪ .‬ك‪ :122 .‬الموائع وانتقال الحرارة‬
‫‪MARK DISTRIBUTION‬‬
‫شفوى ترم أول ‪02‬‬ ‫أعمال سنة ترم أول ‪، 02‬‬
‫شفوى ترم ثاني ‪02‬‬ ‫أعمال سنة ترم ثاني ‪، 02‬‬
‫‪062‬‬ ‫تحريرى‬
‫‪020‬‬ ‫المجموع الكلي‬
‫‪Final: 160‬‬
‫عدد ساعات االمتحان ‪ 0‬ساعات‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬يحيي ‪ 0 :‬سؤال الموائع ‪ 70‬درجة‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬رضا ‪ 0 :‬سؤال انتقال حرارة ‪ 70‬درجة‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬يحيي ‪ 0 :‬سؤال انتقال حرارة ‪ 20‬درجة‬
‫‪Dr. Reda Abobeah‬‬ ‫‪Page iii‬‬

COURSE SCHEDULE
CHE 211: Fluid & Heat Transfer (L: 2, T: 2)
Theory Instructor: Dr. Reda Abobeah Office Hrs (by office door)
Tutorial Instructors: Office Hrs (by office door)
Theory Tutorial
Week From To Chapter Remarks Sheet. No.
W01 09 / 02/ 2020 13 / 02/ 2020 From page to page

From page to page
W03 23 / 02/ 2020 27 / 02/ 2020
& Quiz I : On sheet one

From page to page
W06 15 / 03/ 2020 19 / 03/ 2020
& Quiz II: On sheet two and three
From page to page
W08 29 / 03/ 2020 02 / 04/ 2020
Mid-Term 1

From page to page
W11 19 / 04/ 2020 23 / 04/ 2020
& Quiz III : On sheet four
W15 17 / 05/ 2020 21 / 05/ 2020 & Quiz IV : On sheet five
W16 : 24 / 05/ 2020 28 / 05/ 2020

Final Theory Examinations
W17 31 / 05/ 2020 04 / 06/ 2020
With Best regards,

Course Coordinator: Signature:
Dr. Reda Abobeah Date: 05 / 02 / 2020
Dr. Reda Abobeah Page iv

REFERENCES
1. Holman, J. P., "Heat Transfer", McGraw-Hill, 10th edition, 2010.

2. Incropera, F., Dewitt, D., Bergman, T., and Lavine, A., "Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer", John Wiley & Sons, 6th edition, 2007.
3. Sachdeva, R. C., "Fundamentals of Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer",
New AGE international Publishers, 4th edition, 2012.
4. Rajput, R. K., "Heat and Mass Transfer", S. Chand & Company LTD, 5 th
edition, 2012.
5. Geankoplis, C. J., “Transport Process and separation process principles”,
Prentic Hall, 4th edition, 2003.
6. Kraus, A. D., Aziz, A., and Welty, J. R. “ Extended Surface Heat Transfer”,
Wiley, New York, 2001.
Note that:
 In addition to the references provided above, these class notes will be distributed to the
students via WhatsApp Group.
 These notes cannot be considered as a text book.
 Students are requested to refer the text books listed above for more details.
 These notes may have errors of all kind and the author requests the readers to take care of
such error while going through the material.
 The author will be grateful to those who bring to his notice any kind of error.
Dr. Reda Abobeah Page v

Chapter One: BASIC CONCEPTS
Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict the energy transfer that may take place between
material bodies because of a temperature difference. Thermodynamics teaches that this energy
transfer is known as heat and work.
The temperature is a thermal state of a body, which distinguishes a hot body from a cold body.
The temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular energy, i.e., the average
molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. Instruments for measuring ordinary
temperatures are known as thermometers and those for measuring high temperatures are known
as pyrometers.
The science of heat transfer seeks not merely to explain how heat energy may be transferred, but
also to predict the rate at which the exchange will take place under certain specified conditions.
The fact that a heat-transfer rate is the desired objective of an analysis points out the difference
between heat transfer and thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium; it may be used to predict the amount of
energy required to change a system from one equilibrium state to another; it does not used to
predict how fast a change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium during the
process.
First Law of thermodynamic:

It states that
"The energy can neither created nor destroyed, though it can be transformed from one
form into any of the forms, in which the energy can exist”
Or
“Although energy may be converted from one form to another it can neither be created
nor destroyed”
Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 6

Second Law of thermodynamic:

It states that
"Heat will flow naturally from one reservoir to another at a lower temperature, but not in
opposite direction without assistance"
Heat transfer supplements the first and second principles of thermodynamics by providing
additional experimental rules that may be used to establish energy-transfer rates.
As an example of the different kinds of problems that are treated by thermodynamics and heat
transfer, consider the cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a pail of water. Thermodynamics
may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar–water combination.
Thermodynamics will not tell us how long it takes to reach this equilibrium condition or what the
temperature of the bar will be after a certain length of time before the equilibrium condition is
attained. Heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both the bar and the water as a
function of time.
From the above discussion, Heat transfer may be defined as

"The transmission of energy from one region to another as a result of temperature gradient"
In heat transfer the driving force (potential) is temperature difference whereas in mass transfer
the driving force (potential) is concentration difference. In mass transfer we concentrate upon
mass motion which result in changes in composition, and are caused by the variation in
concentrations of the various constituent species. This transfer, in literature, is also known as
"diffusion".
The study of heat transfer is carried out for the following purpose:
1. To estimate the rates of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system under
study (both under steady and transient conditions).
2. To determine the temperature field under steady and transient conditions.

Here are some examples of the areas covered under the discipline of heat transfer:
1. Design of thermal and nuclear power plants including heat engines, steam generators,
condensers and other heat exchange equipment, heat shields for space vehicles, furnaces
….etc.
2. Internal combustion engines.
3. Refrigeration and air conditioning units.
4. Design of cooling systems for electric motors, generators and transformers.
5. Heating and cooling of fluids in chemical operations.
6. Heat treatment of metals
Heat transfer, which defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another because of
temperature gradient take place by the following three distinct modes:
(i) Conduction,
(ii) Convection, and
(iii) Radiation.
Heat transmission, in majority of real situations, occurs as a result of combinations of these

modes of heat transfer.
Heat conduction:
"Conduction" is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance, or from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable
displacement of molecules forming the substance.
It is the mode of heat transfer accomplished via two mechanisms

(1) By molecular interaction whereby the exchange of energy takes place by the kinetic
motion or direct impact of molecules. Molecules at a relatively high energy level
(temperature) impart energy to adjacent molecules at lower levels. This type of energy
transfer always exists so long as there is a temperature gradient in a system comprising
molecules of a solid, liquid or gas.

(2) By the drift of free electrons as in the case of metallic solids. The metallic alloys have a
different concentration of free electrons, and their ability to conduct heat is directly
proportional to the concentration of free electrons in them. The free electron concentration
of nonmetals is very low. Hence materials that are good electrical conductors (pure metals,
viz., copper, silver, etc.) are good heat conductors too. Pure conduction is found only in
solids.
Convection:
"Convection" is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with
another. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport
of medium itself.
 It is possible only in the presence of a fluid medium. When a fluid flows inside a duct or
over a solid body and the temperature of the fluid and the solid surfaces are different,
heat transfer between the fluid and the solid surface will take place. This is due to the
motion of fluid relative to the surface. This type of heat transfer is called convection. The
transport of heat here is inseparably linked with the movement of the fluid itself.
 If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from the density variation
caused by the temperature difference in the fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or
natural convection.
 On the other hand, if the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external
agency like a blower or fan, the heat transfer is termed as forced convection.
 As the energy transfer between the solid surface and the fluid at the surface can take
place only by conduction, the heat transfer by convection is always accompanied by
conduction.
Radiation:
"Radiation" is the transfer of heat through space or matter by means other than conduction or
convection. Radiation heat is thought of as electromagnetic waves as emanation of the same
nature as light and radio waves.

All bodies radiate heat; so a transfer of heat by radiation occurs because hot body emits heat than
it receives and a cold body receives more heat than it emits.
Radiation energy (being electromagnetic radiation) requires no medium for propagation and will
pass through vacuum.
 If two bodies at different temperatures are placed in an evacuated adiabatic enclosure so
that they are not in contact through a solid or fluid medium, the temperatures of the two
bodies will tend to become equal.
 The mode of heat transfer by which this equilibrium is achieved is called thermal
radiation.
 Radiation is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon, and no medium is required for its
propagation.
 In fact the energy transfer by radiation is maximum when the two bodies exchanging
energy are separated by perfect vacuum.
 Thermal radiation depends only on the temperature and on the optical properties of the
emitter.
1.1. Conduction Heat Transfer

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is an energy
transfer from the high-temperature region to the low-temperature region. We say that the energy
is transferred by conduction and that the heat-transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the
normal temperature gradient:
dT
Q A
dx
When the proportionality constant is inserted, then
dT
Q  kA (1.1)
dx
Where
Q is the heat-transfer rate and
is the temperature gradient in the direction of the heat flow.

The positive constant k is called the thermal conductivity of the material, and the minus sign is
inserted so that the second principle of thermodynamics will be satisfied; i.e., heat must flow
downhill on the temperature scale,
Equation (1-1) is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. It is important to note that Eq. (1.1) is
the defining equation for the thermal conductivity and that k has the units of W/m2 oC in a
typical system of units in which the heat flow is expressed in watts.
The thermal conductivity of a material is defined as follows:

"The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area, and unit thickness in unit
time when the difference in temperature between the faces causing heat flow is unit
temperature difference"
Assumptions of Fourier's law:

The following are the assumptions on which Fourier's law is based:
1. Conduction of heat takes place under steady state conditions.
2. The heat flow is unidirectional.
3. The temperatures gradient is constant and the temperature profile is linear.
4. There is no internal heat generation
5. The bounding surfaces are isothermal in character.
6. The material is homogeneous and isotropic (i.e., the value of thermal conductivity is
constant in all directions).
Some essential features of Fourier's law:

Following are some essential features of Fourier's law:
1. It is applicable to all matter (may be solid, liquid or gas).
2. It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first principles, i.e., it is
an empirical law based on observation.

Note that the numerical value of the thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow in a
given material. Clearly, the faster the molecules move, the faster they will transport energy.
In the English system of units, heat flow is expressed in Btu/h · ft2 · oF, while the thermal
conductivity will then have units of Btu/h · ft · oF.
Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a substance and like viscosity; it is primarily a

function of temperature and nature of the substance. It varies significantly with pressure only in
the case of gases subjected to high pressure. However, for many engineering problems, materials
are often considered to possess a constant thermal conductivity (isotropic).
The thermal conductivity for most materials can be determined experimentally by measuring the
rate of heat flow and temperature gradient in the given substance. Table (1.1) gives the thermal
conductivities of the substance most commonly used.
Table (1.1): Thermal conductivities of common substances at 20 oC

Substance k (W/mK)
Silver (pure) 407.0
Copper (pure) 386.0
Aluminum (pure) 175.6
Mild steel 37.2
Lead 29.8
Stainless steel 19.3
Wood 0.15
Asbestos, fiber 0.095
Water 0.51
Air 0.022
Table (1.1) indicates that, pure metals have the highest values of thermal conductivities while
gases and vapors have the lowest; insulating materials and inorganic liquids have thermal
conductivities that lie between those of metals and gases. The thermal conductivity of materials
depends upon its state and is a function of its pressure, temperature, humidity and structure.

The thermal conductivity of insulating materials is very low. This is because many building and
insulating materials have a porous structure with some fluid, mostly air, trapped in. Since air is a
bad conductor of heat so the thermal conductivity of the air filled porous materials is low.
The thermal conductivity of liquids and gases is smaller than that of solids because their
intermolecular spacing is much larger and so there is less effective transport of energy. The
thermal conductivity of gases increases with increasing temperature.
Example (1.1)
A stainless steel plate 2 cm thick is maintained at a temperature of 550 oC at one face and 50 oC
on the other. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel at 300 oC is 19.1 W/mK. Compute the
heat transferred through the material per unit area.
Solution
dt
Since Q  kA
dx
Q dt 50  550
Then  k  19.1  477.5 kW / m 2
A dx 0.02
Example (1.2)
A plane wall is 150 mm thick and its wall area is 4.5 m2. If its conductivity is 9.35 W/m. oC and
surface temperatures are steady at 150 oC and 45 oC, determine:
1. Heat flow across the plane wall
2. Temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Solution
1. Heat flow across the plane wall:
dt 45  150
Q  kA  9.35  4.5   29452 .5 W
dx 0.15
2. Temperature gradient in the flow direction.
dt Q 29452 .5
   - 700 o C/m
dx kA 9.35  4.5
1.2. Convection Heat Transfer

It is well known that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when placed in front of a fan than when
exposed to still air. We say that the heat is convected away, and we call the process convection
heat transfer.
Consider the heated plate shown in Fig. (1.1), the temperature of the plate is Tw, and the
temperature of the fluid is T∞. The velocity of the flow will appear as shown, being reduced to
zero at the plate as a result of viscous action.
Since the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall will be zero, the heat must be transferred only by
conduction at that point. Thus we might compute the heat transfer, using Eq.(1-1), with the
thermal conductivity of the fluid and the fluid temperature gradient at the wall. Why, then, if the
heat flows by conduction in this layer, do we speak of convection heat transfer and need to
consider the velocity of the fluid?
The answer is that the temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the fluid carries the
heat away; a high velocity produces a large temperature gradient, and so on. Thus the
temperature gradient at the wall depends on the flow field, and we must develop in our later
analysis an expression relating the two quantities.
Nevertheless, it must be remembered that the physical mechanism of heat transfer at the wall is a
conduction process.
To express the overall effect of convection, we use Newton’s law of cooling:
Q  hA(Tw  T ) (1.2)

Free stream
Flow
T
u∞
Q
u(y)
T
Wall
Fig. (1.1): Convection from a heated plate
Here the heat-transfer rate is related to:

 The overall temperature difference between the wall and fluid
 The surface area A.
The quantity h is called the convection heat-transfer coefficient, and Eq. (1.2) is the defining
equation. An analytical calculation of h may be made for some systems. For complex situations
it must be determined experimentally.
The coefficient of convective heat transfer "h" (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) may
be defined as
"The amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid and
unit area of the surface in unit time"
The heat-transfer coefficient is sometimes called the film conductance because of its relation to
the conduction process in the thin stationary layer of fluid at the wall surface. From Eq. (1.2) we
note that the units of h are in W/m2 oC when the heat flow is in watts.
In view of the foregoing discussion, one may anticipate that convection heat transfer will have a
dependence on the viscosity of the fluid in addition to its dependence on the thermal properties
of the fluid (thermal conductivity, specific heat, density). This is expected because viscosity
influences the velocity profile and, correspondingly, the energy-transfer rate in the region near
the wall.

If a heated plate were exposed to ambient room air without an external source of motion, a
movement of the air would be experienced as a result of the density gradients near the plate. We
call this natural, or free, convection as opposed to forced convection, which is experienced in
the case of the fan blowing air over a plate. Boiling and condensation phenomena are also
grouped under the general subject of convection heat transfer.
Example (1.3)
A flat plate of length 1 m and width 0.5 m is placed in an air stream at 30 oC blowing parallel to
it. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 30 W/m2K. Calculate the heat transfer by
convection, if the plate is maintained at a temperature of 300 oC.
Solution
Q  hA(Tw  T )
 30(1.0  0.5)(300  30)  4.05kW
Example (1.4)
A wire 1.5 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. An
electric current is passed through the wire and is increased until the water boils at 100 oC. Under
these conditions if convective heat transfer coefficient is 4500 W/m2.oC, find how much electric
power must be supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at 120 oC?.
Solution
A   d L   (0.0015)(0 .15)  7.065 10 4 m2

Q  hA(Tw  T )  4500  7.065 104  20  63.6 W

1.3. Radiation Heat Transfer

In contrast to the mechanisms of conduction and convection, where energy transfer through a
material medium is involved, heat may also be transferred through regions where a perfect
vacuum exists. The mechanism in this case is electromagnetic radiation. We shall limit our
discussion to electromagnetic radiation that is propagated as a result of a temperature difference;
this is called thermal radiation.
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law the ideal thermal radiator, or blackbody (a perfect
emitter and perfect absorber), will emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the body and directly proportional to its surface area. Thus
Q  AT 4 (1.3)
Where σ is the proportionality constant and is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant with the
value of 5.678×10−8 W/m2 K4.
Equation (1.3) is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law of thermal radiation, and it applies only to
blackbodies. It is important to note that this equation is valid only for thermal radiation; other
types of electromagnetic radiation may not be treated so simply.
Radiation in an Enclosure
A simple radiation problem is encountered when we have a heat-transfer surface at temperature
T1 completely enclosed by a much larger surface maintained at T2.
Consider a blackbody of surface area A and at absolute temperature T1 exchanging radiation

with another blackbody (similar) at a temperature T2. The net heat exchange is proportional to
the difference in T4
Q   A(T14  T24 ) (1.4)

The real surfaces, like a polished metal plate, do not radiate as much energy as a black body. The
gray nature of real surfaces can be accounted for by introducing a factor ε in Eq. (1.4) called
emissivity which relates radiation between gray and black bodies at same temperature.
Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 ) (1.5)
To account for geometry and orientation of two surfaces exchanging radiation, Eq.(1.5) is
modified to
Q   A1 1 F (T14  T24 ) (1.6)
Where; the factor F, called view factor, is dependent upon geometry of the two surfaces
exchanging radiation.
Radiation heat-transfer phenomena can be exceedingly complex, and the calculations are seldom
as simple as implied by Eq. (1.6). For now, we wish to emphasize the difference in physical
mechanism between radiation heat-transfer and conduction-convection systems.
Example (1.5)
A radiator in a domestic heating system operates at a surface temperature of 55 oC. Determine
the rate at which it emits radiant heat per unit area if it behaves as a blackbody.
Solution
Q
 T 4  5.6697  10 8  (273  55) 4  0.66 kW / m2
A
Example (1.6)
A surface having an area of 1.5 m2 and maintained at 300 oC exchanges heat by radiation with
another surface at 40 oC. The value of factor due to the geometric location and emissivity is 0.52
Determine Heat loss by radiation
Solution
T1  300  273  573K ; T2  40  273  313K

 Q  F A(T14  T24 )
 Q  0.52  5.67 10 8 1.5(5734  313 4 )  4343 W
Example (1.7)
A carbon steel plate (thermal conductivity = 45 W/moC) 600 mm x 900 mm x 25 mm is
maintained at 310 oC. Air at 15 oC blows over the hot plate. If convection heat transfer
coefficient is 22 W/m2oC and 250 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation, calculate the
inside plate temperature.
Solution
Qrad
Air (fluid)
Tf = 15 oC
Ts = 310 oC
dx
Ti
Heat Conducted
Through wall
In this case, the heat conducted through the plate is removed from the plate surface by a
combination of convection and radiation.
Qcond.  Qconv .  Qrad .

dT
 kA  hA(Ts  T f )  F A(Ts4  T f4 )
dx
Ts  Ti
 kA  hA(Ts  T f )  F A(Ts4  T f4 )
dx

310  Ti
 45  0.54   22  0.54(310  15)  250 ( given)
0.025
972 (Ti  310)  3754 .6
Ti  313.86 oC
Example (1.8)
A surface at 250 oC exposed to the surroundings at 110 oC convects and radiate heat to the
surroundings. The convection coefficient and radiation factor are 75 W/m2 oC and unity
respectively. If the heat is conducted to the surface through a solid conductivity 10 W/m oC, what
is the temperature gradient at the surface in the solid?
Solution
dT
Temperature gradient 
dx
In this case
The heat conducted through the plate = convection heat losses + radiation heat losses

dT
 kA  hA (Ts  Tsur )  F A(Ts4  Tsur
4
)
dx
dT
k  h (Ts  Tsur )  F (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
dx
Ts  250  273  523 K ; & Tsur  110  273  383 K
dT
 10   75  (250  110)  1 5.67  10 8  (523 4  383 4 )
dx
dT
 10   10500  3022 .1  13522 .1
dx
dT
 1352 .21 oC / m
dx

1.4. Solved Problems:

Problem (1)
An insulated pipe of 50 mm outside diameter ( ε = 0.8) is laid in a room at 30 oC. If the surface
temperature is 250 oC and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2K, calculate the
heat loss per unit length of the pipe?
Solution
The heat loss due to combined modes of convection and radiation is
Q  hA(Ts  T )   A  (Ts4  T4 )

Where
Ts = surface temperature = 250 +273 = 523 K
T∞ = room temperature = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Q  h( D L)(Ts  T )   ( D L)  (Ts4  T4 )

Q
 h( D)(Ts  T )   ( D)  (Ts4  T4 )
L
Q
 10    0.05(250  30)  5.67 10 8    0.05  0.8 (5234  3034 )
L
Q
 818.61 W / m
L
Problem (2)
An immersion water heater of surface area 0.1 m2 and rating 1 kW is designed to operate fully
submerged in water. Estimate the surface temperature of the heater when the water is at 40 oC
and the heat transfer coefficient is 300 W/m2 K. If this heater is by mistake used in air at 40 oC
with h = 9 W/m2K, what will be its surface temperature?
Solution
Let Ts be the surface temperature of the heater

When used in water
Q  hA(Ts  Twater )
1000  300  0.1(Ts  40)
1000
Ts   40  73.3 oC
300  0.1
When used in air
Q  hA(Ts  Tair )
1000  9  0.1(Ts  40)
1000
Ts   40  1151 oC
9  0.1
This surface temperature is extremely high and will result in melting of the heating element. So,
an immersion water heater should never be operated in air.
Problem (3)
Air at 20 oC blows over a carbon steel (1%) plate of 2 cm thick with 50 cm long and 75 cm wide.
If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2 oC and 300 W is lost from the plate surface
by radiation, calculate the inside plate temperature. Take the thermal conductivity for carbon
steel (1%) as 43 W/m·oC.
Solution
The heat conducted through the plate must be equal to the sum of convection and radiation heat
losses:
Qconduction  Qconvection  Qradiation

Qconduction  2.156  0.3  2.456 kW

T
Qconduction  kA
x
T
2.456 103   (43)(0.5  0.75) 
0.02
T  3.05 oC
 T  Ts  Ti
Then Ti = 250 + 3.05 = 253.05 oC
Problem (4)
An electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in diameter and 10 cm long. The wire is
submerged in liquid water at atmospheric pressure, and the current is increased until the water
boils. For this situation h =5000W/m2 oC, and the water temperature will be 100◦C. How much
electric power must be supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at 114 oC?
Solution
The total convection loss is given by Equation
Q  hA(TW  T )
For this problem the surface area of the wire is
A   D L    0.001  0.1  3.142  10 4 m 2
The heat transfer is therefore
Q  5000  3.142 10 4 (114  100)  21.99 W
This is equal to the electric power that must be applied.

Problem (5)
A plate 0.3 m long and 0.1 m wide, with a thickness of 12 mm is made from stainless steel (k =
16 W/ m K), the top surface is exposed to an airstream of temperature 20°C. In an experiment,
the plate is heated by an electrical heater (also 0.3 m by 0.1 m) positioned on the underside of the
plate and the temperature of the plate adjacent to the heater is maintained at 100oC. A voltmeter
and ammeter are connected to the heater and these read 200 V and 0.25 A, respectively.
Assuming that the plate is perfectly insulated on all sides except the top surface, what is the
convective heat transfer coefficient?
Solution
The heat provided from the electric heater
equals to:
Q  Volt  Ampere
 Q  200  0.25  50 W
This will equal the conducted heat through the plate:
T
Q  kA
x
T
 50  16  (0.3 * 0.1) 
0.012
T  1.25  T1 T2  1.25
T1  100  1.25  98.75 o C , T1  98.75  273.15  371.9 K
The conducted heat will be transferred by convection and radiation at the surface
Q  hA(T1  T f )  A(T14  T f4 )

50  h  0.03  (371.9  293.15)  5.678  10 8  0.03  (371.9 4  293.15 4 )
50  2.3625 h  20.0054
 h  12.7 W / m 2 K
Problem (6)
Surface A in the Fig. is coated with white paint and is maintained
at temperature of 200 oC. It is located directly opposite to surface
B which can be considered a black body and is maintained at a
temperature of 800 oC. Calculate the amount of heat that needs to
be removed from surface A per unit area to maintain its constant
temperature. Take the emissivity of white coated paint as 0.97
Solution
The heat gained by surface A by radiation from surface B can be computed as following
Q
Q   A  FAB (T  T ) B
4 4
A     FAB (TB4  TA4 )
A
The view factor can assumed to be 1
Q
  5.678 10 8  0.97 1 (1073 4  4734 )  70250 W / m2
A
This amount of heat needs to be removed from surface A by other means such as conduction,
convection or radiation to other surfaces to maintain its constant temperature.
Problem 7
A surface at 270 oC exposed to the surroundings at 125 oC convects and radiate heat to the
surroundings. The convection coefficient and radiation factor are 70 W/m2 oC and unity
respectively. If the heat is conducted to the surface through a solid conductivity 10 W/m oC, what
is the temperature gradient at the surface in the solid?

Solution
dT
Temperature gradient 
dx
In this case
The heat conducted through the plate = convection heat losses + radiation heat losses

dT
 kA  hA (Ts  Tsur )  F A(Ts4  Tsur
4
)
dx
dT
k  h (Ts  Tsur )  F (Ts4  Tsur
4
)
dx
 10 
dT
dx

 70  (270  125)  1  5.67  10 8  (270  273) 4  (125  273) 4 
dT
 10   10150  3506 .6  13657
dx
dT
 1365 .7 oC / m
dx

1.5. Sheet One: Basic Concepts
1. If 3 kW is conducted through a section of insulating material 0.6 m2 in cross section and 2.5
cm thick and the thermal conductivity may be taken as 0.2 W/m oC, compute the
temperature difference across the material.
Ans: 625 oC
2. A temperature difference of 85 oC is impressed across a fiberglass layer of 13 cm thickness.
The thermal conductivity of the fiberglass is 0.035W/m oC. Compute the heat transferred
through the material per hour per unit area.
Ans: 22.885 W/m2
3. The temperatures on the faces of a plane wall 15 cm thick are 375 and 85 oC. The wall is
constructed of a special glass with the following properties: k =0.78 W/m. oC, ρ = 2700
kg/m3, cP =0.84 kJ/kg oC. What is the heat flow through the wall at steady-state conditions?
Ans: 1508 W/m2
4. A certain insulation has a thermal conductivity of 10 W/m oC. What thickness is necessary to
affect a temperature drop of 500 oC for a heat flow of 400 W/m2?
Ans: 1508 W/m2
5. Two perfectly black surfaces are constructed so that all the radiant energy leaving a surface
at 800 oC reaches the other surface. The temperature of the other surface is maintained at 250
o
C. Calculate the heat transfer between the surfaces per hour and per unit area of the surface
maintained at 800 oC. Ans: 70.9 kW/m2
6. Two very large parallel planes having surface conditions that very nearly approximate those
of a blackbody are maintained at 1100 and 425 oC, respectively. Calculate the heat transfer
by radiation between the planes per unit time and per unit surface area.
Ans: 188 kW/m2

7. One face of a copper plate 3 cm thick is maintained at 400 oC, and the other face is
maintained at 100◦C. How much heat is transferred through the plate? Take the thermal
conductivity for copper 370 W/m·oC at 250 oC.
Ans: 3.7 MW/m
8. Calculate the radiation heat exchange between two black planes having the area of the
surface of a 0.7-m-diameter sphere when the planes are maintained at 70 K and 300 K.
Ans: 704.8 W
9. Air at 21 oC blows over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm maintained at 255 oC. The convection heat-
transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2 oC. Calculate the heat transfer.
Ans: 2.194 kW
10. An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 oC.
The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are
200 oC and 0.8 respectively. If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer
from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2K. What is the rate of heat loss from the surface per
unit length of pipe?
Ans: 998 W/m
11. A stainless steel plate 4cm thick is maintained at a temperature of 500 oC at one face and 50
o
C on the other. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel at 300 oC is 19.1 W/mK. Compute
the heat transferred through the material per unit area.
12. A flat plate of length 1.5 m and width 0.75 m is placed in an air stream at 30 oC blowing
parallel to it. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 30 W/m2K. Calculate the heat
transfer if the plate is maintained at a temperature of 300 oC.
13. Two infinite black plates at 800 oC and 300 oC exchange heat by radiation. Calculate the
heat transfer per unit area. Ans: 69.03 kW/m2

14. A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5 cm is maintained at a temperature of 50◦C in a

large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20◦C. The surface emissivity of the steel
may be taken as 0.8. Take the heat-transfer coefficient for free convection with this geometry
and air as h = 6.5W/m2 · Calculate the total heat lost by the pipe per unit length.
Ans: 55.67 W/m
15. A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 10 cm is maintained at a temperature of 60 oC in

a large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20 oC with average heat transfer
coefficient 6.5 W/m2.k. The emissivity of the steel is 0.6 calculate the total heat lost from the
pipe per unit length.
Ans: 134.33 W/m

Chapter Two: One Dimensional Steady State Heat

Conduction
2.1. Introduction
From the study of thermodynamics, you have learned that energy can be transferred by
interactions of a system with its surroundings. These interactions are called work and heat.
However, thermodynamics deals with the end states of the process during which an
interaction occurs and provides no information concerning the nature of the interaction or the
time rate at which it occurs.
The objective of this course is to extend thermodynamic analysis through the study of the
modes of heat transfer and through the development of relations to calculate heat transfer
rates.
Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other aspects of life, and
one does not need to go very far to see some application areas of heat transfer. Many ordinary
household applications are designed, in whole or part, by using the principles of heat transfer.
The generation energy from chemical reactions involves the transfer of vast quantities of
thermal energy. Further, chemical processes of combustion yield temperatures at which most
constructional materials would melt; adequate protection by heat transfer equipment is
therefore vital. Heat transfer considerations enable these temperatures to be controlled within
safe limits.
The laws of heat transfer find application in many fields of engineering such as chemical and
process engineering, manufacturing and metallurgical industries.
Heat transfer mechanisms

Heat is defined as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference. The science that deals the determination of the rates such

energy transfers is the heat transfer. The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher
temperature mediums to the lower temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two
mediums reach the same temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three different mechanisms: conduction, convection and
radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of temperature difference
Separate equations may be written to describe each mechanism, and when two or more
mechanisms occur simultaneously it is sometimes possible to add the separate effects; but
sometimes it is necessary to consider the equations of the participating mechanisms together.
Conduction
Conduction is the heat transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction
can take place in solids, liquids or gases.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibration of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. This energy is called internal energy
Heat transfer rate for one dimensional conduction

In some two-dimensional problems, the effect of a second-space coordinate may be so small
as to justify its neglect, and the multidimensional heat-flow problem may be approximated
with a one-dimensional analysis. In these cases, the differential equations are simplified, and
we are led to a much easier solution because of this simplification.
It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms of appropriate rate equations. For
heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier's law
dT
Q  kA
dx

2.2. Conduction for Flat Wall

2.2.1.Conduction through a single Layer
For single layer at the one-dimensional flat wall as shown in Figure 2.1 the rate equation is
expressed as
dT
Q  kA (2.1)
dx
Where
Q : rate of heat conduction through the wall, W.
k: thermal conductivity of the wall material, W/m.K.
A: the area of heat flow taken at right angles to the direction of flow of heat, m².
dT
:Temperature gradient, K/m.
dx
T1
dT
Area, A
T2
Q Q
x dx
Fig. (2.1) Fourier's law for one-dimensional steady state conduction in a plane slab of
material.

The rate of heat flow Q is the heat transfer in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
dT
transfer area, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient, , in this direction.
dx
The proportionality constant k is a transport property known as the thermal conductivity and
is a characteristic of the wall material. The minus sign is a consequence of the fact that heat is
transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Separating the variables in equation (2.1) and integrating

x2 T2
Q  dx  kA  dT
x1 T1
 Qx2  x1   kAT2  T1   kAT1  T2 
Q  kA
T1  T2   kA  T 
 
or
x2  x1   L 
(2.2)
Where,
T  T1  T2 = temperature driving force, K

L  x2  x1 = thickness of the wall, m.
Equation (2.2) may also be put in the form

T
Q (2.3)
Rth
L
Where Rth  (2.4)
kA
Rth is thermal resistance of the wall, K/W
Example 2.1

One face of a copper plate is maintained at 400 oC, and the other face is maintained at 100 oC.
How much heat is transferred through the plate? Thermal conductivity of copper = 370 W/m
o
C, the surface area of the plate is 1 m2 and the plate is 3 cm thick.
Solution: From equation (2.2):
T
Q  kA
L
Q
370  1 400 100   3.7 10 6 W  3.7 MW
0.03
Example 2.2
A layer of cork 150 mm thick is used as a layer of thermal insulation in a flat wall. The
temperature of the cold side of the cork is 44 oC, and that of the warm side is 80 oC. The
thermal conductivity of the cork is 0.045 W/m oC. The area of the wall is 2.32 m². What is the
rate of heat flow through the wall in watts?
Solution:
From equation (2.2)
kA( T )
Q
L
Q
0.045  2.32  80  44  25.1W
0.150
Example 2.3
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a
thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the
rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side?
Solution

kA( T )
Q
L
Q
1.7  0.5  1.2  1400  1150   1700 W
0.15
2.2.2.Composite Systems
Many engineering applications of practical utility involves heat transfer through a medium
composed of two or more materials of different thermal conductivity arranged in series or
parallel.
Consider for example, the walls of a refrigerator, hot cases, cold storage plants, and hot water
tanks etc. which always have some kind of insulating material between the inner and outer
walls. A hot fluid flowing inside a tube covered with a layer of the thermal insulation is
another example of a composite because in this case the thermal conductivities of tube metal
and insulation are different
The problem of heat transfer through the composite systems can be solved by the application
of thermal resistance concept. The procedure for solving one-dimensional, steady state heat
conduction problems for composite systems comprising parallel plates, coaxial cylinders, or
concentric spheres is outlined in this section.
In all the cases described here, it will be assumed that the parallel layers in the composite
system are in perfect thermal contact or the resistance due to interface contact is negligible,
that is, the temperature is continuous at the interface of the two layers in contact.
One of the common process heat transfer applications consists of heat flow from a hot fluid,
through a solid wall, to a cooler fluid on the other side. The solid wall may be a flat surface,
but more commonly will be a cylindrical pipe. There may be a scale or dirt deposit that
creates a heat transfer resistance on either the inside or outside surface of the pipe. The heat
flowing from one fluid to the other must therefore pass through several resistances in series.

For Plane Wall

Consider a multilayered wall as depicted in the following Fig. The temperature gradients in
the three materials are as shown. The Fourier equation may be applied directly to yield the
heat flow rate. It is assumed that the interior and exterior surfaces of this system are subjected
to convective heat transfer to fluids at mean temperatures Ta and Tb, and with heat transfer
coefficients ha and hb respectively.
Ta
T1
ha T2
T3
T4 Tb
Q Q hb
k1 k2 k3
L1 L2 L3
Ta T1 T2 T3 T4 Tb
L1 L2 L3
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Now,
T T   T  T2   T  T3 
Q  Aha (Ta  T1 )  k1 A  2 1   k 2 A  3   k 3 A  4   Ahb (T4  Tb )
 L1   L2   L3 
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  Tb
Or Q    
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Where,
1 L L L 1
Ra  ; R1  1 ; R2  2 ; R3  3 ; Rb 
Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak 3 Ahb
Ta  Tb T T
Q  a b
Then, 1 L L L
 1  2  3 
1 R
Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak 3 Ahb
1
Where,  R  Ra  R1  R2  R3  Rb  UA
Note that:
 U is known as the overall heat transfer coefficient and is usually used when the heat
transfer is taking place due to two or all three modes of heat transfer.
 The temperature at any intermediate point of this composite structure can be obtained
from the following equation
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  Tb
Q    
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
 For the problems involving both series and parallel composite walls, as shown in the
following figure.
D
A
ha hb
C E
Ta Tb
B
F
T1 T2 T3 T4
Q RA RD
Ra RC RE Rb
Ta Tb
RB RF
T1 T2 T3 T4
Series and parallel composite walls
 The total thermal resistance is computed as following:

1 1 1
R  R a 
1 1
 RC 
1 1 1
 Rb 
UA
  
RA RB RD RE RF
Ta  Tb
 Q
R
For Cylinder and Sphere

The thermal resistance for cylinder or spherical shape as shown in Fig. (3.7) can be calculated
as the following equations.
Fig. (3.8): thermal resistances for cylinder or sphere
For Cylinder:
T
Q
Rtotal
Rtotal  Rconve,1  Rconduction,cyl  Rconve, 2

 1   ln r2 r1    1 
Rtotal         
 2  r1 L hi    
2 2
 2 L k  2 r2 L ho 
Q
Ti  To 
 1   ln r2 r1   1 
 
  
 2 r L h 
 2  r1 L hi   2  L k   2 o 
Q  UA (Ti  To )

1
R  AU
o o
1
 R  AU
i i
1  1 Ai ln r2 r1  Ai 1 
   
U i  hi 2 k L Ao h0 
1  A0 1 A0 ln r2 r1  1 
   
U 0  Ai hi 2 k L h0 
The general notation, for either the plane wall or cylindrical systems is that
1
UA 
 Rth
For Sphere:
Rtotal  Rconve,1  Rconduction, Sph  Rconve, 2

 1   r2  r1   1 
Rtotal   
  4  r r k   4 r 2 h 
    
 4 r1
2
hi   1 2   2 o 
Q
Ti  To 
 1   r2  r1   1 
 
  4  r r k   4  r 2 h 
    
 4  r1
2
hi   1 2   2 o 
Q  UA(Ti  To )
Example (2.4)

A flat wall 15 cm thick of thermal conductivity 0.87 W/mK is exposed to air at 30 oC on one
side where the heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2K, and air at 15 oC on the opposite side
where the convection coefficient is 60 W/m2K. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient
and the heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall.
Solution
The wall area A = 1 m2, for a flat wall, from equation (3.18), the overall heat transfer
coefficient is given by:
1 1 x 1
  
U hi k ho
1 1 0.15 1
    0.256 m2 K / W
U 15 0.87 60
U  3.9 W / m2 K
Then; the rate of heat transfer
Q
 UT  (3.9)((30  15)  58.5 W / m2
A
Example (2.5)
A square cupper plate with 20 cm side length; is exposed to water. The plate surface
temperature is 85˚C and its thermal conductivity is 3.77 W/m.˚C. if the water temperature is
20˚C and the convection coefficient from one side is 25 W/m².˚C and 85 W/m².˚C from the
opposite side. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate thickness is 2 cm. Solve the problem
using the
1. Total resistance (R) &
2. overall transfer coefficient (U)
Solution
1. Using R

1 L 1
Rtotal   
hi A kA ho A
1 0.20 1
Rtotal   
25  0.04 3.77  0.04 85  0.04
Rtotal  1.43
T 85  20
Q   45.5 W
Rtotal 1.43
2. Using U
1
 U
AR
1
 UA 
R
1 0.20 1
Rtotal   
25  0.04 3.77  0.04 85  0.04
Rtotal  1.43
1 1
UA    0.699
Rtotal 1.43
Q  UAT  0.699  (85  20)  45.6 W

2.2.3.Conduction through multi flat layers

Conduction through a system of multi flat layers of different material has often to be
considered. A furnace wall consisting of a layer of firebrick and a layer of insulating brick is a
typical example. Such slabs are called composite walls (compound thermal resistances) and
they may be in series or in parallel.
In Figure 2.2 below, plane slabs (a, b, c) of thermal resistances R1, R2, R3 are arranged in
series.
Figure 2.2 Heat transfer through multi Flat layers
To get an expression for heat conducted through this system, the total temperature driving
force T is:
T = T1 + T2 + T3 (2.5)
Applying the integrated Fourier equation to each layer:
T1  Qa R1 

T2  Qb R2  (2.6)
T3  Qc R3 

Since, in steady heat flow, all the heat that passes through the first resistance must pass
through the second and in turn pass through the third. So, Qa, Qb, Qc are equal and all can be
denoted by Q. Using this fact and solving for Q gives

Qa = Qb = Qc = Q (2.7)
Adding equations (2.6) and substituting from (2.5) and (2.7):

T1 + T2 + T3 = T = Q (R1 + R2 + R3)
Q
T1  T2  T3   Ttotal (2.8)
R1  R2  R3  R total
Where, Rtotal = total thermal resistance of the composite wall.
From equations (2.8), (2.7) and (2.6):
T T1 T2 T3

Q    (2.9)
R R1 R2 R3
From equation (2.9) it is possible to calculate the interface temperatures at the junctions
between any two adjacent layers.
Example 2.5
A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 114-mm layer of refractory brick, with a thermal
conductivity of 0.138 W/m oC backed by a 229-mm layer of common brick, of conductivity
1.38 W/m oC. The temperature of the inner face of the wall is 760 oC, and that of the outer
face is 76.6 oC.
a) What is the heat loss through the wall?
b) What is the temperature of the interface between the refractory brick and the common
brick? Assume that the heat transfer area A = 0.093 m2

Wall 2
T1
T2
k1 k2
T3
T1 T2 T3
L1 L2
Heat transfer conduction through two layer (Example2.4)
As shown in the above Illustration

L
Since thermal resistance is in general given by R
kA
(a) The thermal resistance of the refractory layer is
0.114
R1   8.88 o C / W
0.138  0.093
and that of the common brick is
0.229
R2   1.78 o C / W
1.38  0.093
The total resistance is
o
Rtotal = R1 + R2 = 8.88 + 1.78 = 10.66 C/W
The overall of temperature drop is
o
T = 760 – 76.6 = 683.4 C
The total heat loss is given by

T 683.4
Q   64.1 W
Rtotal 10.66
(b) From equation (2.9):
TWall ,1 683.4

8.88 10.66
Where,
o
ΔTwall,1= 569.3 C = 760 – T2
The temperature at the interface is T2 = 760 – 569.3 = 190.7 oC
T
Or Q  kA
L
(0.138)(0.093)(760  T2 )
64.1 
0.114
569.3  760  T2
T2  760  569 .4  190 .6 oC
2.3. Conduction for Cylindrical Layer

2.3.1.Single layer of cylinder
Conduction through thick walled pipes is a common heat transfer problem, and may be
treated one-dimensionally if surface temperatures are uniform. The heat flow is then in the
radial direction only as in Fig. (2.3).

k
r2
r1
T1
T2
Fig. (2.3): Crosse-section of long cylindrical pipe (L)
Consider a long cylindrical layer of inner radius r1, outer radius r2, length L and thermal
conductivity k. The two surfaces of the cylindrical layer are maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T1. For one-dimensional heat transfer through the cylindrical layer, we
have Tr.
Then Fourier's law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the cylindrical layer can be
expressed as
dT
Qcond,cyl  kA (2.10)
dr
Where A  2 r L (2.11)
A: is the heat transfer surface area at location r.
Separating the variables in the equation (2.10) and integrating from r  r1 , where T r1   T1 ,
to r  r2 , where T r2   T2 , gives
Qcond,cyl .dr  k (2 Lr)dT
r2 T
  2 k L  dT
2
dr
Qcond,cyl 
r1
r T1

Qcond,cyl ln r2 r2   2kLT2  T1 
 2 k L 
 Qcond,cyl  
   T1  T2 
 ln r2 1 
r
ln r2 r1 
Rcyl 
2kL
Where
Rcyl is the thermal resistance of the cylinder layer.
T
Qcond,cyl 
Rcyl
Example 2.6
A copper pipe (k= 122W/m. ˚C) with 4cm inner diameter (ID) and 6 cm outer diameter (OD)
and 2m long. If the inside wall temperature is 75˚C and the outside wall temperature is 25˚C,
calculate:
a) The heat transfer through the wall.
b) The thermal resistance of the pipe.
Solution:
a.)
2 k L(T1  T2 )
Qcond,cyl 
ln r2 r1 
2(3.14)(122 )( 2)(75  25)
Qcond,cyl   188958.31 W
ln 0.03 0.02 
b.)
ln r2 r1 
Rcyl 
2kL

ln 0.03 0.02 
Rcyl   2.65 10 4 o C / W
2(3.14)(122)(2)
2.3.2.Multilayered of Cylindrical
Steady heat transfer through multilayered cylindrical can be handled just like multilayered
flat walls discussed earlier by simply adding an additional resistance in series for each
additional layer, as shown in Fig. (2.4).
T1 T2 T3 T4
Rcyl,1 Rcyl,2 Rcyl,3
Fig. (2.4): Thermal resistances of three-layered of composite cylinder
Where
T
Qcond,cyl 
Rcyl ,total
Rcyl,total  Rcyl,1  Rcyl, 2  Rcyl,3

ln r2 r1  ln r3 r2  ln r4 r3 

Rcyl ,total    (1.12)
2k1 L 2k 4 L 2k3 L
Example 2.7
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (k = 19 W/m oC) with 2-cm inner diameter (ID) and 4-
cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3-cm layer of asbestos insulation (k = 0.2 W/m oC)
If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600oC, and the outside wall
temperature is 100oC, calculate the heat loss per meter of length.
Solution:
T1 = 600 oC Stainless steel
r1
r2
Asbestos r3
T2 = 100 oC
T
Qcond,cyl 
Rtotal,cyl
Rtotal,cyl  Rcyl,1  Rcyl, 2

ln r2 r1  ln r3 r2 
Rtotal, cyl  
2 k1L 2 k2 L
D1 = 2 cm r1 = 1 cm = 0.01m D2 = 4 cm  r2 = 2 cm =
0.02m
D3 = 4 cm + 3 cm + 3 cm = 10 cm = 0.1m  r3 = 5 cm = 0.05m

ln 0.02 0.01 ln 0.05 0.02

Rtotal,cyl  
2  3.14  19  L 2  3.14  0.2  L
0.693 0.916 5.8110 3 0.729 0.735
Rtotal,cyl     
119.32 L 1.256 L L L L
Qcond,cyl 
600  100 
0.735 L 
Qcond,cyl 500
  680 W / m
L 0.735
2.4. Conduction for Spherical Layer

2.4.1.Single layer of Spherical layer
Conduction will be in the radial direction if the temperatures of the inner and outer spherical
surfaces are uniform as shown in Figure 1.5.
k
r2
r1
T1
T2
Fig. (2.5): long spherical with inner and outer surface temperature.
Fourier's law gives for a spherical shell at r and thickness dr:
dT
Qcond,sph  kA (2.13)
dr
We can repeat the analysis above for a spherical layer by taking
A  4 r 2 (2.14)

Where,
A: is the surface area of the spherical shell at r .
Substituting this into equation (2.13) and integrating:

r2 2 T
dr
Qcond,sph . 2  4 k  dT
r1
r T1
4  k r1 r2 (T1  T2 ) T
 Qcond,sph   (2.15)
r2  r1 Rsph
Where,
r2  r1
Rsph  (2.16)
4  k r1 r2
Where r1 , r2 are the inner and outer radii of the hollow sphere; T1 and T2 are the
temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces, respectively.
Example 2.8
Gas is contained in a spherical concrete pressure vessel of internal diameter 3 m and external
diameter 4 m. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the vessel when the inner surface of the
spherical vessel is at 400 oC and the outer surface is at 20 oC. Thermal conductivity of
concrete is 1 W/m oC.
Solution:
The rate of heat conduction is given by:
4  k r1 r2 t 
Qcond,sph 
r2  r1
r2 = 2 m ; r1 = 1.5 m
Qcond,sph 
4 121.5400  20  28.65 kW
...
2  1.5
2.4.2.Multilayered of Spherical
By using equation (2.15) and (2.16), we can calculate the heat transfer for multilayer of
spherical as shown in Fig. (2.6).
T
Qcond,sph 
Rtotal, sph
Rtotal,sph  RSph.,1  RSph, 2
 r r   r r 
RSph,1   2 1    3 2 
 4  k1 r2 r1   4  k 2 r3 r2 
T1
Rsph,1 Rsph,2
Fig. (2.6): Heat transfer through two layer of spherical
Example 2.9
A spherical stainless steel with internal diameter 3cm and the external diameter is 4 cm
(k1=120W/m.˚C). It covers with 2cm layer concrete material (k2 = 1W/m.˚C). Calculate the
heat loss if the inside temperature is 120˚C and the outside temperature is 35˚C.
Solution:

Rtotal,Sph  R1  R2
r2  r1 r3  r2
R1  ; R2 
4 k1r1r2 4 k1r2 r3
T
Q
Rtotal,Sph
D1  3cm; D2  4cm; D3  8cm
r1  0.015 m; r2  0.02 m; r3  0.04 m
0.02  0.015
 RSph,1   0.011 oC / W
4  3.14  120  0.015  .02
0.04  0.02
 RSph, 2   1.99 oC / W
4  3.14  1  0.04  .02
 Rtotal,Sph  0.011  1.99  2.001o C / W
 QSph 
120  35  42.48 W
2.001
2.5. Thermal Conductivity k

Thermal conductivity k is a measure of material’s ability to conduct heat. At room
temperature k for water is 0.608 W/m.˚C and for iron is 80.2 W/m.˚C which indicate that iron
conducts heat more than 100 times faster water. Thus we say that water is a poor heat
conductor relative to iron, although water is an excellent medium to store heat. From equation
(2.2), the thermal conductivity of material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a
unit thickness of material per unit area per unit temperature difference.
A large value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is good heat conductor, and
the low value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is poor heat conductor which
is called insulator materials.

According to the thermal conductivity value, solid materials may be divided into two groups,
metallic and non-metallic. Table 2.1 lists conductivity values for some of the more useful
materials.
The high values of conductivity of metals are attributable to the well-ordered crystalline
structure of the material. The close arrangement of molecules permits a rapid transfer of
energy and, in addition, free electrons play a considerable part. Metals such as copper which
are good electrical conductors also conduct heat well.
In contrast, non-metals do not have a well ordered crystalline structure and, in addition, are
often porous in nature. Thus energy transfer between molecules is seriously impeded, and the
values of conductivity are much lower. The small pores within the material, being full of air,
further restrict the flow of heat since gases are poor conductors.
2.6. Thermal Insulation

Thermal insulations are materials or combinations of materials that are used primarily to
provide resistance to heat flow as shown in Fig. (2.7). Most of insulations are heterogeneous
materials made of low thermal conductivity materials, and they involve air pockets.
Insulation
Heat Loss
Heat
Fig. (2.7): Thermal insulation retards heat transfer by acting as a barrier in the path of heat
flow.
o
Table 2.1 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials at 0 C
Materials Thermal conductivity, k

o o
W/m . C Btu/h . ft. F
Silver (pure) 410 237
Copper (pure) 385 223
Aluminum (pure) 202 117
Nickel (pure) 93 54
metals
Iron (pure) 73 42
Carbon steel, 1%C 43 25
Lead (pure) 35 20.3
Chrome-nickel steel
16.3 9.4
(18% Cr, 8% Ni)
Quartz, parallel to axis 41.6 24
Non-metallic Solids
Magnesite 4.15 2.4

Marble 2.08 - 2.94 1.2 – 1.7
Sandstone 1.83 1.06
Glass, window 0.78 0.45
Maple or oak 0.17 0.096
Sawdust 0.059 0.034
Glass wool 0.038 0.022
2.7. Thermal Resistance (R)

Thermal resistance is a measure of a material's ability to resist heat transfer and its unit is
˚C/W. The more a material is able to block heat transfer through its surface, the greater its
thermal resistance. This concept is often applied to the building industry as a measure of
insulation effectiveness and energy efficiency.
Insulation is added to the building to improve the efficiency level and to increase the thermal
resistance of the structure. Note that the thermal resistance of a medium depends on the
geometry and the thermal properties of the medium.

2.8. Extended surfaces (Fins)

The term extended surface is used to describe a system in which the area of a surface is
increased by the attachment of fins. A fin accommodates energy transfer by conduction
within its boundaries, while its exposed surfaces transfer energy to the surroundings by
convection or radiation or both.
Fins are commonly used to augment heat transfer from electronic components, automobile
radiators, engine and compressor cylinders, control devices, and a host of other applications.
A comprehensive treatment of extended surface technology is provided by Kraus et al. (2001).
In this section we provide a short notes on the different configurations types of fins, this
include longitudinal fins, radial fins, and spines.
2.8.1.Longitudinal Convecting Fins

The five common profiles of longitudinal fins shown in Fig. (2.8) are rectangular, trapezoidal,
triangular, concave parabolic, and convex parabolic.
The performance characteristics of the fins are based on several assumptions.

1) The heat conduction in the fin is steady and one-dimensional.
2) The fin material is homogeneous and isotropic.
3) There is no energy generation in the fin.
4) The convective environment is characterized by a uniform and constant heat transfer
coefficient and temperature.
5) The fin has a constant thermal conductivity.
6) The contact between the base of the fin and the primary surface is perfect.
7) The fin has a constant base temperature.

Fig. 2.8: Longitudinal fins of (a) rectangular, (b) trapezoidal, (c) triangular, (d) concave
parabolic, and (e) convex parabolic profiles.
Note that:
 First, the fin effectiveness is enhanced by choosing a material with high thermal
conductivity. Copper has a high value (k = 401 W/m ·K at 300K), but it is heavy and
expensive. Aluminum alloys have lower k (k = 168 to 237 W/m·K at 300 K) but are
lighter, offer lower cost, and in most instances are preferable to copper.
 Second, the fins are more effective when the convecting fluid is a gas (low h) rather
than a liquid (higher h). Moreover, there is a greater incentive to use the fin under
natural convection (lower h) than under forced convection (higher h).

 Third, the greater the perimeter/area (P/A) ratio, the higher the effectiveness. This, in
turn, suggests the use of thin, closely spaced fins. However, the gap between adjacent
fins must be sufficient to prevent interference of the boundary layers on adjacent
surfaces.
2.8.2.Radial Convecting Fins

The radial fin is also referred to as an annular fin or circumferential fin, and the
performance of three radial fin profiles is considered. These are the rectangular, triangular,
and hyperbolic profiles.
(a) rectangular profile (b) Triangular profile (b) Hyperbolic profile

Fig. 2.9 : Radial (annular) fins.
2.8.3.Convecting Spines
Four commonly used shapes of spines, shown in Fig. 2.10, are the cylindrical, conical,
concave parabolic, and convex parabolic.
The classical fin or spine optimization involves finding the profile so that for a prescribed
volume, the fin or spine rate of heat transfer is maximized. Such optimizations result in
profiles with curved boundaries that are difficult and expensive to fabricate. From a practical
point of view, a better approach is to select the profile first and then find the optimum
dimensions so that for a given profile area or volume, the fin or spine rate of heat transfer is
maximized.

The material presented here is but a small fraction of the large body of literature on the
subject of extended surfaces.
Fig. 2.10: Spines: (a) cylindrical; (b) conical;

(c) concave parabolic; (d) convex parabolic.
2.9. Solved Problems:

Problem (1)
Calculate the heat loss per m2 of a surface area for an insulating wall composed of 25.4 mm-
thick fiber insulating board, where the inside temperature is 352.7 K and the outside
temperature is 297.1 K. Take the thermal conductivity of fiber insulating board as 0.048
W/m.K
Solution
T
Since Q  kA
x
Q T 0.048(352.7  297.1)
k   105.1W / m2
A x 0.0254
Problem (2)
Calculate the rate of heat loss for a red brick wall of length 5 m height 4 m and thickness 0.25
m. The temperature of the inner surface 110 oC and the outer surface is 40 oC. The thermal
conductivity of red brick, k = 0.7 W/mK.
Calculate also the temperature at an interior point of the wall, 20 cm distance from the inner
wall.
Solution
T 0.7  (5  4)(110  40)

Q  kA   3920 W  3.92 kW
x 0.25
T
Since Q  kA
x
0.7  (5  4)(110  Tx0.2 )
 3920 
0.20
56  110  Tx0.2
Tx  0.2  110  56  54 oC
Problem (3)
A hollow cylinder 5 cm I.D. and 10 cm O.D. has an inner surface temperature of 200 oC and
an outer surface temperature of 100 oC. Determine the temperature of the point half way
between the inner and the outer surfaces. If the thermal conductivity of the cylindrical
material is 70 W/mK. Determine the heat flow through the cylinder per linear meter.
Solution
2kL(T1  T2 )
Qcond,cyl 
ln r2 r1 
2(3.14)(70)(1)(200  100 )
Qcond,cyl   63421 W / m
ln 5 2.5
At half way, the radius = 2.5 + 2.5/2 = 3.75 cm

Since Q remains the same
2kL(T1  T2 )
Qcond,cyl 
ln r2 r1 
2(3.14)(70)(1)(200  Ti )
63421 
ln 3.75 2.5
Ti  141.5 oC
Problem (4)
A hollow sphere 10 cm I.D. and 30 cm O.D. of a material having thermal conductivity 50
W/mK is used as a container for liquid chemical mixture. Its inner and outer surface
temperatures are 300 oC and 100 oC respectively. Determine the heat flow rate through the
sphere. Also determine the temperature at a point a quarter of the way between the inner and
outer surfaces.
Solution
4  k r1 r2 (T1  T2 )
 Qcond,sph 
r2  r1
4 (3.14)(50)( 0.05)(0.15 )(300  100)
 Qcond,sph   9420 W
0.15  0.05
The value of the radius at one-fourth way of the inner and outer surfaces is
r = 5 + 10/4 = 7.5 cm
Since Q remains the same
4 (3.14)(50)( 0.075)(0.0 5)(300  Ti )

9420 
0.075  0.05
Ti  200 oC
Problem (5)

A wall of 0.5 m thickness is to be constructed from a material which has an average thermal
conductivity of 1.4 W/mK. The wall is to be insulated with a material having an average
thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/mK so that the heat loss per square meter will not exceed
1450 W. Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperatures are 1200 oC and 15 oC
respectively, calculate the thickness of insulation required.
Solution
Ttotal
Q
R total
Ttotal T1  T2
Q 
R total L1 k1  L2 k 2
1200  15
1450 
0.5 1.4  L2 0.35
0.8172  0.3571  L2 0.35
0.4601  L2 0.35
L2  0.161 m
Problem (6)
A steel pipe line (k = 50 W/mK) of I.D. 100 mm and O.D. 110 mm is to be covered with two
layers of insulation each having a thickness of 50 mm. The thermal conductivity of the first
insulation material is 0.06 W/mK and that of the second is 0.12 W/mK. Calculate the loss of
heat per meter length of pipe and the interface temperature between the two layers of
insulation when the temperature of the inside tube surface is 250 oC and that of the outside
surface of the insulation is 50 oC.
Solution

T
Qcond,cyl 
Rtotal,cyl
r3 r4
ln r2 r1  ln r3 r2  ln r4 r3 
r2
Rtotal, cyl    r1 T4
2 k1L 2 k2 L 2 k2 L
T3
T2
T1
r 1 = 50 mm; r 2 = 55 mm; r 3 = 105 mm; r 4 = 155 mm
T1 = 250 oC; T4 = 50 oC; T3 ?
k1 = 50 W/mK; k2 = 0.06 W/mK; k3 = 0.12 W/mK.
Q 2 (T1  T4 )

L ln r2 r1   ln r3 r2   ln r4 r3 
k1 k2 k3
Q 2(3.14)(250  50)
  89.6 W / m
L ln 55 50   ln 105 55  ln 155 105 
50 0.06 0.12
The interface temperature T3 is obtained as following
2(3.14)(250  T3 )
89.6 
ln 55 50  ln 105 55

50 0.06
T3  96.3 oC
Problem (7)
If the order of insulation materials for the steel pipe in problem # 6 were reversed, that is the
insulation with a higher value of thermal conductivity was put first. Calculate the change in
heat loss with all other conditions remaining unchanged. Comment also on the result.
Solution
Now, the new values of k2 and k3 are :

k2 = 0.12 W/mK; k3 = 0.06 W/m K.
Q 2(3.14)(250  50)
  105 .75 W / m
L ln 55 50   ln 105 55  ln 155 105 
50 0.12 0.06
Comment
 Comparing this result with that of problem (5), it is seen that the loss of heat is
increased by about 18.11%.
 Since the purpose of insulation is to reduce the loss of heat, it is always better to
provide the insulating material with low thermal conductivity on the surface of the
tube first.
Problem (8)
A hollow sphere is made up of two materials; first with k = 70 W/m K is having an I.D. of
10 cm and O.D. of 30 cm; the second with k = 15 W/m K forms the outer layer with O.D. of
40 cm. The inside and outside temperatures are 300 oC and 30 oC, respectively. Estimate the
rate of heat flow through this sphere assuming perfect contact between two materials.
Solution
T
Qcond,sph 
Rtotal, sph
 r r   r r 
Rtotal,sph   2 1    3 2 
 4  k1 r2 r1   4  k 2 r3 r2 
 0.15  0.05   0.2  0.15 
Rtotal,sph       0.024
 4  ( 70)(0.15)( 0.05)   4  (15)(0.2)(0 .15) 

300  30
Q  11245 W
0.024
Problem (9)
An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m layer of common brick (k = 0.7
W/m oC) followed by a 0.04 m layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m oC). What thickness of
loosely packed rock wool insulation ( k = 0.065 W/m oC) should be added to reduce the heat
loss through the wall by 80 percent?
Solution
Case (1): Rock wool insulation not used

Ttotal Ttotal A.Ttotal
Q1   
R total R1  R2  L A  L B
k A kB
Ttotal A.Ttotal
Q1  
R total 0.1 0.04

0.7 0.48

Case (2): Rock wool insulation used

Ttotal Ttotal A.Ttotal
Q2   
R total R1  R2  R3  L A  L B  LC
k A kB kB
Ttotal A.Ttotal
Q2  
R total 0.1 0.04 x
 
0.7 0.48 0.065
Since
Q2  0.2Q1
Then
A.Ttotal A.Ttotal
 0.2 
0.1 0.04 x 0.1 0.04
  
0.7 0.48 0.065 0.7 0.48
1 0.2

0.1 0.04 x 0.1 0.04
  
0.7 0.48 0.065 0.7 0.48
 0.1 0.04 x  0.1 0.04

0.2      
 0.7 0.48 0.065  0.7 0.48
 0.02 0.008 0.2 x  0.1 0.04

 0.7  0.48  0.065   0.7  0.48
0.0286  0.0167  3.0769x  0.1429  0.0833

3.0769 x  0.1809
x  0.059m  59 mm

Problem (10)
A furnace wall is composed of 220 mm of fire brick (k = 4 kJ/m h oC), 150 mm of common
brick (k = 2.8 kJ/m h oC) , 50 mm of 85% magnesia (k = 0.24 kJ/m h oC) and 3 mm of steel
plate (k = 240 kJ/m h oC) on the outside. If the inside surface temperature is 1500 oC and
outside surface temperature is 90 oC.
1) Calculate the heat loss in kJ/h.m2
2) Estimate the temperatures between layers
Solution
(1) The heat loss

Ttotal
Q
R total
Ttotal
Q
( RA  RB  RC  RD )

A.Ttotal
Q
L A L B LC L D
  
k A kB k A kB
L A L B LC L D
R total    
k A kB k A kB
0.220 0.150 0.05 0.003

R total    
4 2.8 0.24 240
R total  0.055  0.0536  0.2083  1.25 10 5
R total  0.3169 m2 hoC / kJ

Ttotal 1500  90
Q   4449 .1 kJ / hm2
R total 0.3169
(2) Temperatures between layers

T4-T5
Q
RD
T4  T5  Q.R D
T4  90  (4449 .1)(1.25 10 5 )  90.0566 oC
Similarly
T3  T4  Q.R C
T3  90.0566  (4449 .1)(0.2083)  1016 .8 oC
T2  T3  Q.R B

T2  1016 .8  (4449 .1)(0.0536 )  1255 .3 oC
T1  T2  Q.R A
T1  1255 .3  (4449 .1)(0.055)  1500 oC
Problem (11)
Compute the heat loss per square meter surface area of a 40 cm thick furnace wall having
surface temperature of 300 oC and 50 oC if the thermal conductivity k of the wall material is
given by
k  0.005 T  5 10 6 T 2
Solution
dT
 Q  kA
dx
L T2
  Q dx    kAdT
0 T1
L T2
Q  dx   A  (0.005 T  5  10 6 T 2 )dT
0 T1
300
Q 1 T 2 5 10 6 3 
   0.005  T 
A L 2 3  50
Q 1  0.005 5  10 6 3 
  2
 2
 3

A 0.4  2
(300 50 ) (300 50 )
3 
Q
  435 W / m2
A
Problem (12)

The inside and outside surface of a hollow sphere ar b at r = a and r = b are
maintained at temperature T1 and T2 respectively. The thermal conductivity varies with
temperatures as
k (T )  k0 (1  T  T 2 )
Derive an expression for total heat flow rate, Q, through the sphere.
Solution
dT dT
Q  k A Q   4 k r2
dx dr
dr
Q   4  k dT
r2
Substitute for k and perform integration as following
b 2 T
dr
Q  2   4  k 0  (1  T  T 2 ) dT
a
r T1
T2
 T3 
b
1  T2
 Q     4  k0 T    
r a  2 3 T
1
ba    
Q  4  k0 (T1  T2 )  (T12  T22 )  (T13  T23 )
ab  2 3 
4  k0 ab   2  3 3 
Q (T  T )  (T  T 2
)  (T  T )
b  a 
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 3 
4  k0 a b    
Q (T1  T2 ) 1  (T1  T2 )  (T12  T1T2  T22 
ba  2 3 
Problem (13)
The door of a cold storage plant is made from two 6 mm thick glass sheets separated by a
uniform air gap of 2 mm. The temperature of the air inside the room is -20 oC and the ambient

air temperature is 30 oC. Assuming the heat transfer coefficient between glass and air to be
23.26 W/m2K. Determine the rate of the heat leaking into the room per unit area of the door.
Neglect convection effects in the air gap. kglass = 0.75 W/mK and kair = 0.02 W/mK
Solution
Air gap
Tb= -20 oC Ta= 30 oC
Glass sheets
Ta  Tb
Since; Q 
R
For A = 1m2
1 L1 L2 L3 1
R  h    
k1 k2 k3 hb
a
1 0.006 0.002 0.006 1

 R  23.26  
0.75 0.02
 
0.75 23.26
 0.202
30  (20)
 Q  247.5 W / m2
0.202
Problem (14)
Determine the heat transfer through the composite wall shown in the following figure. Take
the conductivities of A, B, C, D and E as 50, 10, 6.67, 20 and 30 W/mK respectively and
assume one dimensional heat transfer

T1 = 800 oC B T2 = 100 oC
A A = 1 m2
Q D E
C
5 cm 10 cm 5 cm 5 cm
RB
RA RD RE
T1 T2
RC
Solution
L 0.05
RA    0.001 K / W
kA 50  1
L 0.1
RB    0.02 K / W
kA 10  0.5
L 0.1
RC    0.03 K / W
kA 6.67  0.5
L 0.05
RD    0.0025 K / W
kA 20 1
L 0.05
RE    0.0017 K / W
kA 30 1
The equivalent resistance for RB and RC is

1 1 1
   83.33
RB,C 0.02 0.03

 RB,C  0.012
R  R A  R B ,C  R D  R E
 R  0.001  0.012  0.0025  0.0017  0.0172 K /W
T1  T2 800  100
Q    4.07  10 4 W
 R 0.0172
Problem (15)
a) A steam boiler furnace is made of a layer of fireclay 12.5 cm thick and a layer of red
brick 50 cm thick. If the wall temperature inside the boiler furnace is 1100°C and that
on the outside wall is 50°C, determine the amount of heat loss per square meter of the
furnace wall. (k for fireclay = 0.533 W/mK and k for red brick = 0.7 W/mK)
b) It is desired to reduce the thickness of the red brick layer in this furnace to half by
filling in the space between the two layers by diatomite whose (k = 0.261W/mK).
Calculate the thickness of the filling to ensure an identical loss of heat for the same
outside and inside temperatures.
Solution
(a)
Red brick
T1= 1100 oC
T2
T3= 50 oC
Fire clay
12.5 50 cm
cm
2
For A= 1 m

L1 0.125
R1    0.2345 K / W
k1 0.533
L2 0.5
R2    0.7143 K / W
k 2 0.7
R  R 1  R2
 R  0.2345  0.7143  0.9488 K /W
T1  T3 1100  50
Q   1106 .7 W / m 2
 R 0.9488
(b)
The heat loss remains unchanged.
The inside and outside temperatures also remain unchanged.
Therefore:
Red brick
Diatomite
T1= 1100 oC
T2
T3
T4= 50 oC
Fire clay
12.5 L2 cm 25 cm
cm
For the first Layer
T1  T2
 Q
R1
1100  T2
1106 .7  T2  840.5 o C
0.2345

For the third Layer

T3  T4 L3 0.25
also Q  ; Where R3    0.3571 K / W
R3 k2 0.7
T3  50
1106 .7 
0.3571
T3  455.2 oC
For the second Layer

T2  T3 L2 L
also Q  Where R2   2
R2 k 2 0.261
840 .5  455 .2
1106 .7 
L2 / 0.261
L2  0.0909 m ; L2  90.9 mm
Problem (16)
Steam at T∞,1 = 320 °C flows in a cast iron pipe (k = 80 W/ m.°C) whose inner and outer
diameter are D1 = 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with a 3‐cm thick
glass wool insulation (k = 0.05 W/ m.°C). Heat is lost to the surroundings at T∞,2 = 5°C by
natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18
W/m2.°C. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60 W/m2K, determine
the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the pipe. Also determine the temperature
drop across the pipe shell and the insulation.
Solution
A1  D1 L  (3.14)(0.05)(1)  0.157 m 2
A3  D3 L  (3.14)(0.115)(1)  0.361 m2

1 1
Rconv,1    0.106 o C / W
h1 A1 (60)(0.157 )

ln( r2 / r1 ) ln( 2.75 / 2.5)

Rcond,1    0.0002 o C / W
2k1 L (2)(3.14)(80)(1)
ln( r3 / r2 ) ln( 5.75 / 2.75)
Rcond, 2    2 .35 o C / W
2k 2 L (2)(3.14)(0.05)(1)
1 1
Rconv, 2    0.154 o C / W
h2 A3 (18)(0.361)
 R  0.106  0.0002  2.35  0.154  2.61 o

C /W
T 320 - 5
Q   120.7 W ( per meter pipe length)
 R 2.61
The temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation are:
Tpipe Tpipe
Q   120.7 
Rcond,1 0.0002
T pipe  0.02 o C
Tinsulation Tinsulation
Q   120.7 
Rcond, 2 2.35
 Tinsulation  283.5 oC
Problem (17)
A square cupper plate with 20 cm side length; is exposed to water. The plate surface
temperature is 85˚C and its thermal conductivity is 3.77 W/m.˚C. if the water temperature is
20˚C and the convection coefficient from one side is 25 W/m².˚C and 85 W/m².˚C from the

opposite side. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate thickness is 2 cm. Solve the problem by
using:
a.) Total resistance (Rtotal)
b.) Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and Rtotal
Solution:
a.) Total resistance (Rtotal)
T
Q
R
1 L 1
Rtotal   
hi A kA ho A
1 0.20 1
Rtotal     1.43
25  0.04 3.77  0.04 85  0.04
T 85  20
Q   45.5 W
Rtotal 1.43
b.) Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and Rtotal
Q  UAT
1 1
U  UA 
A R R
1 L 1
Rtotal   
hi A kA ho A
1 0.20 1
Rtotal     1.43
25  0.04 3.77  0.04 85  0.04
1 1
UA    0.699
1.43 Rtotal

Q  UAT  0.699  (85  20)  45.6 W

Or
1 1
UA    A R
Rtotal U
1 1 x 1  1  1 0.02 1 
           0.057 m 2 K / W
U  hi k ho  U  25 3.77 85 
U  17.54 W / m 2 K
Q  UAT  17.54  0.04  (85  20)  45.6 W
2.10. Sheet Two: Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction

1. A copper plate with 1.5cm thick is maintained at 150˚C and the other face is maintained at
75˚C. Calculate the heat transfer where the thermal conductivity of copper is 150 W/m.˚C
and the surface area is 2m². (ans: 1.5x105 W)
2. One face of Copper plate is maintained at 400˚C with thermal conductivity is 370W/m.˚C.
The heat transfer through the plate is 3.7x106 W. Calculate the temperature for the other
face if the plate has 1m² for the surface area and 3cm thickness. (ans: 100 oC)
3. One plate of copper is maintained at 300˚C with 12cm thick and 120W/m.˚C thermal
conductivity is jointed with Aluminum plat which has 200W/m.˚C and 6cm for thermal
conductivity and thickness, respectively. If the outside temperature is 75˚C and assumes
that the heat transfer area is 0.01m². Calculate:
a. The heat loss through the wall. (ans: 1730.8 W)
b. The temperature interface between both plates. (ans: 126.9 oC)
4. The thermal resistance for Aluminum plate is 17˚C/W and the heat transfer through the
plate is 20W. Find the outside temperature if the inner temperature is 400˚C?
(ans: 60 oC)
5. The thermal resistance of Glass pipe is 0.75˚C/W. Calculate the length of the pipe if the
inner diameter is 4cm and the outer diameter is 6cm. (k = 0.122W/m. ˚C). (ans: 70.6 cm)
6. A copper pipe (k= 122W/m. ˚C) with 4cm inner diameter (ID) and 6cm outer diameter
(OD) and 2m long. If the inside wall temperature is 75˚C and the outside wall temperature
is 25˚C, calculate:
a. The heat transfer through the wall. (ans: 1.89x105 W)
b. The thermal resistance of the pipe. (ans: 2.65x10-4 oC/W)
7. A large plate with 2m² is exposed to a source heat. The heat transfer through the plat is
500W and the thermal conductivity is 1.2W/m.˚C. Calculate the plate’s thickness if the
difference temperature between both faces is 20˚C. (ans: 9.6 cm)

8. A spherical ball has 3cm internal diameter and its inner surface temperature is 250˚C and
the outer surface temperature is 30˚C. Calculate the outer diameter of the ball if the heat
loss from the ball is 1600W and has 2.75W/m.˚C thermal conductivity. (ans: 3.21 cm)
9. A copper pipe with thermal conductivity is 35 W/m.˚C and 3cm inner diameter and 5cm
outer diameter is covered with 3cm layer of insulation material of thermal conductivity
0.6W/m.˚C. If the inside pipe temperature is maintained at 300˚C and the outside wall
temperature is 75˚C. Calculate;
a. The heat loss per unit length. (ans: 1063.5 W/m)
b. The heat loss if the pipe length is 2m. (ans: 2126.9 W)
10. A spherical stainless steel with internal diameter 3cm and the external diameter is 4 cm
K 1  
 120W / m.o C . It covers with 2cm layer concrete material K 2  1W / m.o C . 
Calculate the heat loss if the inside temperature is 120˚C and the outside temperature is
35˚C. (ans: 42.5 W)
11. Calculate the rate of heat loss for a red brick wall of length 6 m height 5 m and thickness
0.30 m. The temperature of the inner surface 120 oC and the outer surface is 40 oC. The
thermal conductivity of red brick, k = 0.7 W/mK. Calculate also the temperature at an
interior point of the wall, 25 cm distance from the inner wall.
(ans: Follow the same steps of problem 2)
12. A hollow cylinder 15 cm I.D. and 20 cm O.D. has an inner surface temperature of 250 oC
and an outer surface temperature of 100 oC. Determine the temperature of the point half
way between the inner and the outer surfaces. If the thermal conductivity of the cylindrical
material is 70 W/mK. Determine the heat flow through the cylinder per linear meter.
13. A hollow sphere 15 cm I.D. and 30 cm O.D. of a material having thermal having thermal
conductivity 50 W/mK is used as a container for liquid chemical mixture. Its inner and
outer surface temperatures are 250 oC and 100 oC respectively. Determine the heat flow

rate through the sphere. Also determine the temperature at a point a quarter of the way
between the inner and outer surfaces. (ans: Follow the same steps of problem 4)
14. A wall of 0.6 m thickness is to be constructed from a material which has an average
thermal conductivity of 1.5 W/mK. The wall is to be insulated with a material having an
average thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/mK so that the heat loss per square meter will not
exceed 1500 W. Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperatures are 1250 oC and
25 oC respectively, calculate the thickness of insulation required.
15. A steel pipe line (k = 50 W/mK) of I.D. 120 mm and O.D. 130 mm is to be covered with
two layers of insulation each having a thickness of 50 mm. The thermal conductivity of
the first insulation material is 0.075 W/mK and that of the second is 0.15 W/mK.
Calculate the loss of heat per meter length of pipe and the interface temperature between
the two layers of insulation when the temperature of the inside tube surface is 300 oC and
that of the outside surface of the insulation is 50 oC.
16. If the order of insulation materials for the steel pipe in problem # 15 were reversed, that is
the insulation with a higher value of thermal conductivity was put first. Calculate the
change in heat loss with all other conditions remaining unchanged. Common also on the
result. (ans: Follow the same steps of problem 7)
17. A hollow sphere is made up of two materials; first with k = 72 W/m K is having an I.D.
of 15 cm and O.D. of 30 cm; the second with k = 12 W/m K forms the outer layer with
O.D. of 40 cm. The inside and outside temperatures are 250 oC and 25 oC, respectively.
Estimate the rate of heat flow through this sphere assuming perfect contact between two
materials.
18. A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber having an inside radius of 5 mm and an
outside radius of 20 mm is being used as a temporary cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is
flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall temperature is 274.9 K. The outside surface

temperature is 297.1 K. A total of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the cooling
coil. How many meters of tubing are needed?. Take the thermal conductivity 0.151
W/m.K.
(ans: 0.965 m)
19. A cold-storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a middle layer
of 101.6 mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2 mm of concrete. The wall surface
temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room and 297.1 K at the outside surface of the
concrete. Use conductivities for pine, 0.151; for cork board, 0.0433; and for concrete,
0.762 W/m- K. Calculate the heat loss in W for 1 m2 and the temperature at the interface
between the wood and cork board. (ans: -16.48 W, 256.79 K)
20. A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (A) having a k = 21.63 W/m· K with dimensions of
0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 m OD is covered with a 0.0254-m-thick layer of an insulation
(B), k = 0.2423 W/m . K. The inside-wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the outside
surface of the insulation is at 310.8 K. For a 0.305-m length of pipe, calculate the heat loss
and also the temperature at the interface between the metal and the insulation.
(ans: 331.7 W, 805.5 K)
Chapter Three: Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer

3.1. Introduction
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. As shown in Fig. (3.1),
Energy is transferred by convection between the solid’s surfaces and the flowing fluid. The
temperature of the film layer of fluid increases. The rate of convection heat transfer is
observed to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by
Newton’s law
Qconv  hAT  hATS  T fluid  (3.1)

1
Rconv 
hA
Where;
h: film coefficient of convective heat transfer, W/m2K;
A: heat transfer surface area, m2
Ts: solid surface temperature, oC or K
Tfluid: flowing fluid temperature, oC or K
T: temperature difference, oC or K
Rconv : Thermal resistance for convection, oC/W
The convection coefficient (h) is not property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all variables influencing convection such as the surface
geometry, roughness of the solid surface, the nature of fluid motion (natural or forced), the
properties of the fluid and the bulk fluid velocity (laminar or turbulent).

Flowing fluid
Fluid film adjacent

to surface
Stationary Solid Surface Q
Fig. (3. 1): Heat transfer by convection
It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, this assumption is called no-slip
condition. As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the
surface is by pure conduction, since the fluid is motionless. Thus, the convection heat transfer
coefficient, in general, varies along the flow direction. The mean or average convection heat
transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by (properly) averaging the local heat transfer
coefficient over the entire surface.
Before using the equation (3.1) to evaluate the convective heat transfer, the fluid flow regime
has to be identified; whether it is laminar, transitional or turbulent.
Laminar flow of the fluid is encountered at Re < 2100. Turbulent flow is normally at Re >
4000. Sometimes when Re >2100 the fluid flow regime is considered to be turbulent.
If we have a round tube with a liquid flowing in it at a steady state, and if we injected a dye
trace with a needle parallel to the axis of the tube, one of two things can happen:
a.) The dye trace may be smoothly down the tube as a well-defined line, only very
slowly becoming thicker which called laminar flow, as shown in Fig. (3.2).
b.) The dye trace may flow irregularly down the tube moving back and forth across the
diameter of the tube and eventually becoming completely dispersed which called
turbulent flow as shown in Fig. (3.2).

(a) Laminar flow (b) Transition flow (c) Turbulent flow

Fig. (3.2) Types of flow according to Reynold’s Experiment
Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how
the fluid motion is initiated as shown in Fig. (3.3).
1. Natural convection:
Natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces due to density differences caused by
temperature variations in the fluid. At heating the density change in the boundary layer
will cause the fluid to rise and replaced by cooler fluid that also will heat and rise
2. Forced convection:
Forced convection occurs when a fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a
pump, fan or a mixer.
Warmer air 20 oC
rising
Q 5 m/s Q
Air
Air
Free (Natural) Convection ForcedConvection

Fig. (3.3): Forced and Free (Natural) Convection
In practice, film heat transfer coefficients (h) are generally calculated from
empirical equations obtained by correlating experimental data with the aid of
dimensional analysis.

Example 3.1
A fluid flows through a long pipe 2 m and 0.5 m diameter. The surface and fluid temperature
is 55˚C and 25˚C, respectively. Calculate the convection heat transfer if the coefficient
convection is 33W/m².K.
Solution:
From Newton’s law
Qconv  hAT  hATS  T fluid 

Qconv  h  ( D L)TS  T fluid 
Qconv  33  (3.14)  (0.5)  (2)  (55  25)  3108 .6 W  3.11 kW
3.2. Bulk and Film Temperature

The rate of convective heat transfer (Q) , from a solid surface to a surrounding fluid as shown
in Fig. (3.4) has given by:
Qconv  hAT  hATsurface  T fluid 
TFluid
TS TFluid
TS >TFluid
Fig. (3.4): Convective heat transfer from a solid surface ( Ts ) to surrounding fluid T f
Where,
h = average convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2.K)
A = surface area for convective heat transfer, m2
Ts = surface temperature of the solid surface, K
Tf = fluid temperature, K

However, in the case of flow thru ducts or pipes, it is more convenient to use the bulk temp.,
Tb instead of free-stream temperature, T f . The bulk temperature (Tb) is the mean temperature
of the fluid at a given cross-section of the tube. In engineering practice, the bulk temperature
is equated to the simple approximate average value:
Tinlet, f  Toutlet, f
Tb  (3.2)
2
It is used to calculate the average heat transfer coefficients.
Film temperature for fluids flowing thru tubes of ducts, it is the temperature of the fluid film
adjacent to the heating surface. It is the average of the temperature of the heating surface and
the free-stream temperature of the fluid, Fig. (3.5).
Ts  T f
T film  (3.3)
2
Fluid film Flow Tbulk Tfilm
Tube
Fig. (3.5): Film and bulk temperature
3.3. Dimensionless Groups

Many of the generalized relationships used in convective heat-transfer calculations have been
determined by means of dimensional analysis and empirical considerations. It has been found
that certain standard dimensionless groups appear repeatedly in the final equations. Some of
the most common dimensionless groups are given below with their names:
DV DV
Reynolds number ( Re)  
 

C p .
Prandtl number ( Pr) 
k
h.D
Nusselt number ( Nu) 
k
DVC p
Peclet number ( Pe)   Re.Pr
k
D 3  2 g  T D 3 g  T
Grashof number (Gr)  
2 2
Where in the SI system:

D: Pipe diameter, m
V: fluid velocity, m/s
: Fluid density, kg/m3
µ: Fluid dynamic viscosity, N.s/m2 or kg/m.s
: Fluid kinematic viscosity, m2/s
k: fluid thermal conductivity, W/mK
h: convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
cp: fluid specific heat capacity, J/kg.K
g: acceleration of gravity, m/s2
1
ß: cubical coefficient of expansion of the fluid = , K–1
Tav
Tav: is the average absolute temperature of the fluid
T: temperature difference between surface & fluid, K
The magnitudes of the above dimensionless groups are the same in all systems of units
provided consistent units are used.

The characteristic dimension L, D in Reynolds, Nusselt or Grashof number is defined

depending on the situation. For a fluid flowing in a tube, its diameter D is used. For a plate, L
is used.
Note that:
 Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow, and is a strong function of
temperature.
 Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a
result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.
 Reynolds number: is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid
 The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical
Reynolds number. For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to be
approximately Re critical = 5 x105.
 Prandtl number: is a measure of relative thickness of the velocity and thermal
boundary layer
 The heat transfer coefficient is calculated from relationships of the form:
Nu  f (Re , Pr) or Nu  f (Gr,Pr)

 The Grashof number in natural convection plays the role of the Reynolds number in
forced convection.
3.4. Forced Convection

Calculate the Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient Using Empirical Relationships
Correlations for a large number of geometrical configurations and conditions are presented in
the engineering literature. Equations for some of the more important cases are presented
below. It should be kept in mind that each of these equations does not represent a new
theoretical principle that must be understood and memorized. It is simply a question of
selecting the appropriate equation for the particular case.

3.4.1. Laminar flow in tubes.

An average Nusselt number between entry and distance L from entry is given by
0.14
  
1/ 3
d  
Nud  1.86(Red .Pr)1/3   (3.4)
L  w 
All physical properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature between entry
and L, with the exception of µw which is at the wall temperature, and the equation is valid for
heating and cooling in the range
Red .Pr  d   10

L
Note that:
 Equation (3.4) is one correlation among many others available in the textbooks for
a large variety of conditions. For more details, please, refer to heat transfer
textbooks
3.4.2. Turbulent flow in tubes.

For fluids with a Prandtl number near unity, and only moderate temperature differences
between the fluid and the wall, (5 oC for liquids, 55 oC for gases), One correlation (among
many!) for forced convection fully developed turbulent flow inside smooth tubes is given by
Dittus and Boelter:
Nud  0.023(Red ) 0.8 Pr 

n
(3.5)
Where n = 0.4 for heating, and 0.3 for cooling, and Red > 10,000. This is for fully developed
flow, i.e., (L/d) > 60, and all fluid properties are at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature.

3.4.3. Laminar flow along flat plates.

For this type of flow, ReL < 500,000 and the following equation is used
NuL  0.664(ReL )0.5 Pr

1/3
(3.6)
3.4.4. Transition flow along flat plates.

For this type of flow, 5x105 ≤ ReL ≤ 107

NuL  0.037Re 0.8
L  871 (Pr)
1/3
 (3.7)
3.4.5. Turbulent flow along flat plates.

For this type of flow, ReL > 107
NuL  0.037 (Pr)1/3 Re0.8

L (3.8)
Note that:
 Fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature.
 As stated before, all the above mentioned equations are the selected correlations
among many others available in the textbooks.
 Heat transfer textbooks contain many relations under large variety of conditions
Example 3.2
Engine oil at 60°C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C with a velocity
of 2 m/s. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit width of the entire plate. The properties
of the oil at the film temperature (40 oC) are:
 = 876 kg/m3; Pr = 2870

o
ν = 242 x 10-6 m2/ s; k = 0.144 W/m C

Solution
The film temperature is:
Ts  T 20  60
Tf    40 oC
2 2
uL 25
Re    4.13  10 4
 242  10 6
Which; is less than the critical Re.
So we have forced convection at laminar flow, over a flat plate and Eq. (3.6) will be used
Nu  0.664 Re0.5 Pr1/ 3  0.664 (4.13  10 4 ) 0.5 (2870) 1/ 3  1917 .7

hL
 Nu 
k
k (0.144)(1917 .7) o
h Nu   55.2 W / m 2 C
L 5
Q  h A(T  Ts )  (55.2) (5  1)(40)  11040 W
Example 3.3
Air at a temperature of 30 oC and 6 kPa pressure flow with a velocity of 10 m/s over a flat
plate 0.5 m long. Estimate the heat transferred per unit width of the plate needed to maintain
its surface at a temperature of 45 oC.
The properties of air at 37.5 oC (310K) and 1 atm are:
ν = 16.95 x10-6 m2/s, k = 0.027 W/m. C,
Pr = 0.7055, Cp = 1007.4 J/kg. oC
Solution

The properties (k, Pr, cp, and μ) may be air T∞ = 30 oC

assumed to be independent of pressure.
u ∞ = 10 m/s
However, for an ideal gas, the kinematic
viscosity is inversely proportional to pressure, Ts = 45 oC
thus we must perform correction for the x
L = 0.5 m
kinematic viscosity.
The kinematic viscosity of air at 37.5 oC (310 K) and P = 6 kN/m2 is
101.3
  16.95  10 6   2.862  10 4 m 2 / s
6
To determine the appropriate convection correlation for computing, the Reynolds number
must first be determined
u L 10  0.5
Re    17470
 2.862  10 4
Hence the flow is laminar because Re ≤ 500, 000 over the entire plate and the appropriate
correlation is given by Equation 3.6.
Nu  0.664 (Re)0.5 Pr

1/3
(3.6)
Nu  0.664 (17470) 0.5 0.7055   75.8

1/3
hD
 75.8
k
75.8  0.027
h  4.09 W / m2 .o C
0.5
Then the total heat transfer rate per unit width of plate is
Q  h L(T  Ts )  (4.09)(0.5)(45  30)  30.7 W / m

Example 3.4
Water at 25 oC is in parallel flow over an isothermal, 1-m long flat plate with velocity of 2
m/s. Calculate the value of average heat transfer coefficient.
The properties of water at 25 oC are:
ν = 8.57 x10-7 m2/s, k = 0.613 W/m. C, Pr = 5.83; Cp = 4180 J/kg. oC
Solution
u L 2 1
Re    2.33  10 6
 8.57  10 7
The flow is mixed because 500000 ≤ Re ≤ 700000 (Transition flow). By using the equation
(3.7)
Nu  (0.037 Re0.8  871) Pr1/3
Nu  [0.037 (2.33  10 -6 ) 0.8  871][ (5.83) 1/3 ]  6698.6

hD
 6698 .6
k
6698 .6  0.631
h  4226 .8 W / m2 .o C
1
Example 3.5
Air at 25 oC flows past a flat plate at 2.5 m/s. the plate measures 600 mm x 300 mm and is
maintained at a uniform temperature at 95 oC. Calculate the heat loss from the plate, if the air
flows parallel to the 600 mm side. How this heat loss would be affected if the flow of air is
made parallel to the 300 mm side.
Take properties of air at Tf = 60 oC as:
ν = 18.97 x10-6 m2/s, k = 0.02896 W/m. C, Pr = 0.696
Find
(i) Q if air flows parallel to 600 mm side
(ii) Q if air flows parallel to 300 mm side and % of heat loss.

Solution
(i) If L = 0.6 and W = 0.3 (parallel to 600 mm side)
Tw  T 95  25
Tf    60 o C
2 2
V .L (2.5)(0.6)
Re    7.91  10 4
 18.97  10 6
This regime of heat transfer is forced convection over a flat plate at a laminar flow. Thus
equation (3.6) is used
Nu  0.664 (Re)0.5 Pr

1/3
(3.6)
Nu  0.664(7.91  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.696)1 / 3  165.5
k 0.02896  165.5
h Nu   7.99
L 0.6
Q1  7.99  (0.6  0.3) (95  25)  100.67 W
(ii) If L = 0.3 and W = 0.6 (parallel to 300 mm side)

V .L (2.5)(0.3)
Re    3.95  10 4
 18.97  10 6
This regime of heat transfer is forced convection over a flat plate at a laminar flow. Thus
equation (3.6) is used
Nu  0.664 (Re)0.5 Pr

1/3
(3.6)
Nu  0.664 (3.95  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.696)1 / 3  116.95
k 0.02896  116.95 o
h Nu   11.29 W / m 2 C
L 0.3
Q2  (11.29)(0.6  0.3)(95  25)  142.25 W
Q2  Q1 142.25  100.67
% Heat Loss   100   100  41.57 %
Q1 100.67

Example 3.6
An electronic device is cooled by water flowing
through capillary holes drilled in the casing as
shown in the figure. The temperature of the device
casing is constant at 353 K. The capillary holes are
0.3 m long and 2.54x 10-3 m in diameter. If water
enters at a temperature of 333 K and flows at a
velocity of 0.2 m/s, calculate the outlet
temperature of the water.
The properties of water at 333 K

ρ = 983 kg/m3, k = 0.658 W/m oC, μ= 4.72 x 10-4 N.s/m2,
Cp = 4181 J/kg.K, Pr = 3.00
At the wall temperature of 353 K: μs = 3.52 x 10-4 N.s/m2
Solution
Note that:
We should evaluate (find out) all the properties at the average bulk temperature, but the exit
temperature is unknown..
So to simplify the solution we will be consider the properties at the inlet temperature
This heat transfer regime is forced convection inside tube, so first we have to compute the
Reynolds number as following
.u.d 983  0.2  2.54  10 3

Re    1058
 4.72  10 4
Then, calculate
d  2.54 10 3 
Re Pr  (1058 )(3)   26.9
L  0 .3 
This is > 10, (Laminar flow), so Eq. (3.4) will be used

0.14
  
1/ 3
 d
 
Nu  1.86  Re Pr 
 L  w 
1/ 3
 2.54  10 3   4.72 
0.14
Nu  1.86 1058  3      5.8

 0.3   3.52 
k
The heat-transfer coefficient is then h  Nu
D
(5.8)(0.658)
h 3
 1502 .5 W / m 2 .o C
2.54  10
The heat transfer is
Q  h A(Ts  T f )
 333  T2 
Q  (1502 .5)( )(0.00254 )(0.3)   353   (1)
 2 

The energy gained by the fluid equals m cpT
  0.2    0.00254 2  983 
m cp T  (u. A. ) cp T     4181(T2  333) (2)
 4 
Solving Eq. (1) and (2) for Tb2 gives T2  345 K
Example 3.7
Air at 200 oC is heated as it flows through a tube with a diameter of 2.54 cm at a velocity of
10 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer per unit length of tube if a constant-heat-flux condition is
maintained at the wall and the wall temperature is 220 oC. How much would the bulk
temperature increase over a 2-m length of the tube?
The properties of air at 200 oC are:
 = 1.493 kg/m3, Pr = 0.681, µ = 2.57 x 10-5 kg/m.s, k =
o
0.0386 W/m C, cp = 1.025 kJ/kg . oC

Solution
First calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent,
and then select the appropriate empirical correlation to calculate the heat transfer.
V . d (1.493)(10)(0.0254 )
Red    14756
 2.57  10 5
So; that the flow is turbulent.
Thus Eq. (3.5) is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient (note that n = 0.4 for heating).
hd
Nud   0.023 Re0.8
d Pr
0.4
 0.023 (14756) 0.8 (0.681) 0.4  42.67
k
k (0.0386 )(42.67) o
h Nud   64.85 W / m2 C
d 0.0254
The heat flow per unit length is then
Q  200  T2 
 h  d (Tw  Tb )  (64.85)  (0.0254 ) 220  
L  2 
 5.17120  0.5 T2   620.4  2.585 T2

Q
(1)
L
We can now make an energy balance to calculate the increase in bulk temperature in a 2.0-m
length of tube:

The energy gained by the fluid equals m cpT
 π 2
 Q  m C p T  ( ρV d )C p T
4
π
1.493  10   0.0254 2  1.025  103 (T2  200)  7.75(T2  200)
4
7.75 T2  1550 (2)
Then: 2  (620.4  2.585 T2 )  7.75 T2  1550
T2  216 o C
 T  16 o C
3.5. Natural Convection

Calculate the Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient Using Empirical Relationships
Natural or free convection heat transfer occurs whenever a body is placed in a fluid at a higher
or lower temperature than that of the body. As a result of the temperature difference, heat
flows between the fluid and the body and causes a change in the density of the fluid layers in
the vicinity of the surface. The difference in density leads to downward flow of the heavier
fluid and upward flow of the lighter.
If the motion of the fluid is caused solely by differences in density resulting from temperature
gradients, without the aid of a pump or a blower for example, the associated heat transfer
mechanism is called natural or free convection.
Natural-convection currents transfer internal energy stored in the fluid in essentially the same
manner as forced-convection currents. However, the intensity of the mixing motion is
generally less in natural convection, and consequently, the heat transfer coefficients are lower
than in forced convection. Fluid motion generated by natural convection may be laminar or
turbulent.
Although natural-convection heat transfer coefficients are relatively small, many devices
depend largely on this mode of heat transfer for cooling. In the electrical engineering field,
transmission lines, transformers, rectifiers, electronic devices, and electrically heated wires
such as the heating elements of an electric furnace are cooled in part by natural convection.
Also, many processing equipment and devices are cooled by free convection. Free convection
is the dominant heat flow mechanism from steam radiators, walls of buildings and steam
pipes.
For free convection heat transfer; many experiments have been performed to establish the
functional relationships for different geometric configurations convecting to various fluids.

Exact evaluation of the heat transfer coefficient for natural convection from the boundary
layer is very difficult.
Generally, it is found that
Nu  a (Gr.Pr)b (3.9)
Where a and b are constants.
3.5.1.Horizontal Cylinders.
Detailed measurements indicate that the convection coefficient varies with angular position
round a horizontal cylinder, but for design purposes values given by the following equations
are constant over the whole surface area, for cylinders of diameter, d.
For laminar flow
Nud  0.525 (Grd Pr)0.25 (3.10)
When 10 4  Grd Pr  109
For turbulent flow
Nud  0.129 (Grd Pr)0.33 (3.11)
When 109  Grd Pr  1012
3.5.2. Horizontal Flat Surfaces:

Fluid flow is most restricted in the case of horizontal surfaces, and the size of the surface has
some bearing on the experimental data. The heat transfer coefficient is likely to be more
variable over a smaller flat surface than a large one, when flow effects at the edges become
less significant.

Further, there will be a difference depending on whether the horizontal surface is above or
below the fluid. Similar, though reversed, processes take place for hot surfaces facing
upwards (i.e., cold fluid above a hot surface), and cold surfaces facing downwards (i.e., hot
fluid below a cold surface).
In either case, the fluid is relatively free to move due to buoyancy effects and be replaced by
fresh fluid entering at the edges. The following relationships are generally recommended for
square or rectangular horizontal surfaces with a mean length of side l:
For laminar flow
Nul  0.54 (Grl Pr)0.25 (3.12)
When 105  Grl Pr  108
For turbulent flow
Nul  0.14 (Grl . Pr)1 / 3 (3.13)
When Grd Pr  108
3.5.3. Vertical Surfaces.

In this case, both vertical flat surfaces and vertical cylinders may be considered
using the same correlations of experimental data. The characteristic linear
dimension is the length, or height, of the surface, l. With physical properties at
the mean film temperature the numerical constants as recommended by
McAdams are

For laminar flow
Nul  0.59 (Grl Pr)0.25 (3.14)
When 10 4  Grl Pr  109
For turbulent flow
Nul  0.10 (Grl . Pr)1 / 3 (3.15)

When 109  Grl Pr  1013
Note that:
 As stated before, all the above mentioned equations are the selected correlations
among many others available in heat transfer textbooks.
Example 3.8
A 2.0 cm-diameter horizontal heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 38 oC and
submerged in water at 27oC. Calculate the free-convection heat loss per unit length of the
heater.
The properties of water of at the film temperature of interest are:
k = 0.623 W/m oC, v = 0.7 x 10-6 m2/s, Pr = 5.12
Solution
The film temperature is;
38  27
Tf   32.5 o C  305.5 K
2
1
  3.27  10 3 K 1
305.5
D 3 g  T
Grd Pr  Pr
2

(0.02) 3 (9.8)(3.27  10 3 )(38  27)

Grd Pr   (5.12)
(0.7  10 6 ) 2
Grd Pr  29.47  106
So, it is laminar flow and by using equation (3.10):
Nud  0.525 (29.47 106 )0.25  38.68

hD
Nu 
k
So, k
h  Nu
D
(38.68)(0.623)
h  1204 .9 W / m2 .o C
0.02
The heat transfer is thus: Q  h A(Ts  T f )
Q  h  d L(Ts  Tf )  Q
L
 h  d (Ts  T f )
Q
 (1204 .9)(3.14)(0.02)(38  27)  832.345 W/m
L
Example 3.9
A large vertical plate 4.0 m high is maintained at 60 oC and exposed to atmospheric air at 10
o
C. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate is 10 m wide.
The air properties of interest are thus
k = 0.02685 W/mC, v = 16.5 x 10-6 m2/s, Pr = 0.7
Solution
First the film temperature is determined as

60  10
Tf   35 o C  308 K
2
1
  3.25  10 3 K 1
308
D 3 g  T (4) 3 (9.8)(3.25  10 3 )(60  10)
Grl Pr  Pr   (0.7)
2 (16.7  10 6 ) 2
Grl Pr  2.5581  1011
The flow is turbulent so, used equation (3.15) to obtain
Nul  0.10 (2.5581  1011 )1 / 3  634.8

hD
From, Nu  ;
k
k
The heat-transfer coefficient is then h  Nu
D
k 634.8  0.02685 o
h  Nu   4.26 W / m2 C
D 4
The heat transfer is

Q  h A(Ts  T f )
Q  4.26  (4  10)  (60  10)  8520 W  8.52 kW

Convection Heat Transfer
Forced Natural (Free)
(a) Tubes (Cylinder) Horizontal Flat Surface

Horizontal Cylinders
RedPr (d/L) > 10 (Laminer Flow)
104< GrPr < 109 (Laminer flow) 105 < GrPr < 108 (Laminer flow)
Nud = 1.86(RedPr)1/3 (d/L)1/3 (μ/ μw)0.14 Eq. (3.4)
Nud = 0.525 (Gr Pr)0.25 Eq. (3.10) Nu = 0.54 (Gr Pr)0.25 Eq. (3.12)
Red ˃ 10000 (Turbulent Flow)
Nu = 0.023(Red)0.8 (Pr)n Eq. (3.5) GrPr ˃ 108 (Turbulent flow)
109 < GrPr < 1012 (Turbulent flow)
n = 0.4 for heating
Nu = 0.14 (Gr Pr)1/3 Eq. (3.13)
n = 0.3 for cooling Nud = 0.129 (Gr Pr)1/3 Eq. (3.11)
(b) Flat Plates

Vertical Surfaces (Cylinder, flat Plates)
Re < 5x105 (Laminer flow)
104< GrPr < 109 (Laminer flow)
0.5 1/3
Nu = 0.664(Re) (Pr) Eq. (3.6)
Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)0.25 Eq. (3.14)
5x105 ≤ Re ≤ 107 (Transition flow)

109< GrPr < 1013 (Turbulent flow)
0.8 1/3
Nu = (0.037 Re - 871) Pr Eq. (3.7)
Nu = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3 Eq. (3.15)
Re ˃ 107 (Turbulent flow)

Nu = 0.037 Re0.8 Pr1/3 Eq. (3.8) Nusselt number = hD/k
Reynolds Number = Re = DVρ/μ Prandtl Number = Pr = Cp μ/ k Rayleigh = Ra = Gr.Pr
Peclet Number = Pe = DVρ Cp / k = (Re.Pr) Grashof Number = Gr = D3 ρ2 g β ∆t / μ2 = D3 g β ∆t / ν2

3.6. Solved Problems

To calculate the heat transfer coefficient:
1) Determine if the flow is natural or forced (free or forced convection).
2) Identify the geometry of the system.
3) Determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent
4) Select the appropriate relationship , Nu = f(Re, Pr)
5) Calculate Nu and solve for h.
Problem (1)
A horizontal pipe 0.3048 m in diameter is maintained at a temperature of 250 oC in a room where
the ambient air is at 15 oC. Calculate the free-convection heat loss per meter of length.
The properties of air are
k = 0.03406 W/m· oC ; ν = 26.54×10−6 m2/s ; Pr = 0.687
Solution
Tw  T 250  15
Tf    132 .5 o C  405 .5 K
2 2
1 1
   0.0025 K 1
T 405.5
g (Tw  T )d 3
Grd Pr  Pr
2
(9.8)(0.0025)(250  15)(0.3048)3
Grd Pr  6 2
 0.687  1.59 108
(26.54 10 )
Since 104 < GrPr < 109 (Laminer flow)

Nu = 0.525 (Gr Pr)0.25 Eq. (3.10)
Then N u  0.525(1.59 10 8 ) 0.25  58.95

hD
 58.95
k
58.95  0.03406
h  6.59 W / m2 .o C
0.3048
The heat transfer per unit length is then calculated from
Q
 h  D(TW  T ) 
L
Q
 (6.59)( )(0.3048 )( 250  15)  1.48 kW / m
L
Problem (2)
Water flows in a pipe of 0.0475 m inside diameter at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. Calculate the heat
transfer coefficient if the temperature of the water is 60 0C and 40 oC at the inlet and the outlet of
the pipe respectively, and the inside wall temperature of the pipe is 35 oC.
The physical properties of water at 50 oC are:
o
50 = 988 kg/m3; µ50 =0.549 cp; k50=0.639 W/m C; cp50 = 4183 kJ/kg . oC
Solution
First we need to calculate the Reynolds number
V . d (988)(1.5)(0.0475)
Re    128224
 0.000549
This regime of heat transfer is forced convection inside a cylindrical pipe at turbulent flow. Thus
Eq. (3.5) is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient.
The Prandtl number is not given, so we need to calculate it as following:
C p . 4183  0.000549
Pr    3.59
k 0.639
Then

hd
Nud   0.023 Re0d.8 Pr 0.3
k
Nud  0.023 (128224 ) 0.8 (3.59) 0.3  411.75
k (0.639)(411.75) o
h Nud   5539 W / m 2 C
d 0.0475
Problem (3)
Sucrose syrup flows in a pipe of 0.023 m inside diameter at a rate of 40
liter/min, while steam is condensing on the outside surface of the pipe. The syrup
is heated from 50 to 70 oC, while the inside wall temperature is at 80 oC. Calculate
1) The heat transfer coefficient and
2) The required length of the pipe.
The physical properties of syrup at 60 oC are:
o
60 = 1200 kg/m3, µ60 = 3.8 cp; k60 = 0.46 W/m C, cp60 = 3120 J/kg . oC
Solution
Calculate mean velocity of the syrup as following
Q
 Q  uA Then u 
A
u
40  10  60  1.605 m / s
3
3.14  0.023  4 2
Calculation of the Reynolds number

V . d (1200 )(1.605)(0.023)
Re    11657
 0.0038
This regime of heat transfer is forced convection inside a cylindrical pipe at turbulent flow. Thus
Eq. (3.5) is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient (note that n = 0.4 for heating).
The Prandtl number is not given, so we need to calculate it as following:

C p . 3120  0.0038
Pr    25.8
k 0.46
Then
hd
Nud   0.023 Re0.8
d Pr
04
 0.023 (11657) 0.8 (25.8) 0.4  151.2
k
k (0.46)(151.2) o
h Nud   3024 W / m 2 C
d 0.023
We can now make an energy balance to calculate the increase in syrup energy through the length
of tube:
Q  h  d L T  m Cp T
Calculate the heat transferred to the liquid using the heat transfer rate equation as
following:
Q  h  d L T  (3024) ( ) (0.023)( L)(20)  4367.9LW
Calculate the energy gained by the syrup
40  10 3  1200
m C p T   3120  20  49920
60
Then 4367.9L  49920
Therefore L  11.43 m
Problem (4)
Air at a pressure of 6 kN/m2 and a temperature of 300 oC flows with a velocity of 10 m/s over a
flat plate 0.5 m long. Estimate the cooling rate per unit width of the plate needed to maintain it at
a surface temperature of 27oC. The properties of air at 437 K and 1 atm are:
ν = 30.84 x10-6 m2/s, k = 36.4 x10-3 W/m. K, Pr = 0.687

Solution
air T∞ = 300 oC
u ∞ = 10 m/s
Ts = 27 oC
x
L = 0.5 m
The properties k, Pr, cp, and μ may be assumed to be independent of pressure. However, for an
ideal gas, the kinematic viscosity is inversely proportional to pressure. Hence the kinematic
viscosity of air at 437 K and P = 6 kN/m2 is
101.3
  30.48  10 6   5.15  10 4 m 2 / s
6
To determine the appropriate convection correlation for computing, the Reynolds number must
first be determined
u L 10  0.5
Re    9708
 5.15  10 4
Hence the flow is laminar over the entire plate, and the appropriate correlation is given by
Equation 3.6.
Nu  0.664 (Re) 0.5 (Pr)1 / 3 (3.6)
Nu  0.664 (9708) 0.5 (0.687 )1 / 3  57.73

hD
 57.73
k
57.73  36.4  10 3
h  4.2 W / m 2 .o C
0.5
The required cooling rate per unit width of plate is
Q  h A(T  Ts )  h .w.L(T  Ts )
Q  h L(T  Ts )  (4.2)(0.5)(300  27)  573.3 W / m

Problem (5)
A horizontal large plate with 3m² is maintained at 80˚C and exposed to
atmospheric air at 20˚C. Calculate the free-heat transfer if the plate is 3 m length
and the air properties are:
k = 0.03 W/m. ˚C, v= 12.3 x10-6 m²/s, Pr = 1.2
Solution
Heat Transfer Type: Natural Convection
Geometry Type: Horizontal Plate
Now, Rayleigh Number is needed to be calculated to find out if the flow is laminar or
turbulent for this problem.
L3 g  T
Rayleigh  Gr  Pr  P
2
Where

1 80  20
and Tf   50 oC  273  323 K
Tf 2
1 1
   0.0031
T f 323
(3)3 (9.81)(0.0031)(80  20)
Rayleigh  6 2
 1.2  3.9  1011
(12.3  10 )
So, the flow is Turbulent because Gr.Pr > 108
This equation will be used is Nu  0.14 (Gr . Pr)1 / 3
Nu  0.14 (3.9  1011 )1 / 3  1022 .9
1022 .9  0.03
h  10.23 W / m 2 K
3
Then; the heat transfer is
Q  hAT  10.23  3  (80  20)  1841 .4 W

Problem (6)
Air at 110˚C is heated as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 4cm at velocity of 10 m/s.
Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 125˚C and the pipe length is 2m. The
properties of air are:
ρ = 0.8741 kg/m³, Pr = 2.377
μ = 2.233x10-5 kg/m.s, k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.
Solution
The system is going under forced convection heat transfer in a pipe.

Heat Transfer Type: Forced Convection
Geometry Type: Tubes (Cylinder)
First calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, and
then select the appropriate empirical correlation to calculate the heat transfer.
Vd 0.8741  10  0.04

Re d    15658
 2.233  10 5

Thus; the following equation is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient (note that n = 0.4
for heating).
hd
Nud   0.023(Re) 0.8 (Pr) n
k
hd
Nud   0.023(15658 ) 0.8 (2.377 ) 0.4  73.78
k
Nud k 3.221  10 5  73.78 o

h   0.059W / m2 C
d 0.04
Q  h A T  (0.059) (  0.04  2) (398  383)  0.222 W
Where A=πdL

Problem (7)
Air at 206.8 kPa and an average of 477.6 K is being heated as it flows through a tube of 25.4 mm
inside diameter at a velocity of 7.62 m/s. The heating medium is 488.7 K steam condensing on
the outside of the tube. Since the heat-transfer coefficient of condensing steam is several
thousand W/m2·K and the resistance of the metal wall is very small, it will be assumed that the
surface wall temperature of the metal in contact with the air is 488.7 K. Calculate the heat-
transfer coefficient and also the heat-transfer per unit are (heat flux).
The physical properties of air at 477.6 K are:
 b  2.6  10 5 Pa..s
k  0.03894 W / mK
Pr  0.686
While, μw at 488.7 K is 2.64x10-5 Pa.s
Solution
The density of air at 477.6 K can be computed as following:
 1  206 .8  273 .15 

  (29)     1.51 kg / m
3
 22.4  101 .3  477 .6 

PM 206.8  29
Or    1.51 kg / m 3
R T 8.31  477.6
Note that:
b  2.6 10 5 Pa..s  2.6 10 5 kg/m.s

Geometry Type: Tube
Now, Reynolds number needs to be calculated to find out if the flow is laminar or turbulent for
this problem.
Vd 1.51  7.62  0.0254

Red    1.1241  10 4
 2.6  10 5

The flow is turbulent.

Thus; the following equation is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient
(note that n = 0.4 for heating).
Nu  0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr) 4
hd
Nu   0.023 (1.1241  10 4 ) 0.8 (0.686) 0.4  34.43
k
Nu k 34.43  0.03894 o
h   52.8 W / m 2 C
d 0.0254
The, the heat flux is

Q
 hT  (52.8)(488.7  477.6)  586 W / m 2
A
Problem (8)
A stainless steel pipe is maintained at vertical position with 7 cm diameter and 135˚C. It exposed to
atmospheric air at 20˚C. Calculate the heat transfer if the pipe is 15 cm length. The air properties are:
k = 3.003x10-5 kW/m.K, ν = 2.056x10-6 m2/s, Pr = 0.697
Solution
135  20
Tf   77.5 o C  350.5 K
2
1
  2.85  10 3 K 1
350.5
(0.07)3 (9.81)(2.85  10 3 )(135  20)

Grd Pr  6 2
 0.697  18.17  10 7
(2.056  10 )
So the flow is laminar, the equation of Nu will be used is
Nu  0.59(Gr. Pr)0.25

Nu  0.59(18.17 107 )0.25  68.5

hD
Nu 
From k
The heat-transfer coefficient is then
68.5  3.00310 5 o
h  0.029 W / m 2 C
0.07
Then, the heat transfer is
Q  hAT  hA(Ts  T fluid )
Q  (0.029)(  0.07  0.15)(135  20)  0.11W
Where A=πdL
Problem (9)
A smooth, flat, thin fin of copper extending out from a tube is 51 mm by 51 mm square. Its
temperature is approximately uniform at 82.2°C. Cooling air at 15.6°C and 1 atm abs flows
parallel to the fin at a velocity of 12.2 m/s.
(a.) For laminar flow, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, h.
(b.) If the leading edge of the fin is rough so that all of the boundary layer or film next to the
fin is completely turbulent, calculate h.
The physical properties of air at the film temperature (48.9 oC) are:
  1.95  10 5 Pa.s; k  0.0280 W / mK

Pr  0.704;   1.097 kg / m 3
Solution
VL 1.097  12.2  0.051

Red    3.5  10 4
 1.95  10 5
The flow is laminar, equation (3.6) will be used

Nu  0.664 (Re) 0.5 (Pr)1/ 3
Nu  0.664 (3.5  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.704)1/ 3  110.508
Nu k 110.508  0.028 o
h   60.7 W / m 2 C
d 0.051
For turbulent flow, Eq. (3.8) will be used
Nu  0.037 Re0.8 Pr1/ 3

Nu  0.037 (3.5  10 4 ) 0.8 (0.704)1/ 3  142.12
Nu k 124.12  0.028 o
h   78 W / m 2 C
d 0.051
Problem (10)
Air at 120˚C is cooling as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 5cm at velocity of 20 m/s.
Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 100 ˚C and the pipe length is 2 m. The
properties of air are:
ρ = 0.8741kg/m³, Pr = 2.377; μ = 2.233x10-5kg/m.s, k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.
Solve the problem Using U and  R
Solution
Geometry Type: Tube
Now, Reynolds number needs to be calculated to find out if the flow is laminar or turbulent for
this problem.
Vd 0.05  20  0.8741

Red    39145
 2.233 10 5

Thus; the following equation is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient (note that n = 0.3
for cooling as stated in this problem).
Nu  0.023(Re)0.8 (Pr) n
hd
Nu   0.023(39145 )0.8 (2.377) 0.3  140.82
k
Nu k 140.82  3.221  10 5
h   0.15 W / m 2 .o C
d 0.03
The, the heat transfer is
Q  h A T  (0.15)(  0.05  2)(120  100)  0.94 W
Where A=πdL
Problem (11)
A 3.0 cm diameter heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 40˚C and submerged
horizontally in water at 30˚C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss if the pipe long is 2.5 m.
The water properties are:
k = 0.623 W/m. ˚C; v= 0.7x10-6 m²/s; Pr = 5.12
Solution
40  30
Tf   35 o C  308 K
2
1
  0.0032 K 1
308
(0.03)3 (9.81)(0.0032 )(40  30)

Grd Pr  6 2
 5.12  8.85  10 7
(0.7  10 )
So, it is laminar flow and by using the following equation

hd
Nud   0.525(Gr. Pr)0.25
k
Nud  0.525(8.85  107 )0.25  50.92
So,
Nud k 50.92  0.623 o

h   1057 .4 W / m2 C
d 0.03
The heat transfer is thus
Q  hA(Ts  T fluid )
Where A=πdL
Q  (1057 .4)(  0.03  2.5)(40  10)  7470 .5 W
Problem (12)
A heated vertical wall 1.0 ft (0.305 m) high of an oven for baking food with the surface at 450°F
(505.4 K) is in contact with air at 100°F (311 K). Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient and the
heat transfer/ft (0.305 m) width of wall. Note that heat transfer for radiation will not be
considered. Use English and SI units.
The physical properties of air at 275°F (408.2 K) are
Physical properties English units SI units

k 0.0198 Btu/h · ft · °F 0.0343 W/m · K
ρ 0.0541 lbm/ft3 0.867 kg/m3
Pr 0.690 0.690
μ 0.0562 lbm/ft · h 2.32 × 10-5 Pa · s

Solution
English units SI units
The film temperature is The film temperature is

450  100 505.4  311
Tf   275 o F Tf   408.2 K
2 2
1 1
  0.00136   0.00245
(275  460) 408.2
L3  2 g  T L3  2 g  T
Gr  Gr 
 2
2
Gr  1.84 108 Gr  1.84 108
Gr. Pr  1.84  108  0.69  1.27  108 Gr. Pr  1.84  108  0.69  1.27  108
For vertical surface, laminar flow, For vertical surface, laminar flow,
Eq. (3.14) will be used Eq. (3.14) will be used
Nu  0.59(Gr Pr)0.25 Nu  0.59(Gr Pr)0.25
Nu  0.59 (1.27  108 ) 0.25  62.633 Nu  0.59 (1.27  108 ) 0.25  62.633
Nu k Nu k
h h
d d
62.633  0.0198 62.633  0.0343
h h
1 0.305
h  1.24 Btu / h. ft 2 .o F h  7.04 W / .m 2 .K
A  (1)(1)  1 ft 2 A  (0.305)(0.305)  0.093 m 2
Q  hAT Q  hAT
Q  (1.24)(1)(350)  434 Btu/h Q  (7.04)(0.093)(194.4)  127.3 W

Note that:
Grashof number is calculated in both systems as following
(1) 3 (0.0541) 2 (32.174)(3600 ) 2 (0.00136 )(350)
Gr ( English units)  2
 1.84  108
(0.0562 )
(0.305)3 (0.867 ) 2 (9.806)(0.00245 )(194.4)

Gr ( English units)   1.84  108
(2.32  10 )5 2
The Grashof numbers calculated using English and SI units must, of course, be the same as
shown

3.7. Sheet Three: Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer
1. A horizontal large plate with 2m² is maintained at 85˚C and exposed to atmospheric air at
15˚C. Calculate the free-heat transfer if plat is 2m high and the air properties are:
k = 0.03 W/m. ˚C, v= 12.3 x10-6 m²/s, Pr = 1.2 ans: (1386W)
2. Air at 100˚C is heated as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 3cm at velocity of
15m/s. Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 120˚C and the pipe length is
1m. The properties of air are: ρ = 0.8741kg/m³, Pr = 2.377
μ = 2.233x10-5kg/m.s, k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.
ans: (0.328W)
3. Air at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 300 oC flows steadily with a velocity of
10 m/s over a flat plate of length 0.5 m. Estimate the cooling rate per unit width of the
plate needed to maintain a surface temperature of 27 oC. The properties of air at 437 K
and 1 atm are: ν = 30.84 m2/s, Pr = 0.687, k = 36.4x10-3 W/m.˚C.
Hint: use Eq. 3.6 ans: 2348 W/m
4. A stainless steel pipe is maintained at vertical position with 5cm diameter and 130˚C. It
exposed to atmospheric air at 25˚C. Calculate the heat transfer if the pipe is 10cm length.
The air properties are:
k  3.003  10 5 kW / m.K , v  2.056  10 5 m 2 / s, Pr  0.697

ans: (260 W)
5. A square cupper plate with 10cm width is exposed to water. The plate surface
temperature is 75˚C and its thermal conductivity is 3.77 W/m.˚C. if the water temperature
is 20˚C and the convection coefficient from one side is 25 W/m².˚C and 85 W/m².˚C from
the opposite side. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate thickness is 2 cm.
ans: (9.65W)

6. Air at 120˚C is cooling as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 3cm at velocity of
15m/s. Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 100˚C and the pipe length is
1m. The properties of air are:
ρ = 0.8741kg/m³, Pr = 2.377
μ = 2.233x10-5kg/m.s, k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.
ans: (0.151W)
7. A 2.0 cm diameter vertical heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 38˚C and

submerged in water at 27˚C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss if the pipe long is
2m. The water properties are:
k = 0.623 W/m. ˚C, v= 0.7x10-6 m²/s, Pr = 5.12
ans: (1665.5 W)
8. Water at 62 oC enters a tube of 2.54 cm diameter at mean velocity of 3 cm/s. Calculates

the exit water temperature if the tube is 5.0 m long and the wall temperature is constant at
82 oC.  w  3.55 10 5 kg / m.s . Also determine the rate of heat transfer?
Water properties are; ρ = 985 kg/m3, cp = 4.18 kJ/Kg oC
μ = 4.71x10-4, k = 0.651 w/moC Pr = 3.02
9. Water at 50 oC enters a 1.5 m diameter and 3 m long tube with a velocity of 1 m/s. The
tube wall is maintained at a constant temperature of 90 oC. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient and the total amount of heat transferred if the exit water temperature is 64 oC.
The properties of water at the average bulk temperature (57 oC) are:
ρ = 990 kg/m3, ν = 0.517x10-6 m2/s
Cp = 4184 J/kg K, k = 0.65 W/m.K
Pr = 3.15 ans: (h = 5860 W/m2.K, Q = 27.34 kW)
10. A vertical pipe of 20 cm outer diameter, at a surface temperature of 100 oC is in a room

where the air is at 20 oC. The pipe is 3 m long. What is the rate of heat loss per meter
length of the pipe?

The properties of air at the film temperature (60 oC) are:

ρ = 1.614 kg/m3, ν = 18.97 x10-6 m2/s
k = 0.02896 W/m.K, Pr = 0.696
ans: (241.27 W/m)
11. A vertical pipe 80 mm diameter and 2 m height is maintained at a constant temperature

of 120 oC. the pipe is surrounded by still atmospheric air at 30 oC . Find heat loss.
The properties of air at the film temperature (75 oC) are:
ρ = 1.0145 kg/m3, ν = 20.55 x10-6 m2/s
k = 0.03006 W/m.K, Pr = 0.693
ans: 216.7 W/m
12. Water flowing with a mean velocity of 2m/s inside a smooth-walled circular pipe of
inside diameter 5 cm. The inside wall of the (thin, conducting) pipe is maintained at a
constant temperature of 100 oC by steam condensing on the outside. The bulk mean
temperature of the water is 60 oC. Calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient and
the heat flow per unit length of pipe.
Data: Physical properties of water at 60 oC
ρ = 983 kglm3, μb = 4.67 x 10- 4 kg/m. s
k = 0.653W/m. K, Cp = 4185 J/ kg. K
and viscosity of water at the wall temperature of 100 0C
μw = 2.83 x 10- 4 kg/m. s
(Hint: use Eq.3.5) ans:(h = 9060.5 W/m2.K , Q=5.69x104 W/m)

Chapter Four: Introduction to Radiation
4.1. Thermal Radiation

Radiation heat transfer differs from that by convection and conduction because the driving
potential is not the temperature, but the absolute temperature raised to the fourth power.
Furthermore, heat can be transported by radiation without an intervening medium. In fact, energy
transfer by radiation is faster (at the speed of the light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum.
When a body is placed in an enclosure whose walls are at a temperature below that of the body,
the temperature of the body will decrease even if the enclosure is evacuated. The process by
which heat is transferred from a body by virtue of its temperature, without the aid of any
intervening medium, is called thermal radiation. This chapter deals with the characteristics of
thermal radiation and radiation exchange, that is, heat transfer by radiation.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation
emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic
radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves and television waves that are not
related to temperature.
Radiant energy is envisioned (pictured) sometimes as transported by electromagnetic waves, at

other times as transported by photons. Neither viewpoint completely describes the nature of all
observed phenomena.
Transmission of radiation, which can occur in solids as well as fluids, is an interesting

phenomenon because it can occur through a cold non-absorbing medium between two other
hotter bodies. Thus the surface of the earth receives energy direct by radiation from the sun, even
though the atmosphere at high altitude is extremely cold.
Similarly, the glass of a green house is colder than the contents and radiant energy does not stop
there, it is transmitted to the warmer absorbing surfaces inside. Radiation is also significantly

different from conduction and convection in that the temperature level is a controlling factor. In
furnaces and combustion chambers, radiation is the predominating mechanism of heat transfer.
Since radiation energy exchange depends on the rates at which energy is emitted by one body
and absorbed by another, it is necessary to establish definitions relating to these characteristics of
surfaces. Further, not all of the energy emitted by one body may necessarily fall on the surface of
another due to their geometric arrangement.
In an elementary sense the mechanism of radiant heat transfer is composed of three distinct steps
or phases:
1. The thermal energy of a hot source, such as the wall of a furnace at T 1, is converted into
energy in the form of electromagnetic-radiation waves.
2. These waves travel through the intervening space in straight lines and strike a cold object
at T2
3. The electromagnetic waves that strike the body are absorbed by the body and converted
back to thermal energy or heat.
4.2. Thermal Radiation Properties of Materials

When radiant energy strikes a material surface, part of the radiation is reflected, part is absorbed,
and part is transmitted, as shown in Fig. (4.1).
We define the reflectivity (ρ) as the fraction reflected, the absorptivity () as the fraction
absorbed, and the transmissivity () as the fraction transmitted.
Thus
     1 (4.1)
Most solid bodies do not transmit thermal radiation, so that for many applied problems the
transmissivity () may be taken as zero. They are termed as thermally opaque. Then,
  1 (4.2)

Incident radiation
Reflection (ρ)
Absorbed (α)
Transmitted (τ)
Fig. (4.1): Sketch showing effects of incident radiation
Two types of reflection phenomena may be observed when radiation strikes a surface. If the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, the reflection is called Specular. On the
other hand, when an incident beam is distributed uniformly in all directions after reflection, the
reflection is called diffuse. These two types of reflection are depicted in Fig. (4.2).
Note that a specular reflection presents a mirror image of the source to the observer. No real
surface is either specular or diffuses. An ordinary mirror is quite specular for visible light, but
would not necessarily be specular over the entire wave-length range of thermal radiation.
Ordinarily, a rough surface exhibits diffuse behavior better than a highly polished surface.
Similarly, a polished surface is more specular than a rough surface.
Source Source
Reflected
Φ1 Φ2 rays
Mirror image of source
(a) (b)
Fig. (4.2): (a) Specular (1 = 2) and (b) diffuse reflection

4.3. Black Bodies

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified temperature
and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than the blackbody. A blackbody absorbs all
incident radiation for which  = 1 and  = 0, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also, a
blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all direction. That is, a blackbody is a diffuse
emitter. For real materials the highest values of  are around 0.97. Artificial surfaces may be
arranged in practice which is virtually black.
A black body is defined as one that absorbs all radiant energy and reflects none. Hence, ρ = 0
and α = 1.0 for a black body. Actually, in practice there are no perfect black bodies, but a close
approximation is a small hole in a hollow body, as shown in Fig. (4.3)
For laboratory purposes, a blackbody can be approximated by a cavity, such as a hollow sphere,
whose interior walls are maintained at a uniform temperature T. If there is a small hole in the
wall, any radiation entering through it is partly absorbed and partly reflected at the interior
surfaces. The reflected radiation, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.3, will not immediately escape
from the cavity but will first repeatedly strike the interior surface. Each time it strikes, a part of it
is absorbed; when the original radiation beam finally reaches the hole again and escapes, it has
been so weakened by repeated reflection that the energy leaving the cavity is negligible. This is
true regardless of the surface and composition of the wall of the cavity. Thus, a small hole in the
walls surrounding a large cavity acts like a blackbody because practically all the radiation
incident upon the hole is absorbed inside the cavity.
In a similar manner, the radiation emitted by the interior surface of a cavity is absorbed and
reflected many times and eventually fills the cavity uniformly. If a blackbody at the same
temperature as the interior surface is placed in the cavity, it receives radiation uniformly; that is,
it is irradiated isotropically. The blackbody absorbs all of the incident radiation, and since the
system consisting of the blackbody and the cavity is at a uniform temperature, the rate of
emission of radiation by the body must equal its rate of irradiation (otherwise there would be a
net transfer of energy as heat between two bodies at the same temperature in an isolated system,
an obvious violation of the second law of thermodynamics).

As stated previously, a black body absorbs all radiant energy falling on it and reflects none. Such
a black body also emits radiation, depending on its temperature, and does not reflect any. The
ratio of the emissive power of a surface to that of a black body is called emissivity ε and is 1.0
for a blackbody. Kirchhoff's law states that at the same temperature, α and ε of a given surface is
the same
Fig. (4.3): Artificial black-body surface
4.4. Stefan and Boltzmann’s Law

The work of Stefan and Boltzmann led to the law named after them Stefan-Boltzmann law for
black-body radiation which gives the emission of radiant energy from a black body. It states
that:
“ The emissive power of a black body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature”
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit area
and time.
Mathematically: Qb  AT 4 (4.3)
T : is the absolute temperature and
: is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and has the value 5.678  10 8 W / m 2 K 4 .

Qb : is the blackbody emissive power, in W.

Note that, emission of thermal radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature. So that, the blackbody having the following properties:
1. A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody is a function of wavelength and
temperature, it is independent of direction. That is, the blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
Example (4.1)
A radiator in a domestic heating system operates at a surface temperature of 65 oC. Determine
the rate at which it emits radiant heat per unit area if it behaves as a blackbody.
Solution
Q
 T 4  5.6697  10 8  (273  55) 4  0.731 kW / m2
A
4.5. The Emissivity of a Material

The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given
temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a
surface is denoted by ɛ, and it varies between 0    1.
Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which ɛ =1. At
thermal equilibrium, the emissivity and the absorptivity of a body are equal. A true black body
would have an ɛ =1 while any real object would have ɛ < 1.
Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity, so it does not have units. The more reflective a material
is, the lower its emissivity. Highly polished sliver has an emissivity of about 0.02.

A grey body is defined as a body with constant emissivity over all wavelengths and
temperatures. Kirchhoff’s law states that the absorptivity and emissivity of a grey body are equal
at any given temperature α = ε, where α is the total absorptivity and  , total emissivity over all
wavelengths.
4.6. Radiation in Large Enclosure

A simple radiation problem is encountered when we have a heat-transfer surface at temperature
T1 completely enclosed by a much larger surface maintained at T2.
Consider a blackbody of surface area A and at absolute temperature T1 exchanging radiation with
another blackbody (similar) at a temperature T2. The net heat exchange is proportional to the
difference in T4
Q   A(T14  T24 ) (4.4)
The real surfaces, like a polished metal plate, do not radiate as much energy as a black body. The
gray nature of real surfaces can be accounted for by introducing a factor ε in Eq. (4.4) called
emissivity which relates radiation between gray and black bodies at same temperature.
Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 ) (4.5)
To account for geometry and orientation of two black surfaces exchanging radiation, Eq.(4.5) is
modified to
Q   A1 1 F (T14  T24 ) (4.6)

Where; the factor F, called view factor, is dependent upon geometry of the two surfaces
exchanging radiation.
Radiation heat-transfer phenomena can be exceedingly complex, and the calculations are seldom
as simple as implied by Eq. (4.6).

Example (4.2)
A domestic hot water cylindrical tank of 0.5 m diameter and 1 m high and is situated in a large
space effectively forming black surroundings. The tank surface temperature is 80 oC and the
ambient temperature is 25 oC and the tank surface is oxidized copper with an emissivity of 0.8.
Calculate the amount of heat losses by radiation.
Solution
The radiation heat flow is:

Q   1 A1 T14  T24 
1.0 m
A1  the surface area for the cylinder +
the top and bottom area of cylinder ‎ 0.5 m

A1   D L  2  D2
4
 3.14 
A1  3.14 0.51  2   0.5  1.57  0.3925  1.9625 m
2 2
 4 
 
 Q  5.67  10 8  0.8  1.9625  (80  273) 4  (25  273) 4  0.68 kW
Example (4.3)
A surface having an area of 2.5 m2 and maintained at 300 oC exchanges heat by radiation with
another surface at 50 oC. The value of factor due to the geometric location and emissivity is 0.52
Determine:
1. Heat loss by radiation
2. The value of thermal resistance (Rth)
Solution
T1  300  273  573K ; T2  50  273  323K

Heat loss by radiation
 Q  F A(T14  T24 )
 Q  0.52  5.67  10 8  2.5(573 4  323 4 )
 Q  7143 .6 W
The value of thermal resistance (Rth)
T1  T2
 Q
( Rth ) rad
T1  T2 573  323
 ( Rth ) rad    0.035 K / W
Q 7143 .6
Example (4.4)
The possibility of reducing the heat loss from a water tank by coating it with aluminum paint is
to be investigated. The tank measures 2m x 1m by 1m high and radiates heat from the top and
also from each side. The surface emissivity and temperature are 0.9 and 25 oC, and the ambient
temperature is 2oC. Estimate the heat lost by radiation from the tank. What is the reduction in
heat loss if the tank is coated with an aluminium paint of emissivity 0.5?
Solution
 The surroundings of the tank can be assumed as black, because a negligible amount of
energy is reradiated to the tank
 The tank acts as a small gray body in a large black enclosure
 So, the following Equation will be used
Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 )
A1  2  1  1  2  2  8 m2

Q  (5.678 10 8 )( 8)(0.9) (298 4  275 4 )  885.9 W
A coating of aluminium paint with an emissivity 0.5 would lead to reduction in heat loss of
0.9  0.5
 885.9  393.7 W
0.9
Or
Qusing aluminumcoating  (5.678 10 8 )( 8)(0.5) (298 4  275 4 )  492.2 W

Then, reduction in heat loss = 885.9 – 492.2 = 393.7 W
4.7. View Factors

To make an energy balance on a surface, the incoming radiative flux, or irradiation must be
evaluated. In a general enclosure the irradiation has contributions from all parts of the enclosure
surface. Therefore, one needs to determine how much of the energy that leaves any surface of the
enclosure travels toward the surface under consideration. The geometric relations governing this
process for diffuse surfaces (which absorb and emit diffusely, and also reflect radiative energy
diffusely) are known as view factors. Other names used in the literature are configuration
factor, angle factor, and shape factor. The view factor between two surfaces Ai and Aj is
defined as
diffuse energy leaving A i directly t oward and intercepte d by A j

Fi  j 
total diffuse energy leaving A i
Where the word directly is meant to imply “on a straight path, without intervening reflections.”
A list of relationships for some common view factors is given in Table 4.1, and Figs. 4.4 through
4.6 give convenient graphical representations of the three most important view factors.
Radiation view factors may be determined by a variety of methods, such as direct integration
(analytical or numerical integration), statistical evaluation (through statistical sampling using a

Monte Carlo method), or through a variety of special methods, for more details, the reader can
refer to heat transfer textbooks
Table (4.1): Important View Factors
Two infinitely long plates of equal finite width

w, having one common edge, forming a wedge
like groove
with opening angle a:

F12  F21  1  sin
2
Infinitely long parallel cylinders of the same

diameter:
s
X  1
2r
1 1 
F12   sin 1  X 2  1  X 
 X 
Note that:
F12 : fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which reaches surface 2
F21 : fraction of energy leaving surface 2 which reaches surface 1
Fij : fraction of energy leaving surface i which reaches surface j

Fig. (4.4): View factor between identical, parallel, directly opposed rectangles
Fig. (4.5): View factor between perpendicular rectangles with common edge

Fig. (4.6): View factor between parallel coaxial disks of unequal radius
Example (4.5)
Two parallel black plates 0.5 by 1.0 m are spaced 0.5 m apart. One plate is maintained at 1000
o
C and the other at 500 oC. Find the view factor (F) by using the suitable chart, then calculate the
net radiant heat exchange between the two plates?
Solution
The ratios for use with Fig. (4.4) are
a 1 b 0.5
X   2; Y  1 ⸫ F12 ≈ 0.29;
c 0.5 c 0.5
The heat transfer is calculated from
Q   A1 1 F (T14  T24 ) (4.6)
Q  (5.678 10 8 )(0.5)(1)( 0.29) (1273 4  7734 )  1.87 10 4 W

Example (4.6)
Two rectangular surfaces are perpendicular to each other with a common edge. By using the
suitable chart, determine the view factor (F), for the following cases:
a) Common edge is1 m, the horizontal plane is 2 m long and vertical plane is 2 m long.
b) Common edge is1 m, the horizontal plane is 2 m long and vertical plane is 1 m long.
c) Common edge is1 m, the horizontal plane is 1 m long and vertical plane is 1 m long.
d) Common edge is1 m, the horizontal plane is 1 m long and vertical plane is 2 m long.
Solution
(a) The ratios for use with Fig. (4.5) are
h 2 w 2
H   2; W   2; F ≈ 0.145
l 1 l 1
(b) The ratios for use with Fig. (4.5) are
h 1 w 2
H   1; W   2; F ≈ 0.12
l 1 l 1
(c) The ratios for use with Fig. (4.5) are
h 1 w 1
H   1; W  1; F ≈ 0.2
l 1 l 1
(d) The ratios for use with Fig. (4.5) are
h 2 w 1
H   2 ; W   1; F ≈ 0.235
l 1 l 1
4.8. Radiation Heat Transfer between Planar Surfaces

Consider two very large (infinite) gray surfaces A1 and A2 as shown in Fig. (4.7), a small
distance apart, and exchanging radiation.

All the radiation emitted by one plane must reach and be intercepted by the other plane, i.e., the
shape factor will be unity, and the effective areas of the surfaces will be the same, A1 = A
α2E1 ρ1ρ2α2E1 Surface 2
ρ1ρ22E1
ρ2E1
E1
ρ12ρ22E1
ρ1ρ2E1
α1ρ2E1 ρ1ρ22α2E1 Surface 1
Fig.(4.7): Path of a photon between two gray surfaces
We suppose that the surfaces are thick enough so that, α + ρ = 1 (no radiation transmitted so
transmittance = 0).
Consider a photon emitted from Surface 1 (remembering that the reflectance: ρ = 1 – α);
Surface 1 emits E1
Surface 2 absorbs E1α 2
Surface 2 reflects E1 (1−α2)
Surface 1 absorbs E1 (1−α2)α1
Surface 1 reflects E1 (1−α2)(1-α1)
Surface 2 absorbs E1 (1−α2)(1-α1)α2
Surface 2 reflects E1 (1−α2)(1-α1)(1-α2)
Surface 1 absorbs E1 (1−α2)(1-α1)(1-α2) α1
The same can be said for a photon emitted from Surface 2:

Surface 2 emits E2
Surface 1 absorbs E2α1
Surface 1 reflects E2(1-α1)
Surface 2 absorbs E2(1-α1) α2
Surface 2 reflects E2(1-α1)(1- α2)
etc………..

After, performing some mathematical manipulations and using Kirchhoff's Law, the final
expression for heat transfer between gray, planar, surfaces: is given by
 A(T14  T24 )
qnet 1 to 2  (4.7)
1 1
 1
1 2
The equivalent emissivity  for two large parallel gray planes is given from Eq. (4.7) as
following
1
 (4.8)
1 1
 1
1 2
When two long concentric cylinders as shown in Fig. (4.8) exchange heat. The following
equation will be used:
 A1 (T14  T24 )
Q (4.9)
1 A 1 
 1   1
 1 A2   2 
Fig. (4.8): Radiation exchange between

two cylindrical surfaces.
Note that:
 The area ratio A1/A2 may be replaced by the diameter ratio d1/d2 when cylindrical bodies
A1 d1 r1
are concerned, i.e.,  
A2 d 2 r2
 Also, if the surface area A1 is negligible compared to the surface area of the
surroundings, A1/A2 = 0, (i.e., as the radiation energy loss from a hot object in a large
room). Eq. (4.9) becomes:
Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 ) (4.10)

2
A1  r1 
 
A2  r2 
Equation (4.9) is also valid in case of concentric spheres, where

Example (4.7)
Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800 oC and 300 oC are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Find the net radiant heat exchange per square meter for theses plates.
Solution
Since
A(T14  T24 )
qnet 1 to 2  (4.7)
1 1
 1
1 2
Then
q12 5.678 10 8 (1073 4  5734 )

  15956 .4 W
A 1 1
 1
0.3 0.5
Example (4.8)
A pipe carrying steam having an outside diameter of 20 cm runs in a large room and is exposed
to air at a temperature of 30 oC. The pipe surface is 400 oC.
1. Calculate the loss of heat to surroundings per meter length of pipe due to thermal
radiation. The emissivity of the pipe surface is 0.8.
2. What would be the loss of heat due to radiation if the pipe is enclosed in a 40 cm
diameter brick conduit of emissivity 0.91?
Solution
The loss of heat by thermal radiation can be found by considering the pipe to be a small gray
body in large gray surroundings
Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 )
Q
 5.678 10 8  (  0.2)(0.8) (6734  3034 )
L
Q
 5.6 103 W / m
L

When the pipe is enclosed in brick conduit, the case becomes one of large gray concentric
cylinders exchanging radiation. So, equation (4.8), will be used
 A1 (T14  T24 )
Q (4.8)
1 A 1 
 1   1
 1 A2  2 
1 1
   0.77
1 A1 1  1 20  1 
   1    1
1 A2   2  0.8 40  0.91 
Q
 5.678 108  (  0.2)(0.77) (6734  3034 )
L
Q
 5.39 103 W / m
L
Reduction in heat loss = 5600 – 5390 = 210 W/m
4.9. Radiation Shields

In certain situations it is required to reduce the overall heat transfer between two radiating
surfaces. This is done by either using materials which are highly reflective or by using radiation
shields between the heat exchanging surfaces. The radiation shields reduce the radiation heat
transfer by effectively increasing the surface resistances without actually removing any heat from
the overall system. Thin sheets of plastic coated with highly reflecting metallic films on both
sides serve as very effective radiation shields. Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about
20 sheets per cm thickness separated by evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and
space applications.
A familiar application of radiation shields is in the measurement of the temperature of a fluid by

a thermometer or a thermocouple which is shielded to reduce the effects of radiation.

Refer Fig. (4.9), Let us consider two parallel plates, 1 and 2, each of area A (A I = A2 = A) at
temperatures T1, and T2 respectively with a radiation shield placed between them as shown in
Fig. (4.9).
T1 Shield T2
ε1 ε3 ε3 ε2
1 3 2
Fig. (4.9): The radiation shield placed between two parallel plates
With no radiation shields, the net heat exchange between the parallel plates is given by:
A(T14  T24 )
(Q12 ) net without shield 
1 1
 1
1 2
With using a single shield, as shown in Fig. (4.7), we can use the following equations to find the
heat exchange between surfaces
A(T14  T34 ) A(T34  T24 )

(Q13 ) net  (Q32 ) net 
; 1 1
1

1
1  1
1 3 3 2
A(T14  T24 )
(Q12 ) net with shield 
1 1  1 1 
   1     1
 1  3   3 2 
Note that: (Q13 ) net  (Q32 ) net

Example (4.9)
Determine the radiant heat exchanger in W/m2 between two large parallel steel plates with
emissivities of 0.8 and 0.5 held at temperatures of 1000 K and 500K respectively, if a thin
copper plate of emissivity 0.1 is introduced as a radiation shield between the two plates.
Solution
A(T14  T24 )
(Q12 ) 
1 1  1 1 
   1     1
 1  3    3  2 
(Q12 ) 5.678  10 8 (1000 4  500 4 )
  2505 W / m 2
A  1 1   1 1 
   1     1
 0.8 0.1   0.1 0.5 
Example (4.10)
Two large parallel planes with emissivities of 0.3 and 0.5 are maintained at temperatures of 527
o
C and 127 oC respectively. A radiation shield having emissivity of 0.05 on both sides is placed
between them.
Calculate 527 oC Shield 127 oC
a) Heat transfer rate between them without shield.
b) Heat transfer rate between them with shield
0.3 0.05 0.05 0.5
1 3 2
Solution
A(T14  T24 )
1 1
 1
1 2

(Q12 ) net without shield 5.678  10 8 (800 4  400 4 )

  5031 .6 W / m 2
A 1 1
 1
0.3 0.5
b) Heat transfer rate between them with shield

In this case, the equation used has the following form
A(T14  T24 )
(Q12 )net with shield 
1 1  1 1 
   1     1
 1  3    3  2 
(Q12 ) net with shield 5.678  10 8 (800 4  400 4 )

  503.2 W / m 2
A  1 1   1 1 
   1     1
 0.3 0.05   0.05 0.5 
4.10. Solved Problems

Problem 1
A horizontal steel pipe with 2 inches outside diameter has an outside surface temperature of 150
o
C. Calculate the heat losses per m length of pipe, taking into account convection and radiation
losses. Assume that the emissivity of the surface of the tube is 0.75, the pipe is exposed to a
room temperature of 20 oC, and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2 oC.
Solution
Heat loss by radiation
 Qr  F A(T14  T24 )
 Qr  0.75  5.678  10 8  (3.14  2  0.0254  1)(423 4  293 4 )
 Qr  167.4 W

Heat loss by convection
 Qc  h A(T1  T2 )
 Qc  (15) (3.14  2  0.0254 1)(150  20)  311 W
Total Heat loss
Q  Qr  Qc  167.4  311  478.4 W
Problem 2
Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at temperatures of 800 oC and 300 oC are 0.3
and 0.5 respectively. If a polished aluminium shield having emissivity of 0.05 on both sides is
placed between them.
Calculate
a) Heat transfer rate per square meter between them without shield.
b) Heat transfer rate per square meter between them with shield
c) Find the percentage reduction in heat transfer.
d) Find the temperature of the shield.
Solution
A(T14  T24 )
1 1
 1
1 2

A 1 1
 1
0.3 0.5
(Q12 ) net without shield
 15956 W / m2
A

b) Heat transfer rate between them with shield.

A(T14  T24 )
1 1  1 1 
   1     1
 1  3    3  2 
(Q12 ) net with shield 5.678  10 8 (1073 4  573 4 )

A  1 1   1 1 
   1     1
 0.3 0.05   0.05 0.5 
(Q12 )net with shield
 1595 .6 W / m2
A
c) The percentage reduction in heat transfer

15956  1595 .6
Percentage Reduction  100  90 %
15956
d) Since; (Q13 )  (Q32 )
A(T14  T34 ) A(T34  T24 )

 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3 2
1073 4  T34 T34  573 4
 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.3 0.05 0.05 0.5
1073 4  T34 T34  573 4
 
22.33 21
Solving for T3; then T3 = 914 K = 641 oC

Problem 3
Calculate the net radiant heat transfer per m2 area for two large parallel plates at temperatures of
427 oC and 27 oC. εhot plate = 0.9 and εcold plate = 0.6. If a polished aluminium shield having with
εShield = 0.4, is placed between them.
Calculate
a) Heat transfer rate per square meter between them without shield.
b) Heat transfer rate per square meter between them with shield
c) Find the percentage reduction in heat transfer.
d) Find the temperature of the shield.
Solution
A(T14  T24 )
1 1
 1
1 2

A 1 1
 1
0.9 0.6
(Q12 ) net without shield
 7409 .8 W / m2
A
b) Heat transfer rate between them with shield.

A(T14  T24 )
1 1  1 1 
   1     1
 1  3    3  2 

(Q12 ) net with shield 5.678  10 8 (700 4  300 4 )


A  1 1   1 1 
   1     1
 0.9 0.4   0.4 0.6 
(Q12 ) net with shield
 2279 .9 W / m2
A
c) The percentage reduction in heat transfer

7409 .8  2279 .9
Percentage reduction  100  69.2 %
7409 .8
d) Since; (Q13 )  (Q32 )
A(T14  T34 ) A(T34  T24 )

 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3 2
700 4  T34 T34  300 4
 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.9 0.4 0.4 0.6
700 4  T34 T34  300 4
 
2.6111 3.1667
Solving for T3; then T3 = 606 K = 333 oC

4.11. Sheet Four: Introduction to Radiation
1. Underline the correct answer

(a.) Radiation travels in straight lines True - False
(b.)Radiation can travel through a vacuum True - False
(c.) Radiation requires particles to travel True - False
(d.)Radiation travels at the speed of light True - False
(e.) Heat energy reaches the Earth from the Sun by:
Conduction – Convection – Radiation – Insulation
(f.) The best surface for reflecting heat radiation is:
Shiny white - Dull white - Shiny black - Dull black
(g.) The best surface for absorbing heat radiation is:
Shiny white - Dull white - Shiny black - Dull black
2. Why houses are painted white in hot countries?
3. Why is shiny foil blankets wrapped around marathon runners at the end of a race?
4. A circular disk with 10cm diameter coating with aluminum paint and situated in a large space
effectively forming black surrounding. The disk surface temperature is 88˚C and an ambient
temperature is 20˚C. if the emissivity is 0.55 and the Stefen-boltzmann constant is
56.7  10 12 kW / m 2 .K 4 . Calculate the thermal radiation loss from the disk.
5. Water –cooled, spherical object of diameter 10mm and emissivity 0.9 is maintained at 80˚C
when placed in a large vacuum oven whose walls are maintained at 400˚C. Calculate the heat
transfer from the oven walls.
6. A horizontal steel pipe with 2 in outside diameter has an outside surface temperature of 150
o
C. Calculate the heat losses per m length of pipe, taking into account convection and
radiation losses. Assume that the emissivity of the surface of the tube is 0.75, the pipe is

exposed to a room temperature of 20 oC, and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 15
W/m2 oC. ans: 479:3 W
7. Two identical bodies radiate heat to each other. One body is at 30 oC and the other at 250 oC.
The emissivity of both is 0.7. Calculate the net heat transfer per square meter.
Ans: 2635 W
8. Two rectangular surfaces are perpendicular to each other with a common edge of 2 m, the
horizontal plane is 2 m long and vertical plane is 3 m long. Using the suitable chart, find the
view factor (F) ans : 0.22
9. Two parallel coaxial disks having diameters of 10 and 5 cm at apart of 10 cm. Using the
suitable chart, find the view factor (F) ans : 0.12
10. Two parallel coaxial disks having diameters of 10 and 8 cm at apart of 10 cm. Using the
suitable chart, find the view factor (F) ans : 0.28
11. A radiator may be treated as a black body with a true surface area of 12 m 2 and an envelope
area of 5 m2. It has a surface temperature of 55 oC and is situated in a dark room at 15 oC.
The surface heat transfer coefficient is 4.5 W/m2 K. Calculate the radiated heat transfer and
the convected heat transfer.
ans: Qrad =1331, Qconv =2160, Qtotal=3491
12. A long, cylindrical electrically heated rod, 2 cm in diameter, is installed in a vacuum furnace.
The surface of the heating rod has an emissivity of 0.9 and is maintained at 1000 K, while the
interior walls of the furnace are black and are at 800 K. Calculate the net rate at which heat is
lost from the rod per unit length and the radiation heat transfer coefficient.
ans: 1893 W, 151 W/m2K
13. Two large plates are maintained at temperature of 627 oC and 227 oC respectively. Each plate
has area of 6 m2. What is the net radiant heat exchange for the following cases

Both plates are black

Plates have an emissivity of 0.5
ans: (201.9 kW, 67.3 kW)
14. A 0.5-m-diameter pipe carrying steam has a surface temperature of 500 K . The pipe is
located in a room at 300 K, and the convection heat transfer coefficient between the pipe
surface and the air in the room is 20 W/m2 K. Calculate the rate of heat loss per meter of pipe
length. ans: 10,650 W
15. Two black square plates of size 1.0 by 1.0 m are placed parallel to each other at the distance
of 0.4 m. One plate is maintained at 900 oC and the other at 400 oC. Determine the shape
factor and the net radiant heat exchange between the two plates?
ans:(0.48, 4.6x104 W)
16. Two parallel gray planes which are very large have emissivities ε1 = 0.8 and ε2 = 0.7 are
maintained at 850 K and 580 K are respectively.
What is the net radiant heat exchange per square meter for theses plates?
If the surfaces are both black, what is the net radiation?
ans: (13830 W/m2, 23214 W/m2)
17. A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.1 on both sides is placed between two very
large parallel plates that are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K
and have emissivities ε1 = 0.2 and ε2 = 0.7 respectively Determine the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between the two plates per unit surface area of the plates and compare the result
to that without the shield. Also, find the temperature of the shield.
ans: 3625 W/m2 , 806 W/m2

9836class Notes Heat Transfer Part One PDF

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Lecture notes

Dr. Reda Abobeah

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page i

3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 129

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page ii

‫شفوى ترم أول ‪02‬‬ ‫أعمال سنة ترم أول ‪، 02‬‬

‫شفوى ترم ثاني ‪02‬‬ ‫أعمال سنة ترم ثاني ‪، 02‬‬

‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬يحيي ‪ 0 :‬سؤال الموائع ‪ 70‬درجة‬

‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬رضا ‪ 0 :‬سؤال انتقال حرارة ‪ 70‬درجة‬

‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬يحيي ‪ 0 :‬سؤال انتقال حرارة ‪ 20‬درجة‬

‫‪Dr. Reda Abobeah‬‬ ‫‪Page iii‬‬

W02 16 / 02/ 2020 20 / 02/ 2020 From page to page

W05 08 / 03/ 2020 12 / 03/ 2020 From page to page

W10 12 / 04/ 2020 16 / 04/ 2020 From page to page

W13 03 / 05/ 2020 07 / 05/ 2020 From page to page

W14 10 / 05/ 2020 14 / 05/ 2020 From page to page

W15 17 / 05/ 2020 21 / 05/ 2020 & Quiz IV : On sheet five

W16 : 24 / 05/ 2020 28 / 05/ 2020

With Best regards,

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page iv

1. Holman, J. P., "Heat Transfer", McGraw-Hill, 10th edition, 2010.

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page v

Chapter One: BASIC CONCEPTS

First Law of thermodynamic:

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 6

Second Law of thermodynamic:

From the above discussion, Heat transfer may be defined as

2. To determine the temperature field under steady and transient conditions.

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 7

Heat transmission, in majority of real situations, occurs as a result of combinations of these

It is the mode of heat transfer accomplished via two mechanisms

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 8

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 9

1.1. Conduction Heat Transfer

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 10

The thermal conductivity of a material is defined as follows:

Assumptions of Fourier's law:

Some essential features of Fourier's law:

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 11

Thermal conductivity is a physical property of a substance and like viscosity; it is primarily a

Table (1.1): Thermal conductivities of common substances at 20 oC

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 12

1.2. Convection Heat Transfer

To express the overall effect of convection, we use Newton’s law of cooling:

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 14

Fig. (1.1): Convection from a heated plate

Here the heat-transfer rate is related to:

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 15

A   d L   (0.0015)(0 .15)  7.065 10 4 m2

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 16

1.3. Radiation Heat Transfer

Consider a blackbody of surface area A and at absolute temperature T1 exchanging radiation

Q   A(T14  T24 ) (1.4)

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 17

Q   A1 1 (T14  T24 ) (1.5)

Q   A1 1 F (T14  T24 ) (1.6)

T1  300  273  573K ; T2  40  273  313K

Qcond.  Qconv .  Qrad .

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 19

Qcond.  Qconv .  Qrad .

Dr. Reda Abobeah Page 20

1.4. Solved Problems:

Q  hA(Ts  T )   A  (Ts4  T4 )