Cellular System 2010

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the cell

Cellular Systems
footprint.
Cellular Concepts • Irregular cell structure and irregular placing of the

Cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving transmitter may be acceptable in the initial system
the problem of spectral congestion and user capacity. design. However as traffic grows, where new cells and
It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum channels need to be added, it may lead to inability to
allocation without any major technological changes. reuse frequencies because of co-channel interference.
• For systematic cell planning, a regular shape is

Cellular concept has the following system level ideas assumed for the footprint.
• Replacing a single, high power transmitter with many • Coverage contour should be circular. However it is
low power transmitters, each providing coverage to impractical because it provides ambiguous areas with
only a small area. either multiple or no coverage.
• Neighbouring cells are assigned different groups of • Due to economic reasons, the hexagon has been chosen
channels in order to minimise interference. due to its maximum area coverage.
• The same set of channels is then reused at different

geographical locations. R R
R
Reuse can be done once the total interference from all
users in the cells using the same frequency (co-channel
cell) for transmission suffers from sufficient attenuation. Atri = 1.3R 2 Asq = 2.0 R 2 Ahex = 2.6 R 2
Factors need to be considered include:
• Hence, a conventional cellular layout is often defined
- Geographical separation (path loss) by a uniform grid of regular hexagons.
- Shadowing effect
Institute for Infocomm Research 43 National University of Singapore Institute for Infocomm Research 44 National University of Singapore
Frequency reuse
• A cellular system which has a total S duplex channels.
• S channels are divided among N cells, with each cell

uses unique and disjoint channels.
• If each cell is allocated with k channels, then S = kN .
Terminology
• Cluster size: The N cells which collectively use the

complete set of available frequency is called the cluster
size.
If (Δu , Δv) = (i, j ) , i,j are known as the shift parameters,
• Co-channel cell: The set of cells using the same set of then the distance between the two cell centres is given
frequencies as the target cell. by
• Interference tier: A set of co-channel cells at the same
D = i 2 + j 2 + ij ⋅ 3R (Cosine’s Rule)
distance from the reference cell. The set of closest co-
channel cells is call the first tier. There is always 6 co-
channel cells in the first tier.
Co-ordinates for hexagonal cellular geometry
• With these co-ordinates, an array of cells can be laid

out so that the center of every cell falls on a point
specified by a pair of integer co-ordinates.
Designing a cellular system
Examples: N=3,4,7,9,12,13
Proof : to obtain the area of the cluster and compare

with the area of a single cell.
The cluster size must satisfy
N = i 2 + ij + j 2 where i, j are non-negative integers.
Can also verify that
D
Q= = 3N where Q is the co-channel reuse ratio.
R
Handover / Handoff • If the slope of the short-term average received signal is

steep, handover should carry out fast. Information
Occurs as a mobile moves into a different cell during an about vehicle speed is important.
existing call, or when going from one cellular system
Handover take place
into another.
f1 f2 PHO
• It must be user transparent, successful and not too
frequent.
Pmin
• Not only involves identifying a new BS, but also
requires that the voice and control signals be allocated Time taken to
to channels associated with the new BS. complete handover
Once a particular signal level Pmin is specified as the

minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality at
the BS receiver, a slightly stronger signal level PHO is
used as a threshold at which a handover is made.
PHO = Pmin + Δ Dwell Time
• If Δ is too large ⇒ unnecessary handovers • The time over which a user remains within one cell is
called the dwell time.
• If Δ is too small ⇒ insufficient time to complete
handovers, call may drop due to poor received signal • The statistics of the dwell time are important for the
quality. practical design of handover algorithms.
• Running average should be used to avoid unwanted • The statistics of the dwell time vary greatly, depending
handover due to momentary fading. on the speed of the user and the type of radio coverage.
Handover indicator Practical handover
• Each BS constantly monitors the signal strengths of all • High speed users and low speed users have vastly
of its reverse voice channels to determine the relative different dwell times which might cause a high number
location of each mobile user with respect to the BS. of handover requests for high speed users. This results
This information is forwarded to the MSC who makes in interference and traffic management problem.
decisions regarding handover.
• The Umbrella Cell approach will
• Mobile assisted handover (MAHO): MS measures the help to solve this problems.
received power from surrounding BSs and continually High speed users are serviced by
reports the results of measurement to the serving BS. large (macro) cells, while low
speed users are handled by small
Prioritizing Handover (micro) cells.
• Dropped call is considered a more serious event than A hard handover does “break A
Hard: B
call blocking. Channel assignment schemes therefore before make”, i.e., the
must give priority to handover requests. existing channel connection
• A fraction of the total available channels in a cell is is broken before the new
reserved only for handover requests. However, this allocated channel connection
reduces the total carried traffic. Dynamic allocation is is setup. This obviously can A
Soft: B
preferred over reservation. cause call dropping.
• Queuing of handover requests decrease the probability In soft handover, we do

of forced termination of a call due to a lack of available “make before break”, i.e., the new channel connection
channel. is established before the existing channel connection
is released. This is realized in CDMA where also BS
diversity is used to improve boundary condition.
Interference and System Capacity R−n

SIR =
D−n
In a given coverage area, there are several cells that
use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called
co-channel cells. The interference between signals
from these cells is called co-channel interference.
If all cells are approximately of the same size and the

path loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage
area, the transmit power of each BS is almost equal.
We can show that worse case signal to co-channel
interference is independent of the transmitted power.
It becomes a function of the cell radius R, and the
distance to the nearest co-channel cell D’.
(a) Received power at a distance d from the For the forward link, a very general case,
transmitting antenna is approximated by
⎛ d ⎞
−n R−n
SIR =
Pr (d ) = P0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or i0
⎝ d0 ⎠ ∑ Di − n
i =1
⎛ d ⎞
Pr (d )(dBm) = P0 (dBm) − 10n log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where Di is the distance of the ith interfering cell
⎝ d0 ⎠
from the mobile, i0 is the total number of co-channel
(b) Useful signal at the cell boundary is the cells exist.
weakest, given by Pr (R) . Interference signal from
the co-channel cell is given to be Pr ( D′) . • If only first tier co-channel cells are used, then i0 = 6 .
(c) D’ is normally approximated by the base station • Unless otherwise stated, normally assuming Di ≈ D for
separation between the two cells D, unless when
accuracy is needed. Hence all i.
Outage probability : the probability that a MS does

not receive a usable signal.
• For GSM, this is 12 dB and for AMPS, this is 18 dB. If

there is 6 co-channel cells, then
SIR =
(D R )n =
( 3N )n
6 6
Exercise : please verify this
• For n=4, a minimum cluster size of N=7 is needed to
meet the SIR requirements for AMPS.
- More accurate SIR can be obtained by computing
• For n=4, a minimum cluster size of N=4 is required to
the actual distance.
meet the SIR requirements for GSM
Aproximation in distance has been made on the 2nd

tier onwards.
- Our computation of outage only based on path loss.

For more accurate modeling, shadowing and fast
fading need to be taken into consideration. This will
not be covered in this course.
Coverage Problems β (γ ) = P[Pr ( R ) > γ ] - cell boundary coverage,

∞ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
2
Revision: 1 1 X − P ( R )
β (γ ) = ∫ exp ⎢− ⎜ dB r ⎟ ⎥ dX

2π σ X dB ⎢ 2⎜ σX ⎟ ⎥ dB
γ ⎣⎢ ⎝ dB ⎠ ⎦⎥
- Recall that the mean measured value,
⎛ γ − P ( R) ⎞
= Q⎜ r ⎟
⎛ d ⎞ ⎜ σX ⎟
PL(d ) dB = PL(d 0 ) dB + 10n log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or ⎝ dB ⎠
⎝ d0 ⎠ where Q(x) is the standard normal distribution.
Pr (d ) dBm = Pt , dBm − PL(d ) dB • must know how to use the table.
- Measurement shows that at any value of d, the Cell coverage

path loss PL(d ) at a particular location is random
and distributed log-normally (normal in dB) about • Proportion of locations within the area defined by the
this mean value. cell radius R, receiving a signal above the threshold γ.
1
Pr (d ) dBm = X = Pr (d ) dBm + X σ U (γ ) = ∫ P[Pr (r ) > γ ]dA
AA
where X σ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed 1 R 2π ⎛
γ − Pr (r ) ⎟ ⎞
= Q⎜ ⋅ rdr ⋅ dθ
random variable (in dB) with standard deviation σ 2 ∫ ∫
πR 0 0 ⎝ σ X dB ⎟⎠
⎜
(in dB).
2 R ⎛⎜ γ − Pr (r ) ⎞⎟
= ∫ Q ⋅ rdr
R 0 ⎜⎝ σ X dB ⎟⎠
Boundary coverage
• Therefore, there will be a proportion of locations at The solution is given in the r

distance R (cell radius) where a terminal would Rappaport p.107 (1st
θ dr
experience a received signal above a threshold γ. (γ is edition).
dθ
usually the receiver sensitivity) R
The mean signal level at any distance is determined

Solution can be found using the graph provided. (n :
by path loss and the variance is determined by the
path loss exponent)
resulting fading distribution (log-normal shadowing,
Rayleigh fading, Nakagami-m, etc).
The proportion of locations covered at a given

distance (cell boundary, for example) from BS can be
found directly from the resultant signal p.d.f./c.d.f.
The proportion of locations covered within a circular

region defined by a radius R (the cell area, for
example) can be found by integrating the resultant
cdf over the cell area.
Example: if n=4, σ=8 dB, and if the boundary is to

have 75% coverage (75% of the time the signal is to
exceed the threshold at the boundary), then the area
coverage is equal to 94%.
If n=2, σ=8 dB, and if the boundary is to have 75%
coverage, then the area coverage is equal to 91%.
An operator needs to meet certain coverage criteria.

This is typically the “90% rule” – 90% of a given
geographical area must be covered for 90% of the
time.
Cellular Traffic
The basic consideration in the design of a cellular

system is the sizing of the system. Sizing has two
components to be considered.
- Coverage area
- Traffic handling capability
After the system is sized, channels are assigned to cells.
Terminology in traffic theory
- Trunking : exploits the statistical characteristics of

the users calling behavior. Any efficient - Call holding time (H) : the average duration of a call.
communication system relies on trunking to
accommodate a large number of users with a limited - Call arrival rate (λ) : average number of call requests
number of channels. per unit time.
- Grade of service (GoS) : A user is allocated a channel Traffic flow or intensity A

on a per call basis. GoS is a measure of the ability of
a user to access a trunked system during the busiest
• Measured in Erlang, which is defined as the call-
hour. It is typically given as the likelihood that a call
is blocked (also known as blocking probability minute per minute.
mentioned before).
• Total offered traffic for such a system is given as
- Trunking theory : is used to determine the number of
channels required to service a certain offered traffic A= λ⋅H
at a specific GoS. Exercise : There are 3000 calls per hour in a cell,
each lasting an average of 1.76 min.
Offered traffic A = (3000/60)(1.76) = 88 Erlangs
One Erlang = offered load that would occupy a single approach to a Poisson Process, with its mean equal
to λT .
channel 100% of the time
(Refer to tutorial 1 and extend the concept from
Poisson distribution to Poisson Process)
If the offered traffic exceeds the maximum possible
carried traffic, blocking occurs. There are three pk =
(λT )k exp(− λT )
different strategies to be used. k!
- Mean inter-arrival time
- Blocked calls cleared
Fτ (t ) = P(τ ≤ t ) = 1 − P(τ > t ) = 1 − P(no arrival ) = 1 − exp(− λt )
- Blocked calls delayed
∴ fτ (t ) = λ exp(− λt )
Trunking efficiency : is defined as the carried traffic
intensity in Erlangs per channel, which is a value Call holding time : it is normally assume that it has a
between zero and one. It is a function of the number negative exponential distribution.
of channels per cell and the specific GoS parameters. - The probability that a call terminates within one
subinterval is proportional to its length.
Call arrival process: it is widely accepted that calls - The call termination occurs independently of which
have a Poisson arrival. subinterval is considered.
The probability that the holding time h is less than
Over an observation period T, divide this time into or equal t is given as
n sub-intervals. n
⎛ μt ⎞
- only one arrival can occur in any one sub- 1 − Fh (t ) = 1 − P (h ≤ t ) = P (h > t ) = lim ⎜1 − ⎟ = exp(− μt )
interval. n → ∞⎝ n⎠
∴ Fh (t ) = 1 − exp(− μt ) ⇒ f h (t ) = μ exp(− μt )
- call arrivals are independent from each other.
- the probability that an arrival occurs in one of This gives a mean holding time of H = 1 μ .
the sub-intervals is proportional to the sub-
interval length. Memoryless property of the negative exponential
The probability of exactly k arrivals in n sub- distribution: the past history has no influence in
intervals can be evaluated using the binomial predicting its future.
distribution. In the limit when n→∞ , this
Markov chain : probability that the next state is xn +1 C 1

From ∑ Pn = 1, we get P0 =

depends only upon the current state xn and not any n=0 C 1 ⎛ λ ⎞n
previous value. A special case is the birth-death
∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
n = 0 n! ⎝ μ ⎠
process. The probability of blocking for C trunked channel is
C
Block calls cleared : Assuming that there are altogether 1 ⎛λ⎞ 1 C
⎜ ⎟
C! ⎜⎝ μ ⎟⎠

C A
1 ⎛λ⎞
C trunks, and GoS = Pc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ P0 = = C!
C! ⎝ μ ⎠ C 1 ⎛ λ ⎞n C 1
∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ∑ An
• An infinite subscriber population n = 0 n! ⎝ μ ⎠ n = 0 n!
• Poisson call arrivals with rate λ calls/sec which is the Erlang B formula, and A = λH = λ μ .
• Must know how to use the table.
• Exponentially distributed call durations with mean
H = 1/ μ .
Examples on Erlang B models
• Blocked calls are cleared. 1. There are 3000 calls per hour in a cell, each lasting
an average of 1.76 minutes. For a 2% blocking
1 − λ dt 1 − λ dt − μ dt 1 − λ dt − 2 μ dt 1 − λ dt − C μ dt probability, how many channels are needed in the
cell?
λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt
2. A cell contains 50 channels. The average call
0 1 2 C duration is 100s. How many calls per hour can be
μ ⋅ dt 2μ ⋅ dt C μ ⋅ dt handle if PB=2%?
Under steady state conditions

λ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn−1 = n ⋅ μ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn
Solving for different values of n, we have
n
λ λ 1 ⎛λ⎞
P1 = P0 , …, Pn = Pn −1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ P0 , …
μ nμ n! ⎝ μ ⎠
The probability that the call will not have

Blocked calls delayed : in this model, the blocked immediate access to a channel (i.e. having nonzero
calls are allowed to queue up and wait to be served. delay)
Normally assume that the queue is infinitely long ∞ AC 1
Pr(delay > 0) = ∑ Pk = P0
(M/M/C/∞) k =C C! 1 − A
1 − λ dt 1 − λ dt − μ dt 1 − λ dt − (C − 1) μ dt 1 − λ dt − C μ dt 1 − λ dt − C μ dt
C
where A = λ / μ . This is the Erlang C formula.
λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt λ ⋅ dt
1 C+1
- This probability of non-zero delay that can be
0 C-1 C
μ ⋅ dt 2 μ ⋅ dt (C − 1) μ ⋅ dt C μ ⋅ dt C μ ⋅ dt C μ ⋅ dt
tolerated is also known to be the GoS parameter of
the Erlang C system.
At steady state, - If no channels are immediately available, the call
is delayed, and the probability that the delayed
λ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn−1 = nμ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn for k ≤ C call is forced to wait more than t seconds is given
λ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn−1 = C μ ⋅ dt ⋅ Pn for k ≥ C by the probability that a call is delayed, multiplied
by the conditional probability that the delay is
This leads to
greater than t seconds (the delay threshold).
⎧ 1 ⎛ λ ⎞n Pr(delay > t ) = Pr(delay > 0) Pr(delay > t delay > 0)
⎪ ⎜ ⎟ P0 n≤C
⎪ n !⎝ μ ⎠ = Pr(delay > 0) exp[−(C − A)t / H ]
Pn = ⎨ n
⎪1 ⎛λ⎞ 1
P n≥C - The average delay D for all calls in a queued
⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩C!⎝ μ ⎠ C n−C 0
system is given by
∞ ∞ H
From ∑ Pn = 1, we get D = ∫ Pr(delay > t )dt = Pr(delay > 0)
n=0 0 C−A
P0 =
1 or the average delay for those calls which are
C −1
1 ⎛λ⎞
n
1 ⎛λ⎞ 1
C queue is given by H /(C − A) .
∑ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
n=0 n !⎝ μ ⎠ C!⎝ μ ⎠ ⎛ λ ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ μC ⎠
Note: Proof for Channel Assignment Strategies

Pr(delay > t delay > 0) = exp[−(C − A)t / H ]
Channel allocation schemes can affect system performance.
Consider C=1, this corresponding to the M/M/1 queue
model. The waiting time W consists of the service times of
the existing N customers in the system, ie., Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) :
W = S1 + S 2 + " + S N where Si follows exponential
distribution f S i (t ) = μ exp(− μt ) and W is the sum of these N
• Channels are divided in sets.
independent random variables. Note that implicity we
assume that N > 0 . • A set of channels is permanently allocated to each cell
λ λ
Also can easily show that Pn = (1 − )( ) n , i.e. n follows a in the network. Same set of channels must be assigned
μ μ
geometric distribution (memoryless property). to cells separated by a certain distance to reduce co-
channel interference.
The pdf of W is then given by
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by
Erlang ( n +1, μ )
the unused channels in that particular cell. The
∞ ∞ ( μt ) n − μt λ λ
fW (t ) = ∑ fW | n (t , n) Pn = ∑ μ e ⋅ (1 − )( ) n service is blocked if all channels have used up.
n =0 n=0 n! μ μ
= ( μ − λ ) e − ( μ − λ )t • Most easiest to implement but least flexibility.
Note that μ = 1 / H , A = λH , integrate this from t to ∞ will
• An modification to this is ‘borrowing scheme’. Cell
obtain Pr(delay > t delay > 0)
(acceptor cell) that has used all its nominal channels
For M/M/C queue, the system behaves as an M/M/1 queue
with higher service rate Cμ (rather than μ ). can borrow free channels from its neighboring cell
(donor cell) to accommodate new calls.
• Borrowing can be done in a few ways: borrowing from

the adjacent cell which has largest number of free
channels, select the first free channel found, etc.
• To be available for borrowing, the channel must not

Flexible channel assignment
interfere with existing calls. The borrowed channel
should be returned once the channel becomes free. • Divide the total number of channels into two groups,
one of which is used for fixed allocation to the cells,
Dynamic Channel Allocaton (DCA) :
while the other is kept as a central poor to be shared
• Voice channels are not allocated to any cell by all users.
permanently. All channels are kept in a central pool • Mix the advantages the FCA and DCA, available
and are assigned dynamically to new calls as they schemes are scheduled and predictive.
arrive in the system.
Channels need to be assigned to users to accommodate
• Each time a call request is made, the serving BS
requests a channel from the MSC. It then allocates a - new calls
channel to the requested cell following an algorithm - handovers
that takes into acount the likelihood of future blocking
• With the objective of increasing capacity and
within the cell, the reuse distance of the channel and
minimizing probability of a blocked call.
other cost functions ⇒ increase in complexity
• Centralized DCA scheme involves a single controller

selecting a channel for each cell. Distributed DCA
scheme involves a number of controllers scattered
across the network.
• For a new call, a free channel from central pool is

selected based on either the co-channel distance, signal
strength or signal to noise interference ratio.
essentially via a system re-scaling of the cellular

System Expansion Techniques
geometry without any changes in frequency planning.
As demand for wireless services increases, the number

of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes
insufficient to support the required number of users.
More channels must therefore be made available per
unit area.
• This can be accomplished by dividing each initial cell

area into a number of smaller cells, a technique known
as cell-splitting.
• It can also be accomplished by having more channels

• Small cells lead to more cells/area which in turn leads
per cell, i.e. by having a smaller reuse factor. However,
to increased traffic capacity.
to have a smaller reuse factor, the co-channel
interference must be reduced. This can be done by • For new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit power
using antenna sectorization. must be reduced. If n=4, then with a reduction of cell
radius by a factor of 2, the transmit power should be
Cell splitting reduced by a factor of 24 (why?)
• Cell splitting increases the number of BSs in order to • In theory, cell splitting could be repeated indefinitely.
increase capacity. There will be a corresponding In practice it is limited
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. 1. by the cost of base stations
• Cell splitting accommodates a modular growth 2. handover (fast and low speed traffic)
capability. This in turn leads to capacity increase
3. not all cells are split at the same time : practical

problems of BS sites, such as co-channel
interference exist.
• If we partition a cell into three 120° sectors, the

4. Innovative channel assignment schemes must
number of co-channel cells are reduced from 6 to 2 in
be developed to address this problem for
practical systems. the first tier.
Sectorization • Using six sectors of 60°, we have only one co-channel

cell in the first tier.
• Keep the cell radius but decrease the D/R ratio. In
• Each sector is limited to only using 1/3 or 1/6 of the
order to do this, we must reduce the relative
available channels. We therefore have a decrease in
interference without increasing the transmit power.
trunking efficiency and an increase in the number of
• Sectorization relies on antenna placement and required antennas.
directivity to reduce co-channel interference. Beams
• But how can the increase in system capacity be
are kept within either a 60° or a 120° sector.
achieved?
Micro cells
• Micro cells can be introduced to alleviate capacity

problems caused by “hotspots”.
• By clever channel assignment, the reuse factor is

unchanged. As for cell splitting, there will occur
interference problems when macro and micro cells
must co-exist.
EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Institute for Infocomm Research 79 National University of Singapore

Cellular System 2010

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Cellular System 2010

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

 The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the cell

Cellular Concepts • Irregular cell structure and irregular placing of the

• For systematic cell planning, a regular shape is

• The same set of channels is then reused at different

• A cellular system which has a total S duplex channels.

• S channels are divided among N cells, with each cell

• If each cell is allocated with k channels, then S = kN .

• Cluster size: The N cells which collectively use the

 Co-ordinates for hexagonal cellular geometry

• With these co-ordinates, an array of cells can be laid

 Designing a cellular system

Proof : to obtain the area of the cluster and compare

 The cluster size must satisfy

N = i 2 + ij + j 2 where i, j are non-negative integers.

 Can also verify that

Handover / Handoff • If the slope of the short-term average received signal is

 Once a particular signal level Pmin is specified as the

PHO = Pmin + Δ  Dwell Time

 Handover indicator  Practical handover

• Queuing of handover requests decrease the probability  In soft handover, we do

Interference and System Capacity R−n

 If all cells are approximately of the same size and the

 Outage probability : the probability that a MS does

• For GSM, this is 12 dB and for AMPS, this is 18 dB. If

 Aproximation in distance has been made on the 2nd

- Our computation of outage only based on path loss.

Coverage Problems β (γ ) = P[Pr ( R ) > γ ] - cell boundary coverage,

- Measurement shows that at any value of d, the  Cell coverage

• Therefore, there will be a proportion of locations at The solution is given in the r

 The mean signal level at any distance is determined

 The proportion of locations covered at a given

 The proportion of locations covered within a circular

Example: if n=4, σ=8 dB, and if the boundary is to

 An operator needs to meet certain coverage criteria.

 The basic consideration in the design of a cellular

 Terminology in traffic theory

- Trunking : exploits the statistical characteristics of

- Grade of service (GoS) : A user is allocated a channel  Traffic flow or intensity A

Markov chain : probability that the next state is xn +1 C 1

Under steady state conditions

The probability that the call will not have

Note: Proof for Channel Assignment Strategies

• Borrowing can be done in a few ways: borrowing from

• To be available for borrowing, the channel must not

• Centralized DCA scheme involves a single controller

• For a new call, a free channel from central pool is

essentially via a system re-scaling of the cellular

 As demand for wireless services increases, the number

• This can be accomplished by dividing each initial cell

• It can also be accomplished by having more channels

capability. This in turn leads to capacity increase

3. not all cells are split at the same time : practical

• If we partition a cell into three 120° sectors, the

 Sectorization • Using six sectors of 60°, we have only one co-channel

• Micro cells can be introduced to alleviate capacity

• By clever channel assignment, the reuse factor is

Institute for Infocomm Research 79 National University of Singapore

Вам также может понравиться

The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the cell

Co-ordinates for hexagonal cellular geometry

Designing a cellular system

The cluster size must satisfy

Can also verify that

Once a particular signal level Pmin is specified as the

PHO = Pmin + Δ Dwell Time

Handover indicator Practical handover

• Queuing of handover requests decrease the probability In soft handover, we do

If all cells are approximately of the same size and the

Outage probability : the probability that a MS does

Aproximation in distance has been made on the 2nd

- Measurement shows that at any value of d, the Cell coverage

The mean signal level at any distance is determined

The proportion of locations covered at a given

The proportion of locations covered within a circular

An operator needs to meet certain coverage criteria.

The basic consideration in the design of a cellular

Terminology in traffic theory

- Grade of service (GoS) : A user is allocated a channel Traffic flow or intensity A

As demand for wireless services increases, the number

Sectorization • Using six sectors of 60°, we have only one co-channel