Encyclopedia Organization Management

Encyclopedia Organization Management (768 Terms) Powered by www.drawpack.com; All rights reserved.
Management
A to Z Keyword Definition
Topic
Organization Performance appraisal that uses the input of superiors, subordinates, peers, and clients or customers of the appraised
0-9 Management
360 degree feedback
individual.
Organization
A Management
Absenteeism Failure to report to work.
Organization Acceptance theory of The theory that the manager's authority depends on the subordinate's acceptance of the manager's right to give and expect
A Management authority compliance with directives.
Organization
A Management
Accommodating A conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party while not asserting one's own interest.
Organization Accommodating A style that involves trying to resolve conflict by giving in to the desires of others, sometimes without raising conflicting
A Management style points/issues at all.
Organization A process in which a group of people come together, more or less regularly, to help each other learn from experience.
A Management
Action learning
Participants typically come from different organizations or situations, and each of them is involved in different activities.
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Organization A process usually associated with training, linking improvements or actions with what has been learned. Action planning
A Management
Action planning
establishes a course of actions chosen to realize the application of what was learned or decided.
A participatory, democratic process concerned with developing practical knowledge in the pursuit of worthwhile human
Organization purposes, grounded in a participatory worldview, which is currently still emerging. It seeks to bring together action and
A Management
Action research
reflection, theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to
people, and more generally the flourishing of individual persons and their communities.
Organization
A Management
Active listening A technique for improving the accuracy of information reception by paying close attention to the sender.
Organization
A Management
Actor-observer effect The propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor's behavior differently.
Organization
A Management
Adaptive capacities The capacities needed for an organization to learn and change in response to changing circumstances.
Organization
A Management
Additive tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent upon the sum of the performance of individual group members.
Organization This structure is typically found in young organizations in highly technical fields. Within it, decision making is spread throughout
A Management
Adhocracy
the organization, power resides with the experts, horizontal and vertical specialization exist, and there is little formalization.
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Organization Administrative
A Management hierarchy
The system of reporting relationships in the organization, from the lowest to the highest managerial levels.
Organization Administrative A set of decision making principles that recognize that a completely rational analysis of information and choice options is often
A Management model not feasible in realistic decision-making.
Organization Advanced information The generation, aggregation, storage, modification and speedy transmission of information made possible by the advent of
A Management technology computers and related devices.
Organization Adversarial
A Management intervention
Involves a manager listening to both parties present evidence to support their cases and then making a decision.
Organization Small groups of employees (10-20) that meet a few hours a week to suggest solutions to problems in their work (e.g., quality
A Management
Advisory teams
circle).
Organization
A Management
Affect A person's feeling toward something.
Organization
A Management
Affective commitment Commitment based on identification and involvement with an organization.
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Organization
A Management
Age norms Widely accepted expectations in society about appropriate behavior for a person at a given age.
Organization
A Management
Agreeableness A person's ability to get along with others.
Organization
A Management
All-channel network In this type of network, all members communicate with all other members.
Organization A style characteristic of someone who approaches decisions in a highly rational way and who is capable of tolerating
A Management
Analytic style
uncertainty/ambiguity.
Organization
A Management
Anchoring effect The inadequate adjustment of subsequent estimates from an initial estimate that serves as an anchor.
Organization
A Management
Applied research Conducted to solve particular problems or answer specific questions.
Organization
A Management
Apprentice A junior person, sometimes called a protégé, who has a mentor
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Organization The process through which a minority group learns the ways of the dominant group. In organizations favouring assimilation,
A Management
Assimilation
people from diverse backgrounds are expected to change to fit the existing organizational culture.
Organization
A Management
Attitude A fairly stable emotional tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people.
Organization
A Management
Attribution The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain peoples' behavior.
Suggests that we observe behaviour and then attribute causes to it. Also, suggests that employees observe their own
Organization
A Management
Attribution theory behaviour, determine whether it is a response to external or internal factors, and shape their future motivated behaviour
accordingly.
Organization
A Management
Attribution. The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain peoples' behavior.
Organization The process whereby perceivers (the audience) subtlely pulls/draws behavior from others (also known as the Pygmalion
A Management
Audience extraction
effect).
Organization This terms refers to our tendency as social observers to selectively look for and process certain pieces of information about
A Management
Audience selectivity
people to form impressions
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Organization
A Management
Authoritarianism The belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations.
Organization
A Management
Authority Power that has been legitimized within a particular social context.
Organization
A Management
Autonomy The freedom to schedule one's own work activities and decide work procedures.
Organization Avoidance (negative The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behaviour. Occurs when the interacting
A Management reinforcement) parties' goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals.
Organization A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one's own interests and low cooperation with the other
A Management
Avoiding
party.
Organization When faced with conflict, a person who uses this style often try to ignore conflict all together rather than trying to directly
A Management
Avoiding style
resolve it.
Organization A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one's own interests and low cooperation with the other
A Management
Avoiding.
party.
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Organization
B Management
Basic research Discovering new knowledge rather than solving specific problems.
Organization A decision making who is very attuned to how decisions affect employees and the work environment; tends to be more
B Management
Behavioral style
deliberate and slower in style.
Organization This approach to leadership tries to identify behaviours that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders. It uses guidelines,
B Management
Behavioural approach
suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions.
Organization A systematic process for examining the products, services, and work processes of firms that are recognized as illustrating the
B Management
Benchmarking
best practices for organizational improvement.
Organization An important form of indirect compensation. big five personality traits A set of personality traits that are especially relevant to
B Management
Benefits
organizations.
Organization Alternating periods of stability and transition, with predictable themes that are based in psychological and biological factors and
B Management
Biosocial life stages
patterns of social expectations.
Organization
B Management
Body language Nonverbal communication by means of a sender's bodily motions, facial expressions, or physical location.
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Organization
B Management
Boundary roles Positions in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organizations or with the public.
Organization
B Management
Bounded rationality A decision strategy that relies on limited information and that reflects time constraints and political considerations.
Organization An attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than
B Management
Brainstorming
evaluation.
Organization Breakthrough
B Management culture
A corporate value system which recognizes that normal business rules and pressures don't apply to innovative thinking.
Organization Max Weber's ideal type of organization that included a strict chain of command, detailed rules, high specialization, centralized
B Management
Bureaucracy
power, and selection and promotion based on technical competence.
Organization
B Management
Burnout Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment among those who work with people.
Organization
C Management
Capacity The ability of individuals and organizations to perform effectively, efficiently, and in a sustainable manner.
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An ongoing process by which individuals, groups, organizations, and societies increase their abilities to perform core functions,
Organization Capacity
C Management development
solve problems, define and achieve objectives, and understand and deal with their development needs in a broad context and
sustainable manner.
Organization An evolving sequence of work activities and positions that individuals experience over time as well as the associated attitudes,
C Management
Career
knowledge, and competencies that develop throughout one's life.
Organization An evolving sequence of work activities and positions that individuals experience over time as well as the associated attitudes,
C Management
Career
knowledge, and competencies that develop throughout one's life.
Organization Career advisors and These people can help others find and analyze career information, but the ultimate career decision must be made by the
C Management counsellors individual.
Organization
C Management
Career management The process of implementing organizational career planning.
Organization
C Management
Career orientation The fairly stable pattern of preferred occupational activities, talents, values, and attitudes.
Organization
C Management
Career pathing The identification of a certain sequence of jobs in a career that represent a progression through the organization.
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Organization A system in which individuals evaluate their abilities and interests, consider alternative career opportunities, establish career
C Management
Career planning
goals, and plan practical development activities.
Organization
C Management
Career skills portfolio The sum total of one's occupational skills, abilities, and knowledge.
Organization
C Management
Career stages General patterns of developmental issues, key tasks, and changes in work role activities.
The detailed investigation of one or more organizations, or groups within organizations, with a view to providing an analysis of
Organization
C Management
Case study the context and processes involved in the phenomenon under study. The phenomenon is not isolated from its context (as in
laboratory research for example) but is examined in relation to its context.
Organization
C Management
Central tendency The tendency to assign most ratees to middle-range job performance categories.
Organization
C Management
Central traits Personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver.
Organization
C Management
Centralization The extent to which decision making power is localized in a particular part of an organization.
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Organization In this type of a network, each member communicates with the person above and below but not with the individuals on each
C Management
Chain network
end.
Organization
C Management
Chain of command Lines of authority and formal reporting relationship.
Organization
C Management
Change The implementation of a program or plan to move an organization and/or its members to a more satisfactory state.
Organization
C Management
Change The implementation of a program or plan to move an organization and/or its members to a more satisfactory state.
Organization
C Management
Change agents Experts in the application of behavioral science knowledge to organizational diagnosis and change.
Organization Change-oriented Leadership behavior focused on making significant change happen (e.g., communicating an inspiring vision, gaining
C Management behavior subordinate commitment for change).
Organization
C Management
Channel noise A disturbance in communication that is primarily a function of the medium.
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Organization The ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers and thus have the potential for strong influence among
C Management
Charisma
them.
A form of leadership in which the leader is viewed as having extraordinary abilities, being 'larger than life,' and inspiring
Organization Charismatic
C Management leadership
tremendous effort. Often the result of a complex interplay between leader characteristics, subordinate perceptions, and
situational pressures.
Organization
C Management
Churning When firms fire many people and hire many people at the same time.
Organization
C Management
Circle network In this type of network, each member communicates with the people on both sides but with no one else.
The most common legal system in the world, practiced in over 70 countries (e.g.,Germany, Japan, Turkey, etc.). Referred to as
Organization
C Management
Civil law code law since it is based on an elaborate list of rules about actions and misdeeds, but considerable consistency in
adjudication.
Organization
C Management
Classical conditioning A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.
Organization Classical organization

C Management theory
Focused on how organizations can be structured most effectively to meet their goals.
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Organization An early prescription on management that advocated high specialization of labor, intensive coordination, and centralized
C Management
Classical viewpoint
decision making.
Organization
C Management
Coercive power Power derived from the use of punishment and threat.
Organization
C Management
Cognition The knowledge a person presumes to have about something.
Organization
C Management
Cognitive biases Tendencies to acquire and process information in an error-prone way.
Organization
C Management
Cognitive dissonance A feeling of tension experienced when certain cognitions are contradictory or inconsistent with each other.
Organization
C Management
Collaborating A conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation.
Organization A style that ranks high on both assertiveness and cooperation; often called a win-win approach because efforts are made to
C Management
Collaborating style
see the best options for both parties to conflict.
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Organization
C Management
Collective knowledge Collective knowledge is an outcome of organizational or institutional learning.
Organization
C Management
Collectivism The extent to which people emphasize the good of the group or society; compare with individualism.
Organization
C Management
Command group A relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships.
Organization
C Management
Commitment A pledge or obligation to carry out some action or policy or to give support to a policy or person.
Organization Also a popular legal system around the world (e.g., U.S., U.K, etc.). In contrast to civil law's reliance on elaborate codes,
C Management
Common law
common law uses precedent or the balance of prior rulings to resolve disputes.
Organization
C Management
Communication The process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver.
Communication and
Organization A stage of group development in which members discuss their feelings more openly and agree on group goals and individual
C Management
decision-making
roles in the group.
stage
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Organization Communication
C Management fidelity
The degree of correspondence between the message intended by the source and the message understood by the receiver.
Organization
C Management
Compensation Applying one's skills in a particular area to make up for failure in another area.
Organization Compensation The total array of money (wages, salary, commission), incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided to an employee
C Management package by an organization.
Organization
C Management
Competing A conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes cooperation.
Organization
C Management
Competition Occurs when goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting goals.
Organization
C Management
Competitive strategy An outline of how a business intends to compete with other firms in the same industry.
Organization
C Management
Complexity The extent to which an organization divides labor vertically, horizontally, and geographically.
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Organization
C Management
Compliance Conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment.
Organization Compressed
C Management schedule
A set of work schedules that use non-traditional methods of completing a 40 hour work week (e.g., 4-40; 4 days of 10-hr work).
Organization Compressed An alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer than the normal five days a week but still put in a normal number
C Management workweek of hours per week.
Organization
C Management
Compromise A conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation.
Organization
C Management
Compromising style A person using this style approaches conflict as a give-and-take situation giving up something to get something else.
Organization
C Management
Conceptual skills The manager uses conceptual skills to think in the abstract.
Organization
C Management
Conceptual style A decision maker who can easily see 'the big picture' and is not necessarily mired in the fine details.
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Organization
C Management
Configuration An organization's shape. It reflects the division of labour and the means of coordinating the divided tasks.
Organization
C Management
Confirmation bias The tendency to seek out information that conforms to one's own definition of or solution to a problem.
Organization
C Management
Conflict Disagreement among parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics.
Organization A very personal approach to decision making. It deals with the personal conflicts people experience in particularly difficult
C Management
Conflict model
decision situations.
Organization
C Management
Conflict resolution Occurs when a manager resolves conflict that has become harmful or serious.
Organization
C Management
Conflict stimulation A strategy of increasing conflict in order to motivate change.
Organization
C Management
Congruence A condition in which a person's words, thoughts, feelings, and actions all contain the same message.
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Organization Related to the representativeness heuristic in that instead of decreasing our probability judgements for detailed, conjunctive
C Management
Conjunction fallacy
predictions, we actually often believe they are more likely to occur than simple/single events themselves.
Organization
C Management
Conjunctive tasks Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member.
Organization
C Management
Conscientiousness The number of goals on which a person focuses.
Organization
C Management
Consensus cues Attribution cues that reflect how a person's behavior compares with that of others.
Organization
C Management
Conservative shift The tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.
Organization
C Management
Consideration The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern for subordinates.
Organization Consideration
C Management behaviour
Involves being concerned with subordinates' feelings and respecting subordinates' ideas.
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Organization
C Management
Consistency cues Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in some behavior over time.
Organization Content theories of

C Management motivation
Theories that identify the needs that arouse or energize employee behavior.
The effect of the background under which a message often takes on more and richer meaning. Context is especially important
Organization
C Management
Context in cross-cultural interactions because some cultures are said to be high context (the culture provides many understood ways to
interpret messages) or low context (the words themselves explicitly carry a lot of the message).
Organization Contingency An approach to management that recognizes that there is no one best way to manage, and that an appropriate management
C Management approach style depends on the demands of the situation.
Organization Contingency
C Management perspective
Suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are contingent on, or influenced by, other variables.
Organization
C Management
Contingency plans Alternative actions to take if the primary source of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate.
Organization Fred Fiedler's theory that states that the association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent upon
C Management
Contingency theory
how favorable the situation is for exerting influence.
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Organization Continuance
C Management commitment
Commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization.
Organization Continuous
C Management improvement
A perspective that suggests performance should constantly be en-hanced.
Organization Continuous
C Management reinforcement
With this type of reinforcement, behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs.
Organization Previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer's perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of
C Management
Contrast effects
differences between applicants.
Organization
C Management
Contributions An individual's contributions to an organization include such things as effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty.
Organization Control and A stage of group development in which the group is mature and members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and self-
C Management organization stage correcting.
Organization
C Management
Control group A group of research subjects who have not been exposed to the experimental treatment.
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Organization The process of monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and its members to keep them directed toward their
C Management
Controlling
goals.
Organization
C Management
Coordination A process of facilitating timing, communication, and feedback among work tasks.
Organization The whole collection of beliefs, values, and behaviors of a firm that send messages to those within and outside the company
C Management
Corporate culture
about how business is done.
Organization Corporate wellness Long-term programs that also act to increase and promote employee health and reduce stress (fitness facilities, health
C Management programs classes, etc.).
Organization Correlational Research that attempts to measure variables precisely and examine relationships among these variables without introducing
C Management research change into the research setting.
Organization
C Management
Cosmopolite Links the organization to the external environment and may also be the opinion leader in the group.
Organization
C Management
Creativity The production of novel but potentially useful ideas.
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Organization Cross-functional Work groups that bring people with different functional specialties together to better invent, design, or deliver a product or
C Management teams service.
Organization
C Management
Cultural context The cultural information that surrounds a communication episode.
Organization
C Management
Cultural values The values employees need to have and act on for the organization to act on strategic values.
Organization Customer
C Management departmentation
Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization's products or services to specific customer groups.
Organization Customer-based Similar in some respects to product-based structures, this type of structure uses customer groups or segments as an
C Management structure organizing principle.
Organization
D Management
Debasement A series of socialization experiences designed to humble people and remove some self-confidence.
Organization
D Management
Decision making The process of developing commitment to some course of action.
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Organization
D Management
Decision rule A statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation.
Organization Decision-choice Rational models that shift the focus away from the information sources to the actual options in trying to reach a systematic
D Management models decision.
Organization
D Management
Decoding The process by which the receiver of the message interprets the message's meaning.
Organization
D Management
Defense mechanisms Psychological attempts to reduce the anxiety associated with stress.
Organization Making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact associated with issues because there appears to be
D Management
Defensive avoidance
no hope of finding a better solution.
Organization
D Management
Deficiency needs A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes physiological, security, and belongingness needs.
Organization Typically refers to a context in which a manager hands over the responsibility and decision control for various tasks or jobs to
D Management
Delegation
others, usually subordinates.
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Organization
D Management
Delphi technique A method of pooling a large number of expert judgments through a series of increasingly refined questionnaires.
Organization
D Management
Departmentalization The manner in whichdivided tasks are combined and allocated to work groups.
Organization
D Management
Dependent variable In an experiment, the variable that is expected to vary as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.
Organization
D Management
Devil's advocate A person appointed to identify and challenge the weakness of a proposed plan of strategy.
Organization
D Management
Diagnosis The systematic collection of information relevant to impending organizational change.
Organization The manager uses diagnostic skills to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to
D Management
Diagnostic skills
problems.
Organization
D Management
Differentiation The tendency for managers in separate departments to differ in terms of goals, time spans, and interpersonal styles.
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Organization
D Management
Diffusion The process by which innovations move through an organization.
Organization Diffusion of
D Management responsibility
The ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision.
Organization
D Management
Diffusion. The process by which innovations move through an organization.
Gathering information about things that can be observed. For example, by visiting an organization, one can directly collect
Organization
D Management
Direct observation information on the physical surroundings. By observing meetings, one can observe who shows up, how people interact, and
what decisions are taken.
Organization Direct use of The instrumental use of evaluation results by decision-makers as the basis for a decision. Direct use occurs when information
D Management evaluation results or findings are applied directly to change an action or alter a decision.
Organization A decision making style characterized by a person who, while analytic, doesn't enjoy juggling lots of data they make a decision
D Management
Directive style
and move on.
Organization A theory that job satisfaction stems from the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and the outcomes that are
D Management
Discrepancy theory
perceived to be obtained.
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Organization
D Management
Disjunctive tasks Tasks in which group performance is dependent upon the performance of the best group member.
Organization
D Management
Displacement Directing feelings of anger at a safe target rather than expressing them where they might be punished.
Organization Dispositional
D Management attributions
Explanations for behavior based on an actor's personality or intellect.
Organization
D Management
Distinctiveness cues Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behavior across a variety of situations.
Organization
D Management
Distress The unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events.
Organization
D Management
Distributive fairness Fairness that occurs when people receive what they think they deserve from their jobs.
Organization Distributive
D Management negotiation
Win-lose negotiation in which a fixed amount of assets is divided between parties.
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Organization A set of training and information dissemination programs that help employees recognize the value of differences among
D Management
Diversity programs
people.
Organization
D Management
Division of labour The extent to which the organization's work is divided into different jobs to be done by different people.
This structure is typical of old, very large organizations. Within it, the organization is divided according to the different markets
Organization
D Management
Divisionalized form served. Horizontal and vertical specialization exists between divisions and headquarters. Decision making is divided between
divisions and headquarters, and outputs are standardized.
Organization Firms who largely do business in their home country, although they may export some of their products or services across
D Management
Domestic firm
borders.
Organization
D Management
Downsizing The intentional reduction of workforce size with the goal of improving organizational efficiency or effectiveness.
Organization
D Management
Downsizing. The intentional reduction of workforce size with the goal of improving organizational efficiency or effectiveness.
Organization Downward
D Management communication
Information that flows from the top of the organization toward the bottom.
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Organization
D Management
Dual-structure theory This theory identifies moti-vation factors, which affect satisfaction, as well as hygiene factors, which affect dissatisfaction.
Organization
E Management
Effect dependence Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment.
Organization Effective
E Management communication
The right people receive the right information in a timely manner.
Organization
E Management
Effectiveness The extent to which desired objectives are achieved. The extent to which an organization achieves its mission and objectives.
Organization The extent to which results are achieved with minimum use of resources. The degree to which an organization generates its
E Management
Efficiency
products and services using a minimum of inputs.
Organization Effort-to-performance
E Management expectancy
A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance.
Organization Electronic
E Management brainstorming
The use of computer-mediated technology to improve traditional brainstorming practices.
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Organization
E Management
Electronic groups Decision-making groups whose members are linked electronically rather than face-to-face.
Organization Employee assistance Programs offered by companies to help employees deal with job stress and with personal problems that may have developed
E Management program (EAP) from the stress or other sources (alcohol/substance abuse help, counseling for psychological symptoms, etc.).
Organization Anonymous questionnaire that enables employees to state their candid opinions and attitudes about an organization and its
E Management
Employee survey
practices.
Organization Employee-centred
E Management leader behaviour
Involves at-tempting to build effective work groups with high performance goals.
Organization
E Management
Empowerment Giving people the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve organizational problems.
Organization
E Management
Encoding The process by which the message is translated from an idea or thought into transmittable symbols.
Organization Entry stage

E Management (exploration stage)
Characterized by self-examination, role tryouts, and occupational exploration.
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Organization Environmental
E Management uncertainty
A condition that exists when the external environment is vague, difficult to diagnose, and unpredictable.
Organization
E Management
Equity The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others.
Organization A process theory that job satisfaction and motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the
E Management
Equity theory
outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.
Organization A three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness, growth) that allows for movement up and down the
E Management
ERG theory
hierarchy.
Organization Escalation of
E Management commitment
The tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action.
Organization Establishment stage

E Management (setting-down stage)
In this stage, the individual gets more recognition for improved performance.
Organization
E Management
Ethics Systematic thinking about the moral consequences of decisions.
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Organization
E Management
Eustress The pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events.
Systematic investigation of the worth, value, merit, or quality of an object. Assessment of the operation or the outcomes of a
Organization
E Management
Evaluation program or policy, compared to a set of explicit or implicit standards, as a means of contributing to its improvement. The
criteria for evaluation may include relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability.
An organizational culture that values evaluation and seeks solutions to problems, trying out tentative solutions, and weighing
Organization
E Evaluation culture the results and consequences of actions within an endless cycle of supposition–action–evidence–revision that characterizes
Management good science and good management.
Organization
E Management
Evaluation questions Questions formulated to help focus an evaluation on key topics or issues.
Organization
E Management
Exemplification An impression management tactic that involves self-sacrifice.
Organization Exit (withdrawal)

E Management stage
Pattern of decreasing performance in a career as individuals prepare to move on or retire.
Organization
E Management
Expectancy The probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved.
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Organization A process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their
E Management
Expectancy theory
actions on the job.
Organization Experimental Research which changes or manipulates a variable under controlled conditions and examines the consequences of this
E Management research manipulation for some other variable.
Organization
E Management
Expert power Power derived from having special information or expertise that is valued by an organization.
Organization A source of power to the extent that people around a manager view him or her as an expert; someone whose knowledge and
E Management
Expertise
skills can help them do their jobs.
Organization
E Management
External attribution Attributing the cause of work behavior to some reason that is external to the person (e.g., bad luck, unfair circumstances, etc.).
Organization
E Management
External career The objective sequence of positions that comprise one's career.
Organization
E Management
External environment Events and conditions surrounding an organization that influence its activities.
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The environment in which an organization operates. Includes such things as the administrative and legal systems that govern
Organization External operating
E Management environment
the organization, as well as the political, economic, technological, social, and cultural context in which the organization
operates.
Organization
E Management
Extinction The gradual dissipation of behavior following the termination of reinforcement.
Organization
E Management
Extrinsic motivation Motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by others.
Organization The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social
E Management
Extroversion
discomfort.
Organization Family-supportive A series of programs (e.g., on-site day care) adopted by companies that can help employees deal with work-family conflict and
F Management policies stress.
Organization Fearlessness A type of culture that can form in firms whose business involves considerable risk and rapid feedback. Attracts and rewards
F Management culture people willing to take chances and decisive.
Organization
F Management
Feedback. Information about the effectiveness of one's work performance.
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Organization
F Management
Field experiment Similar to a laboratory experiment, but conducted in a real organization.
Organization
F Management
Field survey Typically relies on questionnaire distributed to a sample of people selected from a larger population.
Organization
F Management
Filtering The tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped during transmission.
Organization
F Management
Financial resources The funding available to the organization to carry out its activities.
Organization Fixed interval A partial reinforcement schedule in which some fixed time period occurs between a reinforced response and the availability of
F Management schedule the next reinforcement.
Organization A partial reinforcement schedule in which some fixed number of responses must be made between a reinforced response and
F Management
Fixed ratio schedule.
the availability of the next reinforcement.
Organization Fixed-interval
F Management reinforcement
Provides reinforce-ment on a fixed time schedule.
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Organization Fixed-ratio
F Management reinforcement
Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviours.
Organization
F Management
Flat organization An organization with relatively few levels in its hierarchy of authority.
Organization Flexible reward

F Management system
Allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suit their needs.
Organization Flexible work

F Management schedules (flextime)
These schedules give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day.
Organization
F Management
Flex-time An alternative work schedule in which arrival and quitting times are flexible.
Organization Follower-centered
F Management leadership
Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on follower's needs and how they respond to leaders.
Organization
F Management
Force The effort directed toward a first-level outcome.
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Organization The exact opposite of an accomodating style - a person who is very willing to use their power and authority to settle an
F Management
Forcing style
argument.
Organization
F Management
Formal work groups Groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals.
Organization
F Management
Formalization The extent to which work roles are highly defined by an organization.
Organization
F Management
Framing Aspects of the presentation of information about a problem that are assumed by decision makers.
Organization The tendency for a decision maker to be swayed by whether a decision is pitched as a positive (e.g., gain) or negative (e.g.,
F Management
Framing
loss).
Organization
F Management
Friendship group A group that is relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social relationships among its members.
Organization Functional
F Management departmentation
Employees with closely related skills and responsibilities are assigned to the same department.
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Organization
F Management
Functional structure A type of structure in which units and departments are organized based on the activity or function that they perform.
Organization Fundamental
F Management attribution error
The tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behavior at the expense of situational explanations.
Organization
G Management
Gainsharing A group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has some control.
Organization
G Management
Gatekeepers People who span organizational boundaries to import new information, translate it for local use, and disseminate it.
Organization General adaptation

G Management syndrome (GAS)
Identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Organization This environment includes the broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates, including political-
G Management
General environment
legal, sociocultural, technological, economic, and international factors.
Organization Geographic
G Management departmentation
Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization's products or services in a specific geographic territory.
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Organization Geographic-based
G Management structure
A type of structure in which product lines, services, and/or functions are organized by location.
Organization A term that refers to the many barriers that can exist to thwart a woman's rise to the top of an organization; one that provides a
G Management
Glass ceiling
view of the top, but a ceiling on how far a woman can go.
Organization Firms are considered global if they produce high-quality products that can be sold anywhere across globe, are international in
G Management
Global firm
their thinking, and expatriates from around the globe comprise their managerial pool.
Organization
G Management
Goal acceptance The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own.
Organization
G Management
Goal commitment The extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal.
Organization
G Management
Goal compatibility The extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same time.
Organization
G Management
Goal difficulty The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
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Organization A motivational technique that uses specific, challenging, and acceptable goals and provides feedback to enhance
G Management
Goal setting
performance.
Organization
G Management
Goal specificity The clarity and precision of a goal.
Organization
G Management
Goal theory A theory which argues that establishing future performance targets can help motivate employees.
Organization
G Management
Goals The highest-level objective of an organization, project, or program.
Organization
G Management
Grapevine An organization's informal communication network.
Organization
G Management
Group Two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by the other person.
Organization
G Management
Group cohesiveness The degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members.
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Organization
G Management
Group composition The degree of similarity or difference among group members in factors important to the group's work.
Organization
G Management
Group interview A technique that uses a (small) number of informants to collect perceptions and opinions.
Organization Group performance The performance factors are composition, size, norms, and cohesiveness. They affect the success of the group in fulfilling its
G Management factors goals.
Organization
G Management
Group polarization The tendency for a group's average post-discussion attitudes to be more extreme then its average pre-discussion attitudes.
Organization
G Management
Group size The number of members of the group; it affects the number of resources available to perform the task.
Organization The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of decision-making
G Management
Group think
groups.
Organization Refers to a situation in which pressures for cohesion and togetherness are so strong as to produce narrowly considered and
G Management
Groupthink
bad decisions; this can be especially true via conformity pressures in groups.
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Organization
G Management
Growth need strength The extent to which people desire to achieve higher-order need satisfaction by performing their jobs.
Organization
G Management
Growth needs A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes esteem and self-actualization needs.
Organization
H Management
Halo effect The rating of an individual on one trait or characteristic tends to color ratings on other traits or characteristics.
Organization
H Management
Hard capacities The tangible assets and resources of an organization, such as its land, buildings, facilities, personnel, and equipment.
Organization
H Management
Harshness The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially ineffective.
Organization A favorable response by subjects in an organizational experiment that is the result of a factor other than the independent
H Management
Hawthorne effect
variable that is formally being manipulated.
Organization Conducted between 1927 and 1932, these studies led to some of the first discoveries of the importance of human behaviour in
H Management
Hawthorne Studies
organizations.
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Organization Hersey and This model of leadership identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with different levels of
H Management Blanchard model organizational maturity on the part of followers.
Organization Herzberg's two-factor Motivation theory which argues that the factors which cause satisfaction on the job are different than those which cause
H Management theory dissatisfaction.
Organization Decision making shortcuts that everyone develops over time and use to deal with the myriad of daily decisions; can sometimes
H Management
Heuristics
lead a manager astray, particularly if they are used as shortcuts.
Organization
H Management
Hierarchy of needs Maslow's hierarchy assumes human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.
Organization
H Management
Hindsight The tendency to review a decision-making process to find what was done right or wrong.
Organization Horizontal
H Management communication
Information that flows between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.
Organization Horizontal job Like vertical loading, this involves combining tasks, but unlike that technique the additional tasks are added without requiring
H Management loading additional skills).
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Organization
H Management
Human capacities The knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the members of an organization.
Organization
H Management
Human organization Rensis Likert's organization approach that is based on supportive relationships, participation, and overlapping work groups.
Organization Human relations Took the view that the best way to improve production was to respect workers and show concern for their needs. Became
H Management approach popular in the 1920s and remained influential through the 1950s.
Organization Human relations A critique of classical management and bureaucracy that advocated management styles that were more participative and
H Management movement oriented toward employee needs.
Organization Hybrid
H Management departmentation
A structure based on some mixture of functional, product, geographic, or customer departmentation.
Organization
H Management
Hygiene factors The factors in Herzberg's theory that cause dissatisfaction (e.g., working conditions, pay, and coworker relations).
Organization
H Management
Hypervigilance A frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy.
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Organization
H Management
Hypothesis A formal statement of the expected relationship between two variables.
Organization
I Management
Idea champions People who recognize an innovative idea and guide it to implementation.
Organization Weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and procedures designed to create an
I Management
Ideal bureaucracy
optimally effective system for large organizations.
Organization
I Management
Identification Conformity to a social norm promoted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself.
Organization
I Management
Idiosyncrasy credits Social credits earned from regular conformity to group norms that allow occasional deviance from the norms.
Organization
I Management
Ill-structured problem A problem for which the existing and desired states are unclear and the method of getting to the desired state is unknown.
Organization Any effect, whether anticipated or unanticipated, positive or negative, brought about by a development intervention. In some
I Management
Impact
cases, ‘impact’ refers to the long-term effects of an intervention on broad development goals.
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Organization
I Management
Impetus Providing impetus involves the manager providing a strong incentive for the disputents to reach an agreement on their own.
Organization Implementation
I Management teams
Groups of individuals from various functional groups who are responsible for enacting change in organizations.
Organization Implicit personality

I Management theories
Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together.
Organization Impression
I Management management
A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her own image in the eyes of others.
Plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance. incubation A period of
Organization
I Management
Incentive systems less-intense conscious concentration during which a creative person is able to let the knowledge and ideas acquired during
preparation mature and develop.
Organization
I Management
Independent variable The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.
Organization Quantitative or qualitative factor or variable that provides a simple and reliable means to measure achievement, to reflect the
I Management
Indicator
changes connected to an intervention, or to help assess the performance of a development actor.
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Organization Indirect use of Conceptual use of evaluation results in decision making. Refers to an intellectual and gradual process in which the decision-
I Management evaluation results maker is led to a more adequate appreciation of the problems addressed by the policy or program.
Organization
I Management
Individual differences The personal attributes that vary from one person to another.
Organization Individualistic vs. Individualistic societies stress independence, individual initiative, and privacy. Collective cultures favor interdependence and
I Management Collective loyalty to family or clan.
Organization
I Management
Inducements The tangible or intangible rewards organizations provide individuals.
Organization
I Management
Inequity The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.
Organization
I Management
Influence The ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviours of others.
Organization
I Management
Influence tactics Tactics that are used to convert power into actual influence over others.
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Organization
I Management
Informal groups Groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members.
Organization Information
I Management dependence
Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act.
Organization
I Management
Information overload The reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions.
Organization
I Management
Information richness The potential information-carrying capacity of a communication medium.
Organization
I Management
Informational roles There are three key informational roles: the monitor, the disseminator, and the spokesperson.
Organization Information- Rational models that focus on evaluating the quality and relative weight of various pieces of information that need to be
I Management processing models combined together to reach a decision.
Organization
I Management
Initiating structure The degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment.
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Organization Initiating-structure
I Management behaviour
Involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them.
Organization
I Management
Innovation The process of developing and implementing new ideas in an organization.
Organization
I Management
Inputs Anything that people give up, offer, or trade to their organization in exchange for outcomes.
Organization Inquisitorial
I Management intervention
Involves a manager soliciting evidence from the disputents and then making a decision.
Organization The stage in the creative process when all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come
I Management
Insight
together to produce a breakthrough.
A socially sanctioned and maintained set of established practices, norms, behaviors, or relationships (i.e. trade regulations,
Organization land tenure, banking systems, and an organization’s staff rules) that persist over time in support of collectively valued
I Management
Institution
purposes. Institutions have both formal and informal rules and enforcement mechanisms that shape the behavior of individuals
and organizations in society.
Organization The learning that takes place among individuals in different organizations and groups, who are working together to achieve a
I Management
Institutional learning
common end and, in particular, to induce institutional change.
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Organization
I Management
Instrumentality The probability that a particular first-level outcome will be followed by a particular second-level outcome.
Organization
I Management
Integration The process of attaining coordination across differentiated departments.
Organization Integrative
I Management negotiation
Win-win negotiation that assumes that mutual problem solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties.
Organization
I Management
Integrators Organizational members permanently assigned to facilitate coordination between departments.
Organization
I Management
Intention A component of an attitude that guides an individual's behaviour.
Organization
I Management
Interactionalism Suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals' behaviour.
Organization
I Management
Interest groups Parties or organizations other than direct competitors that have some vested interest in how an organization is managed.
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Organization Interlocking
I Management directorates
A condition existing when one person serves on two or more boards of directors.
Organization Ascribing/assigning the cause of a person's behavior at work to something about them (e.g, their effort, their innate ability,
I Management
Internal attribution
etc.).
Organization The individual's interpretation of objective work experiences know only from a person's own subjective sense of external
I Management
Internal career
events.
Factors inside an organization that make up the organization’s ‘personality’, and which influence the organization’s
cohesiveness and the energy it displays pursuing its goals. Factors that make up the internal environment include: the
Organization
I Internal environment organization’s culture, performance-related incentive, and rewards systems, the institutional ‘climate’ in general, the history and
Management traditions of the organization, leadership and management style, the existence of a generally recognized and accepted mission
statement, and shared norms and values that promote teamwork in the pursuit of the organization’s goals.
Organization
I Management
Internalization Conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm.
Organization Those firms who have responded to stiff competition domestically by expanding their sales abroad. They may start a
I Management
International firm
production facility overseas and send some of their managers, who report to a global division, to that country.
Organization
I Management
Interpersonal conflict A process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another.
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Organization Interpersonal
I Management demands
Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and personality conflicts.
Organization
I Management
Interpersonal roles There are three important interpersonal roles: the figurehead, the leader, and the liaison.
Organization
I Management
Interpersonal skills The manager uses interpersonal skills to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups.
Organization
I Management
Interrole conflict Several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations.
Organization Intersender role

I Management conflict
Two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations.
Organization
I Management
Intrapreneurship An entrepreneurial activity that takes place within the context of a large organization.
Organization Intrasender role

I Management conflict
A single role sender provides incompatible expectations to a role occupant.
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Organization
I Management
Intrinsic motivation Motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied.
Organization Problem identification and solving based on systematic education and experiences that locate problems within a network of
I Management
Intuition
previously acquired information.
Organization A code-based legal system tied to religious stipulations put forth in the Koran. While not strictly a legal system, the Koran does
I Management
Islamic law
address business concerns such as the need to honor agreements and to us good faith in interactions.
Organization Isolate (isolated

I Management dyad)
Tend to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others.
Organization
J Management
Jargon Specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupations or organizations.
The process of systematically gathering information about specific jobs to use in devel-oping a performance measurement
Organization system, to write job or position descriptions, and to develop equitable pay systems. ) job-centred leader behaviour Involves
J Management
Job analysis
paying close attention to the work of subordinates, ex-plaining work procedures, and demonstrating a strong interest in
performance.
Organization Job characteristics

J Management approach
Focuses on the motivational attributes of jobs.
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Organization Job characteristics A model of how to put enrichment in practice, which involves -among other things - changing jobs so that they provide more
J Management model feedback and autonomy to those actually doing the jobs.
Organization Job characteristics Identifies three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for work
J Management theory outcomes, and knowledge of results.
Organization Job demands-job A model that asserts that jobs promote high stress when they make high demands while offering little control over work
J Management control model decisions.
Organization
J Management
Job design How organizations define and structure jobs.
Organization Involves combining multiple tasks once performed by several people into one job. As with rotation, it is designed to increase
J Management
Job enlargement
variety and reduce boredom association with job simplification.
Organization
J Management
Job enrichment The design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation and the quality of working life.
Organization Occurs when an individual makes fewer adjustments within the organization and moves to different organizations to advance
J Management
Job hopping
his or her career.
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Organization
J Management
Job redesign Efforts by firms to redesign how work is done to, among other things, reduce job stress (discussed in Chapter 6 earlier).
Organization
J Management
Job rotation The practice of shifting workers to different jobs at periodic intervals.
Organization
J Management
Job satisfaction A collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs.
Organization
J Management
Job sharing An alternative work schedule in which two part-time employees divide the work of a full time job.
Organization
J Management
Job specialization Advocated by scientific management, it can help improve efficiency but it can also promote monotony and boredom.
An evaluation undertaken by two or more parties to achieve a mutual objective. There are various degrees of ‘jointness’
Organization depending on the extent to which individual partners cooperate in the evaluation process, merge their evaluation resources,
J Management
Joint evaluation
and combine their evaluation reporting. Joint evaluation can help overcome attribution problems in assessing the effectiveness
of programs and strategies, the complementarities of efforts supported by different partners, the quality of aid coordination, etc.
Key informants are those ‘who know’, and are not necessarily representative of a population. They are chosen for their
Organization Key informant
K Management interview
knowledge or distinctive viewpoint. The key informant interview method forms part of focused interview techniques (as distinct
from sample survey interviewing) and is governed by the need to identify a wide range of different viewpoints.
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Organization Laboratory
L Management experiment
Creating an artifical setting, similar to a real work situation to allow control over amost every possible factor in that setting.
Organization Lateral
L Management communication
Communication that flows relatively freely between people of relatively equal power in organizations.
Organization Leader punishment

L Management behavior
The leader's use of reprimands or unfavorable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards.
Organization Leader reward

L Management behavior
The leader's provision of subordinates with compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment.
Organization Leader substitutes A approach which examines how various situational factors can either substitute for leadership (making leader behavior
L Management theory unnecessary) or neutralize the impact of leader behavior.
Organization Leader-centered
L Management leadership
Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on the leader's traits, skills, and behaviors.
Leader-member
Organization
L Management
exchange (LMX) This model of leadership stresses that leaders develop unique working relationships with each of their subordinates.
model
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Organization Leader-member
L Management exchange theory
Explains leadership in terms of the relationship that develops between leaders and subordinates over time.
Organization The capacity to assess and interpret needs and opportunities, to establish direction, to influence and align others towards a
L Management
Leadership
common aim, motivating and committing them to action, and making them responsible for their performance.
Organization Evaluates leader behaviour along two dimensions—concern for production and concern for people—and suggests that
L Management
Leadership Grid
effective leadership styles include high levels of both behaviours.
Organization Leadership Individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction
L Management substitutes and performance.
Organization
L Management
Leading The process of getting the organization's members to work together toward the organization's goals.
Organization
L Management
Learning A relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential resulting from direct or indirect experience.
Organization Learning
L Management organization
A firm which values continuous learning and is consistently looking to adapt and change with its environment.
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Organization Least Preferred Co-

L Management Worker (LPC)
A current or past co-worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task.
Organization
L Management
Legitimate power Power derived from a person's position or job in an organization.
Organization
L Management
Leniency The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially good.
Organization
L Management
Liaison role The assignment of a person to help achieve coordination between his or her department and another department.
Organization
L Management
Life change Any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation; too many life changes can lead to health problems.
Organization
L Management
Life trauma Any upheaval in an individual's life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviours.
Organization
L Management
Linking role A position for a person or group that serves to coordinate the activities of two or more organizational groups.
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Organization
L Management
Locus of control A set of beliefs about whether one's behavior is controlled mainly by internal or external forces.
A simplified chain of relationships that portrays the logic and assumptions underlying a program or intervention and how it
Organization intends to achieve its expected results. It states the logic of the program, identifies the assumptions on which it is based, and
L Management
Logic model
outlines the logical connections between (a) the activities undertaken, (b) the outputs to be produced, (c) the immediate or
short-term outcomes that are expected, and 9d) the ultimate or long-term impacts the program is designed to achieve.
Organization LPC theory of

L Management leadership
Suggests that a leader's effectiveness depends on the situation.
Organization
L Management
Lump sum bonus Merit pay that is awarded in a single payment and not built into base pay.
Organization
M Management
Machiavellianism A personality trait. People who possess this trait act to gain power and to control the behaviour of others.
Organization This structure is typical of large, well-established organizations. It features a high degree of specialization and formalization.
M Management
Machine bureaucracy
Within this structure, decision making is usually concentrated at the top.
The classical view emphasizes the management functions of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and
controlling—‘getting the work done by the best means available’. More recently, the enabling role of managers has been
Organization emphasized, ‘to create the conditions under which the work will be done, and done well’. In the context of agricultural research,
M Management
Management
management involves defining research goals, strategies, and priorities; formulating research programs; determining
responsibilities; allocating resources; leading, motivating, and supervising staff members; and maintaining relations with
stakeholders.
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Organization Management by
M Management Objectives (MBO)
An elaborate, systematic, ongoing program to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment, and employee development.
Organization
M Management
Management teams Consists of managers from various areas; they coordinate work teams.
Organization The extent to which the domi-nant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and material
M Management
Masculinity
goods, rather than concern for people, relationships among people, and the overall quality of life.
Organization Maslow's hierarchy of A five-level hierarchical need theory of motivation that specifies that the lowest-level unsatisfied need has the greatest
M Management needs motivating potential.
Organization
M Management
Mastery stage Individuals develop a stronger attachment to their organizations and lose some career flexibility, and performance may vary.
Organization Matrix
M Management departmentation
Employees remain members of a functional department while also reporting to a product or project manager.
Organization Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each. Typically in this design, a product or project departmentalization
M Management
Matrix design
scheme and a functional structure are combined.
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Organization A hybrid approach to organizing which typically crosses a functional approach with a product- or service-based design, often
M Management
Matrix structure
resulting in employees having two bosses.
Organization
M Management
Maximization The choice of the decision alternative with the greatest expected value.
Organization McClelland's theory A nonhierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns
M Management of needs of motivation.
Organization Mechanistic
M Management structures
Organizational structures characterized by tallness, specialization, centralization, and formalization.
Organization Involves the manager assisting the disputants in the resolution of their conflict by controlling the manner in which they interact,
M Management
Mediation
but without forcing a solution.
Organization
M Management
Medium The channel or path through which the message is transmitted.
Organization An older and more senior person in the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and
M Management
Mentor
creating opportunities.
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Organization
M Management
Merit pay plans Systems that attempt to link pay to performance on white-collar jobs.
Organization Michigan leadership

M Management studies
These studiesdefined job-centred and employee-centred leadership as opposite ends of a single leadership dimension.
Organization
M Management
Mission statement An explicit statement of company philosophy that provides yet another way to communicate culture.
Organization
M Management
Modeling The process of imitating the behavior of others.
Monitoring involves continuous, systematic observation and checking on activities and their results. The purpose is to ensure
Organization
M Management
Monitoring that activities are proceeding according to plan, to provide a record of how inputs are used, and to warn of deviations from
initial goals and expected outcomes.
Organization
M Management
Motivating factors The factors in Herzberg's theory that cause satisfaction (e.g., need for achievement, challenge, and recognition)
Organization
M Management
Motivation The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal.
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Organization Motivation and

M Management productivity stage
A stage of group development in which members cooperate, help each other, and work toward accomplishing tasks.
Organization
M Management
Motivation factors These factors are intrinsic to work itself. They include things such as achievement and recognition.
Organization
M Management
Motive A factor that determines a person's choice of one course of behaviour from among several possibilities.
Organization Multicultural An organization in which employees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their full
M Management organization potential for the benefit of both themselves and the organization.
Organization Multicultural One in which em-ployees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their fullest potential for
M Management orientation the benefit of themselves and the organization.
Organization Firm who operate extensively in other countries and closely coordinate effort across subsidiaries in those countries. They tend
M Management
Multinational firm
to rely more on foreign nationals for their managerial talent.
Organization
M Management
Mum effect The tendency to avoid communicating unfavorable news to others.
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Organization Mutual acceptance A stage of group development that is characterized by members sharing information about themselves and getting to know
M Management stage each other.
Organization
N Management
Narcissistic leaders Fundamentally insecure and self-absorbed individuals who often pursue a
Organization
N Management
Need Anything an individual requires or wants.
Organization Need for

N Management achievement
A strong desire to perform challenging tasks well.
Organization
N Management
Need for affiliation A strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships.
Organization
N Management
Need for power A strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression.
Organization Motivation theories that specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy
N Management
Need theories
these needs in a way that contributes to performance.
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Organization A decision-aiding tool for planning and resource allocation. Involves the gathering and analyzing of information on the
N Management
Needs assessment
organization, its environment, its capacity needs and problems, and possible solutions.
Organization People who possess this trait are generally downbeat and pessimistic. They see things in a negative way and seem to be in a
N Management
Negative affectivity
bad mood.
Organization This is characterized by moodiness and insecurity; those who have little negative emotionality are better able to withstand
N Management
Negative emotionality
stress.
Organization Negative
N Management reinforcement
The removal of a stimulus that in turn increases or maintains the probability of some behavior.
Organization
N Management
Negotiation A decision-making process among interdependent parties who do not share identical preferences.
Organization
N Management
Network organization Liaisons between specialist organizations that rely strongly on market mechanisms for coordination.
Organization
N Management
Networking Establishing good relations with key organizational members and/or outsiders in order to accomplish one's goals.
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Organization Neutralizers of
N Management leadership
Factors in the work setting that reduce a leader's opportunity to exercise influence.
Organization
N Management
Noise Any disturbance in the communication process that interferes with or distorts communication.
Organization Nominal group A structured group decision-making technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically
N Management technique evaluated by the group.
Organization Nonprogrammed
N Management decision
A decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule.
Organization Nonverbal
N Management communication
The transmission of messages by some medium other than speech or writing.
Organization
N Management
Norm A standard against which the appropriateness of a behaviour is measured.
Organization Normative
N Management commitment
Commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization.
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Organization
N Management
Norms Collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behavior of each other.
Organization An expression of an effect that a program is expected to achieve if completed successfully and according to plan. Objectives
O Management
Objective
are often viewed as a hierarchy, beginning with strategic goals, purposes, outputs, and activities.
Organization Observational Research that examines the natural activities of people in an organizational setting by listening to what they say and watching
O Management research what they do.
Organization
O Management
Occupation A group of jobs that are similar with respect to the type of tasks and training involved.
Organization Ohio State leadership

O Management studies
These studies defined leader consideration and initiating-structure behaviours as independent dimensions of leadership.
Organization A culture comprised of a slow feedback/high risk combination. People who can tolerate uncertainly for long periods and is
O Management
One-shot culture
careful/detailed oriented.
Organization
O Management
Open door policy The opportunity for employees to communicate directly with a manager without going through the chain of command.
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Organization Systems that take inputs from the external environment, transform some of them, and send them back into the environment as
O Management
Open systems
outputs.
Organization
O Management
Openness The capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information.
Organization Operating The context or environment in which an organization operates, including the economic, technical, socio-cultural, institutional,
O Management environment legal, and political factors that influence behavior and performance.
Organization Operational
O Management capacities
The capacities that an organization needs to carry out its day-to-day activities.
Management concerned with mobilizing, coordinating, and guiding an organization’s staff and using its physical and financial
Organization Operational
O Management management
resources to achieve defined objectives. Establishing a coherent set of rules (institutions) that guide behavior in the pursuit of
organizational goals.
Organization
O Management
Optimism The extent to which a person sees life in relatively positive or negative terms.
Organization
O Management
Organic structures Organizational structures characterized by flatness, low specialization, low formalization, and decentralization.
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Formal structures with designated roles and purposes. Entities composed of people who act collectively in pursuit of shared
objectives. These organizations and individuals pursue their interests within an institutional structure defined by formal rules
Organization
O Management
Organization (constitutions, laws, regulations, contracts) and informal rules (ethics, trust, religious precepts, and other implicit codes of
conduct). Organizations, in turn, have internal rules (i.e. institutions) to deal with personnel, budgets, procurement, and
reporting procedures, which constrain the behavior of their members.
Organization
O Management
Organization chart A diagram showing all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal communication in the organization.
Organization The set of values that helps the organization's employees understand which actions are considered acceptable and which
O Management
Organization culture
unacceptable.
Organization Organization The process of planned change and improvement of the organization through the application of knowledge of the behavioural
O Management development sciences.
Organization Organization
O Management structure
The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which the organization does its work.
Organizational A theoretical construct that aids in the diagnosis of an organization’s current state, to measure changes over time or to find
Organization
O Management
assessment ways to solve specific problems. This study employs a framework developed by the IDRC and Universalia that includes four
framework analytical dimensions: the external operating environment, the internal environment, organizational capacity, and performance.
Organization Organizational
O Management behavior
The attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations.
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O Management behavior modification
The systematic use of learning principles to influence organizational behavior.
Organization Organizational The organization’s potential to perform. Its ability to define and realize goals effectively, efficiently, and in a relevant and
O Management capacities sustainable manner.
Organization Organizational An ongoing process by which an organization increases its ability to formulate and achieve relevant objectives. It involves
O Management capacity development strengthening both its operational and adaptive capacities.
Alteration or variation in the character or performance of an organization. Such changes lie along a continuum from
incremental change to fundamental, large-scale change or transformational change. While incremental change is less complex
O than fundamental change, both types involve three basic stages referred to as ‘unfreezing’, ‘moving’, and ‘freezing’.
Management change Fundamental or large-scale change refers to lasting change in the character of an organization that significantly alters its
performance.
O Management citizenship
The extent to which an individual's behaviour makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.
O Management citizenship behavior
Voluntary, information behavior that contributes to organizational effectiveness.
O Management commitment
An attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization.
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A pattern of shared basic assumptions that an organization develops as it solves its problems of external adaptation and
Organization
O Management
Organizational culture internal integration, has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct
way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to these problems.
O Management development (OD)
A planned, ongoing effort to change organizations to be more effective and more human.
O Management downsizing
A popular trend aimed at reducing the size of corporate staff and middle management to reduce costs.
Organization Organizational This environment includes all elements that lie outside the boundaries of the organization: for example, people, other
O Management environment organizations, economic factors, objects, and events.
Organization Statements describing the external direction of success, ultimate achievement, or desired improvement in organizational
O Management
Organizational goals
performance.
An organization’s capacity for accumulating knowledge from its own experiences, disseminating that knowledge to members
Organization Organizational throughout the organization (and not to a single individual or group within it), reflecting on it and using it as a basis on which to
O Management learning build planning and programming activities, to adapt and to cope with change. A learning organization is one that facilitates the
learning of all its members and continuously transforms itself.
Organization Organizational The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings. organizational politics The activities carried out by
O Management modification people to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their desired outcome.
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Organization Organizational The ability of an organization to meet its goals and achieve its overall mission. Typical indicators for evaluating organizational
O Management performance performance are effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and sustainability.
O Management politics
The pursuit of self-interest in an organization, whether or not this self-interest corresponds to organizational goals.
O Management processes
Activities or work that have to be accomplished to create outputs that internal or external customers value.
Organization Organizational self- The assessment of an organization by those who are working in the organization. As with any organizational assessment, a
O Management assessment self-assessment focuses on overall impact and performance, or specific aspects thereof.
O Management socialization
The process through which employees learn about the firm's culture and pass their knowledge and understanding on to others.
O Management stressors
Factors in the workplace that can cause stress.
O Management structure
The manner in which an organization divides its labor into specific tasks and achieves coordination among these tasks.
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O Management technology
The mechanical and intellectual processes that transform inputs into outputs.
Statements describing the principles the organization wants to express as it moves in the direction described in its goals.
Organization Values that an organization regards highly and holds as its ideal. Ethical standards that guide how work is done. Values can
O Management
Organizational values
include such things as fairness, respect, commitment, and embracing diversity. Managers are expected to serve as role
models for values.
Organization
O Management
Organizations Social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort.
Organization
O Management
Organizing The process of designing jobs, group-ing jobs into units, and establishing patterns of authority between jobs and units.
Organization
O Management
Orientation phase The first few weeks or months on the job when it is particularly important to communication cultural values to new employees.
Organization Other-enhancing
O Management tactics
Indirect methods of influencing others' perceptions by boosting their self-image (e.g., flattery, opinion agreement).
Organization Other-focused image Behaviors designed to make polish someone else's image in the hopes of getting what you want (e.g., flattering or praising
O Management management tactics your boss).
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Organization
O Management
Outcome An immediate effect or short-term consequence of an action.
Organization
O Output The direct results of an intervention, a ‘deliverable’ for which management is responsible.
Management
Organization Occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees and systems behave as expected to
O Management
Overdetermination
maintain stability.
Organization Right over, and responsibility for, a process or activity. When local players own a project, and they adopt it as their own even if
O Management
Ownership
outside organizations are involved.
Organization Reference to qualities about one's speech that carry information about the communication (e.g., speed, loudness, tenseness of
P Management
Paralanguage
one's voice).
Organization Participant
P Management observation.
Observational research in which the researcher becomes a functioning member of the organizational unit being studied.
Organization
P Management
Participation The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work.
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Organization Participative
P Management leadership
Involving subordinates in making work-related decisions.
A process of self-assessment, collective knowledge production, and cooperative action in which stakeholders in a development
Organization Participatory
P Management evaluation
process participate substantially in the identification of evaluation issues, the formulation of evaluation questions, the design of
the evaluation, the collection and analysis of data, and the actions taken as a result of the findings.
Organization
P Management
Partner The individual and/or organization with which one collaborates to achieve mutually agreed upon objectives.
Organization
P Management
Partnership Negotiated relationships that exist between two or more entities that have voluntarily entered into a legal or moral contract.
Organization Robert House's theory concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviors (directive, supportive, participative,
P Management
Path-Goal Theory
achievement-oriented) are most effective.
Organization
P Management
Perception The process of interpreting out senses to provide order and meaning to the environment.
Organization
P Management
Perceptual defense The tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions.
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Organization
P Management
Perfect rationality A decision strategy that is completely informed, perfectly logical, and oriented toward economic gain.
Organization
P Management
Performance The extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization.
Performance
Organization appraisal
P Management (performance
See performance measurement.
measurement)
Organization Performance
P Management behaviours
The total set of work-related behaviours that the organization expects the individual to display.
Performance causes
Organization
P Management
satisfaction An assumption that high job performance leads to high job satisfaction.
hypothesis
Performance
Organization measurement The process by which someone (1) evaluates an employee's work behaviors by measurement and comparison with previously
P Management (performance established standards, (2) documents results, and (3) communicates the results to the employees.
appraisal)
Organization An understanding between an employee and a manager concerning what and how a job is to be done such that both parties
P Management
Performance plan
know what is expected and how success is defined and measured.
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Organization Performance-to-
P Management outcome expectancy
The individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes.
Organization Special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers. personality The relatively stable set
P Management
Perquisites
of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.
Organization A business that involves relatively low risk but rapid feedback. The culture encourages people who have energy and show
P Management
Persistence culture
perseverance.
Organization A very general belief about what other people are like (e.g, untrustworthy) that has wide effect on our perceptions of others
P Management
Personal constructs
behavior.
Organization Personal One way that charismatic leaders can influence subordinate self-worth. Taps subordinates' needs to have someone to look up
P Management identification to and may involve giving leaders unquestioned loyalty.
Organization
P Management
Personal power Resides in the person, regardless of the position he or she fills.
Organization The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her
P Management
Personality
environment.
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Organization
P Management
Person-job fit The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization.
Organization
P Management
Person-role conflict Role demands call for behavior that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant.
Organization Stressors associated with the job's physical setting, such as the adequacy of temperature and lighting, and the physical
P Management
Physical demands
requirements the job makes on the employee.
Organization
P Management
Physical resources The land, facilities, vehicles, and equipment used by organizations to carry out their activities.
Organization
P Management
Piecerate A pay system in which individual workers are paid a certain sum of money for each unit of production completed.
The process through which goals and objectives are set, partners identified, inputs determined, activities specified and
Organization
P Management
Planning scheduled, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms defined, so that expected outputs and outcomes might be achieved in
a timely manner.
Organization Similar to a script in that a policy can be a less than completely rational decision making method. Involves the use of a pre-
P Management
Policy
existing set of decision steps for any problem that presents itself.
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Organization Refers to the many different actions of people, subgroups, and whole countries that have the potential to affect the financial
P Management
Political risk
status of a firm.
Organization Pooled A condition in which organizational subunits are dependent upon the pooled resources generated by other subunits but are
P Management interdependence otherwise fairly independent.
Organization Power managers hold due to their role in the organization. May include a manager's network of contacts, legitimate authority
P Management
Position power
and control over information, rewards, punishments, and the work environment.
Organization People who possess this trait are upbeat and optimistic. They have an overall sense of well-being and see things in a positive
P Management
Positive affectivity
light.
Organization Positive
P Management reinforcement
The application or addition of a stimulus that increases or maintains the probability of some behavior.
Organization
P Management
Power The potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group.
Organization
P Management
Power The capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence.
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Organization
P Management
Power distance The extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members.
Organization The approach to decision making that combines the steps of the rational approach with the conditions in the behavioural
P Management
Practical approach
approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations.
Organization This model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building relationships, reaching agreement,
P Management
PRAM model
and maintaining relationships.
Organization
P Management
Preferred focus The tendency to concentrate on the technical/rational side of decision making or on the people/issues side.
Organization Judgments about others that reinforce the belief that some groups are superior toothers and can lead to exaggerating the
P Management
Prejudices
worth of one group while diminishing the worth of others.
Organization
P Management
Preparation It is usually the first stage in the creative process. It involves education and formal training.
Organization
P Management
Primacy effect The tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions.
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Organization The basic physical requirements necessary to sustain life. problem solving A form of decision making in which the issue is
P Management
Primary needs
unique and alternatives must be developed and evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule.
Organization Proactive ingratiation

P Management strategies
Involves the use of impression management tactics such as expressing agreement and offering praise.
Organization The need for structure in making decisions vs. a tendency to have greater acceptance for ambiguity or vagueness in making
P Management
Problem clarity
decision.
Organization
P Management
Problem. A perceived gap between an existing state and a desired state.
Organization Problem-solving
P Management teams
Temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the work-place.
Organization
P Management
Procedural fairness Fairness that occurs when the process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable.
Organization The extent to which the dynamics of an organization's decision making processes are judged to be fair by those most affected
P Management
Procedural justice
by them.
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Organization Process Involves interviewing people and observing work group processes to uncover interpersonal stumbling blocks and related
P Management consultation problems. A change agent will then provide feedback aimed at improving the work process.
Organization Characterized by slow feedback/low risk combination. A culture that promotes a major concern with the process of running an
P Management
Process culture
organization more than specific outcomes.
Organization
P Management
Process losses Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups.
Organization Process Management of resources and internal processes that support research and development programs. These include staffing,
P Management management human resource development, fund raising, financial management, and management of facilities.
Organization Process theories of

P Management motivation
Theories that explain the processes by which employee behavior can be aroused and then directed.
Organization Process use of Individual changes in thinking and behavior, and program or organizational changes in procedures and cultures that occur
P Management evaluation among those involved in evaluation as a result of the learning that occurs during the evaluation process.
Organization Product
P Management departmentation
Departments are formed on the basis of a particular product, product line, or service.
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Organization Product development Combinations of work and problem-solving teams that create new designs for products or services that will satisfy customer
P Management teams needs.
Organization Product-based
P Management structure
A type of structure in which all the jobs needed to produce and sell a product or service are grouped together in the same unit.
Organization
P Management
Productivity An indicator of how much an organization is creating relative to its inputs.
Organization Professional This structure is characterized by horizontal specialization, by area of professional expertise. It features little formalization and
P Management bureaucracy decentralized decision making.
Organization
P Management
Profit sharing The return of some company profit to employees in the form of a cash bonus or a retirement supplement.
Organization
P Management
Program A standardized way of solving a problem.
Organization Program Management concerned directly with the production and delivery of services for clients or target groups. Program management
P Management management skills and procedures include project cycle management, program formulation, and technical reviews, for example.
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Organization
P Management
Programmed decision A decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed.
Organization
P Management
Projection The tendency for perceivers to attribute their own undesirable ideas, feelings, and motives to others.
Organization Psychological A person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization, in return,
P Management contract will provide the individual.
Organization Punctuated A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial
P Management equilibrium model midpoint transitions.
Organization
P Management
Punishment The application of an aversive stimulus following some behavior designed to decrease the probability of that behavior.
Organization
Q Management
Quality The total set of features and characteristics of a product or service that determine its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Organization Small groups of employees from the same work area who regularly meet to discuss and recommend solutions to workplace
Q Management
Quality circles
problems.
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Organization
Q Management
Quality of worklife The extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization.
Organization Rational decision-

R Management making approach
A systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions.
Organization Rational-economic A set of decision making approaches, often that use aids and are quantitative in form, that try to maximize the use of
R Management models information and/or possible choices.
Organization
R Management
Rationalization Attributing socially acceptable motives to one's actions.
Organization
R Management
Reaction formation Expressing oneself in a manner that is directly opposite to the way one truly feels.
Organization
R Management
Realistic job previews The provision of a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of a job to job applicants.
Organization An unsettling experience caused by the disparity between unrealistic expectations and the reality that people confront in their
R Management
Reality shock
first job.
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Organization The individual, group, or organization that perceives the encoded symbols and may or may not decode them to try to
R Management
Receiver
understand the intended message.
Organization Reciprocal
R Management interdependence
A condition in which organizational subunits must engage in considerable interplay and mutual feedback to accomplish a task.
Organization The radical redesign of organizational processes to achieve major improvements in factors such as time, cost, quality, or
R Management
Reengineering
service.
Organization
R Management
Referent power Power derived from being well liked by others.
Organization The condition that exists when newly developed behaviors, attitudes, or structures become an enduring part of the
R Management
Refreezing
organization.
Organization
R Management
Regency effect The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions.
Organization Regression to the A heuristic that says humans fail to realize that the best predictor of behavior is the mean performance; unusual performance
R Management mean (positive or negative) is likely to move back toward the mean performance.
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Organization
R Management
Reinforcement The consequences of behaviour.
Organization
R Management
Reinforcement The process by which stimuli strengthen behaviors.
Organization Reinforcement
R Management discrimination
The process of recognizing differences between behaviour and reinforcement in different settings.
Organization Reinforcement The process through which a person extends recognition of similar or identical behaviour-reinforcement relationships to
R Management generalization different settings.
Organization Reinforcement
R Management theory
A motivation theory which argues that by linking consequences to
Organization Relationship-oriented Leadership behavior focused on maintaining or improving relations with subordinates (e.g., developing, recognizing, and
R Management behavior otherwise supporting subordinates).
Organization Refers to importance and practical utility. In organizational assessment, it refers to the degree of congruence between (a) the
R Management
Relevance
objectives and activities of an organization, and (b) the needs and expectations of key stakeholders.
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Organization
R Management
Reliability An index of the consistency of a research subject's responses.
Organization Representativeness A heuristic that leads us to choose options that have the appearance of being correct, but often fail to take into account the
R Management heuristic appropriate probability of option occurring.
Organization
R Management
Repression The prevention of threatening ideas from becoming conscious.
Organization
R Management
Research design The set of procedures used to test the predicted relationships among natural phenomena.
Organization
R Management
Resistance Overt or convert failure by organizational members to support a change effort.
Organization Resource
R Management dependence
The dependency of organizations upon environmental inputs such as capital, raw materials, and human resources.
Organization
R Management
Responsibility An obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output.
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Organization Restriction of
R Management productivity
The artificial limitation of work output that can occur under wage incentive plans.
Organization
R Management
Result The output, outcome, or impact (intended or unintended, positive and/or negative) of a development intervention.
Organization
R Review of documents Systematic review of an organization’s documents to obtain information for an evaluation.
Management
Organization
R Management
Reward power Power derived from the ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative outcomes.
A system that consists of all organizational components, including people, pro-cesses, rules and procedures, and decision-
Organization
R Management
Reward system making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the
organization.
Organization A set of rituals and ceremonies and other activities used over and over again at special times to emphasize key organizational
R Management
Rights of passage
values.
Organization
R Management
Risk propensity The degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.
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Organization
R Management
Risky shift The tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.
Organization
R Management
Role A set of expected behaviours associated with a particular position in a group or organization.
Organization
R Management
Role ambiguity Lack of clarity of job goals or methods.
Organization
R Management
Role conflict A condition of being faced with incompatible role expectations.
Organization
R Management
Role demands Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to play.
Organization
R Management
Role overload The requirement for too many tasks to be performed in too short of a time period.
Organization
R Management
Roles Positions in groups that have a set of expected behaviors attached to them.
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Organization
R Management
Rumor An unverified belief that is in general circulation.
Organization Behaviors designed to project a weaker or more negative image than is actually the case. The goal is often to lull opponents
S Management
Sandbagging
into a false sense of security (i.e., so they let down their guard or exert less effort).
Satisfaction causes
Organization
S Management
performance An assumption that high job satisfaction leads to high job performance.
hypothesis
Organization Establishing an adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds
S Management
Satisficing
this level is found.
Organization
S Management
Scapegoating Trying to shift the blame for a problem or failure away from yourself (e.g., onto others or factors in the situation).
Organization Scientific Frederick Taylor's system for using research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work
S Management Management tasks.
Organization
S Management
Scientific research The systemic investigation of hypothesised propositions about the relationships among natural phenomena.
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Organization A reference to a type of non-rational decision making that doesn't make use of existing data, but instead is based on a
S Management
Script
commonly understood sequence of behavior.
Organization
S Management
Secondary needs The requirements learned from the environment or culture in which the individual lives.
Organization
S Management
Selective perception The process of screening out information with which we are uncomfortable or that contradicts our beliefs.
Organization Self-assessment A workshop process organized to assess an organization’s needs, capacities, a capacity development initiative, or the
S Management (workshop) organization’s performance, and involving the organization’s management and staff and perhaps external stakeholders.
Organization
S Management
Self-efficacy A person's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task.
Organization Self-enhancing
S Management tactics
Direct attempts to influence the perceptions of others via self promotion (e.g., name dropping) and image control.
Organization
S Management
Self-esteem The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation.
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Organization Self-focused image Behaviors designed to make yourself look good or to create a more favorable image of yourself with other people (e.g.,
S Management management tactics boasting, working hard when the boss is around, etc.)
Organization
S Management
Self-leadership A follower-centered approach to leadership which argues that employees should look inward for motivation and initiative.
Organization Self-managed work

S Management teams
Work groups that have the opportunity to do challenging work under reduced supervision.
Organization
S Management
Self-management The use of learning principles to manage one's own behavior.
Organization
S Management
Self-monitoring The extend to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships.
Organization
S Management
Self-reactions Comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards.
Organization Self-serving A bias effect in attributions whereby people tend to take credit (internal attribution) for success and to make external
S Management attributions attributions for failure.
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Organization
S Management
Self-serving bias The tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures.
Organization
S Management
Semantics The study of language forms.
Organization An interpersonal approach for promoting change that involves developing a greater understanding of oneself and one's
S Management
Sensitivity training
interactions with other people.
Organization Sequential A condition in which organizational subunits are dependent upon the resources generated by units that precede them in a
S Management interdependence sequence of work.
Organization
S Management
Short-term orientation People with a short-term orientation focus on past or present; people with a long-term orientation focus on the future.
Organization
S Management
Similar-to-me effect A rater gives more favorable evaluations to people who are similar to the rater in terms of background or attitudes.
Organization This structure is typical of relatively small or new organizations. It features little specialization or formalization. Within this
S Management
Simple structure
structure, power and decision making are concentrated in the chief executive.
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Organization Situational
S Management attributions
Explanations for behavior based on an actor's external situation or environment.
Organization Situational A leadership model which argues that effective leadership involves matching the right combination of task-oriented and
S Management leadership relationship-oriented behavior to the maturity level of subordinates.
Organization Situation-centered
S Management leadership
Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on how situational variables may impact leader effectiveness.
Organization
S Management
Skill benchmarking The process of identifying required competency levels for key jobs in an industry.
Organization
S Management
Skill variety The opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents.
Organization
S Management
Skilled based pay A system in which people are paid according to the number of job skills they have acquired.
Organization The institutions, norms, relationships, and networks that enable collective action and shape the quantity and quality of a
S Management
Social capital
society’s social interactions.
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Organization Often the most positive way that charismatic leaders can influence subordinate self-worth. Involves linking subordinates' work
S Management
Social identification
to the good of a larger social entity.
Organization Occurs when people observe the behaviours of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behaviour as a
S Management
Social learning
result.
Organization
S Management
Social loafing The tendency of individuals to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task.
A group of one's peers, subordinates, and senior people who provide general information about what is going on in the
Organization
S Management
Social network organization, specific advice on how to accomplish job assignments, and feedback about the consequences of different career
strategies.
Organization
S Management
Social responsibility An organization's social re-sponsibility is its obligation to protect or contribute to the social environment in which it functions.
Organization Social-emotional
S Management leader
A leader who is concerned with reducing tension, patching up disagreements, settling arguments, and maintaining morale.
Organization
S Management
Socialization The process by which people learn the norms and roles that are necessary to function in a group or organization.
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Organization Sociotechnical An approach to organization design that views the organization as an open system structured to integrate the technical and
S Management systems approach social subsystems into a single management system.
The human and organizational capacities, or social capital of the organization, including such things as management
Organization
S Management
Soft capacities knowledge and skills, and organizational systems and procedures (such as management information systems, and procedures
for planning and evaluation.).
Organization
S Management
Source The individual, group, or organization interested in communicating something to another party.
Organization
S Management
Spacing A nonverbal behavior that refers to the typical amounts of space between people as they interact and converse.
Organization
S Management
Span of control The number of subordinates supervised by a superior.
Any group within or outside an organization that has a direct or indirect stake in the organization’s performance or its
Organization
S Management
Stakeholders evaluation. Stakeholders can be people who conduct, participate in, fund, or manage a program, or who may otherwise affect
or be affected by decisions about the program or the evaluation.
Organization
S Management
Status The rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members.
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Organization
S Management
Stereotyping The tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variation among them.
Organization
S Management
Strategic alliances Actively cooperative relationships between legally separate organizations.
Organization Strategic
S Management contingencies
Critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness that are controlled by a key subunit.
Development and implementation of effective strategies to set and achieve an organization’s objectives. Strategic
Organization Strategic
S Management management
management involves five sets of tasks, (a) developing a strategic vision and mission, (b) setting objectives, (c) crafting a
strategy, (d) implementing the strategy, and (e) evaluating performance and initiating corrective adjustment.
A process by which a future vision is developed for an organization, taking into account its political and legal circumstances, its
Organization
S Strategic planning strengths and weaknesses, and the threats and opportunities facing it. It articulates the organization’s sense of mission and
Management maps out future directions to be taken, given the organization’s current state and resources.
Organization
S Management
Strategic values The basic belief about an organization's environment that shape its strategy.
A planned course of action undertaken with the aim of achieving the goals and objectives of an organization. The overall
Organization
S Management
Strategy strategy of an organization is often known as organizational strategy, but strategy may also be developed for any aspect of an
organization’s activities, as, for example, environmental strategy or marketing strategy.
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Organization
S Management
Stress A psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious.
Organization
S Management
Stress reactions Behavioral, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress.
Organization
S Management
Stressors Environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress.
Organization Goals which are virtually unattainable. Often designed to encourage 'doing it different' rather than 'doing what we already do
S Management
Stretch targets
better.'
Organization
S Management
Strong culture An organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions.
Organization A systemwide organization development involving a major restructuring of the organization or instituting programs such as
S Management
Structural change
quality of work life.
Organization
S Structural imperatives The three structural imperatives—environment, technology, and size—are the primary determinants of organization structure.
Management
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Organization Smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or
S Management
Subcultures
departmental goals.
Organization Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the
S Management
Suboptimizing
organization.
Organization Substitutes for

S Management leadership
Factors in the work setting that can take the place of active leadership, making it unnecessary or redundant.
Organization
S Management
Subunit power The degree of power held by various organizational subunits, such as departments.
Organization
S Management
Suggestion systems Programs designed to enhance upward communication by soliciting ideas for improved work operations from employees.
Organization
S Management
Sunk costs Permanent losses of resources incurred as the result of a decision.
Organization
S Management
Superleadership Occurs when a leader gradually and purposefully turns over power, responsibility, and control to a self-managing work group.
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Organization
S Management
Superordinate goals Attractive outcomes that can be achieved only by collaboration.
Organization
S Management
Surface value The objective meaning or worth of a reward to an employee.
Organization The collection of data from a population for the purpose of analysis of a particular issue. In a ‘sample survey’, data is collected
S Management
Survey
from a sample of the population.
Organization
S Management
Survey feedback The collection of data from organizational members and the provision of feedback about the results.
Organization Involve the administration of a questionnaire (e.g., by computer, in paper and pencil form, or interview). Usually designed to
S Management
Survey methods
assess problems and improve information flow throughout the organization.
The ability of an organization to secure and manage sufficient resources to enable it to fulfill its mission effectively and
consistently over time without excessive dependence on a single funding source. Ideally, sustainable organizations have (a)
Organization the ability to scan the environment, adapt to it, and seize opportunities it offers, (b) strong leadership and management, (c) the
S Management
Sustainability
ability to attract and retain qualified staff, (d) the ability to provide relevant benefits and services for maximum impact in
communities, (e) the skills to demonstrate and communicate this impact to leverage further resources, (f) community support
and involvement, and (g) commitment to building sustainable (not dependent) communities.
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Refers to situations where evaluation results are accepted on paper or in public pronouncements, but go no further. Many
Organization Symbolic use of
S Management evaluation results
evaluations are symbolic in that they are carried out simply to comply with administrative directives or to present an image of
‘modernity’.
Organization The symbolic and personal meaning or worth of a reward to an employee. system A set of interrelated elements functioning as
S Management
Symbolic value
a whole.
Organization
T Management
Tall organization An organization with relatively many levels in its hierarchy of authority.
Organization
T Management
Task demands Stressors associated with the specific job a person performs.
Organization
T Management
Task environment This environment includes specific organizations, groups, and individuals that influence the organization.
Organization
T Management
Task forces Temporary groups set up to solve coordination problems across several departments.
Organization
T Management
Task group A relatively temporary, formal group established to do a specific task.
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Organization
T Management
Task identity The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end.
Organization
T Management
Task leader A leader who is concerned with accomplishing a task by organizing others, planning strategy, and dividing labor.
Organization
T Management
Task significance The impact that a job has on other people.
Organization Task-oriented
T Management behavior
Leadership behavior focused on the task itself or getting the job done (e.g., telling subordinates how to perform certain tasks).
Organization A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals,
T Management
Team
and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.
Organization An effort to increase the effectiveness of work teams by improving interpersonal processes, goal clarification, and role
T Management
Team building
clarification.
Organization Team-building Group-level efforts designed to illustrate the value of teams as well as build cohesion and a common sense of purpose among
T Management techniques team members.
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Organization Technical (task)

T Management subsystem
The means by which inputs are transformed into outputs.
Organization
T Management
Technical skills The skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization.
Organization Technological
T Management interdependence
The extent to which organizational subunits depend on each other for resources, raw materials, or information.
Organization Technological
T Management routineness
The extent to which exceptions and problems affect the task of converting inputs into outputs.
Organization
T Management
Technology The activities, equipment, and knowledge necessary to turn organizational inputs into desired outputs.
Organization
T Management
Telecommuting A work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site.
Written document presenting the purpose and scope of the evaluation, the methods to be used, the standard against which
Organization
T Management
Terms of reference performance is to be assessed or analyses are to be conducted, the resources and time allocated, and reporting requirements.
Two other expressions sometimes used with the same meaning are ‘scope of work’ and ‘evaluation mandate’.
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Organization Theory of career Five distinct patterns of self-perceived talents, motives, needs, and values that evolve as one faces early work experiences:
T Management anchors technical/functional competence, managerial competence, security, autonomy, and creativity.
Organization Theory of career John Holland's theory identifying six distinct patterns of career orientation: conventional, artistic, realistic, social, enterprising,
T Management types and investigative.
Organization Theory X and Theory Two concepts developed by prominent human relations writer Douglas McGregor. Theory X takes a negative and pessimistic
T Management Y view of workers, and Theory Y a morepositive and optimistic perspective. McGregor advocated the adoption of Theory Y.
Organization Third-party conflict

T Management resolution
Occurs when a manager atttemps to resolve a dispute between individuals or groups of employees.
Organization An approach to paying workers based on their hiring date. In their simplest form, two wage classifications exist, with workers
T Management
Tiered wage system
hired after a particular date being paid much less than those already on the payroll.
Organization Total quality

T Management management (TQM)
A systematic attempt to achieve continuous improvement in the quality of an organization's products and/or services.
Organization This approach to leadership attempted to identify stable and enduring character traits that differentiated effective leaders from
T Management
Trait approach
nonleaders.
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Organization
T Management
Traits Individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability, and personality.
Organization Transformation
T Management leadership
Providing followers with a new vision that instills true commitment.
Organization Transition
T Management management
The process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change.
Organization
T Management
Transmission The process through which the symbols that represent the message are sent to the receiver.
Organization Trial stage

T Management (socialization stage)
Steps in career when individuals explore jobs and performance begins to improve.
Organization A process of using multiple data sources, data collection methods, evaluators, or theories to study an issue from different
T Management
Triangulation
perspectives, validate research findings, help eliminate bias, and detect errors or anomalies in results.
Organization
T Management
Turnover The percentage of employees who leave the firm during a specified time interval (usually a one year period)
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Organization
T Management
Type A People who are extremely competitive, highly committed to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.
Organization
T Management
Type B People who are less competitive, less committed to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency.
This type of firm is committed to retaining employees, evaluates workers' performance based on both qualitative and
Organization quantitative information, emphasizes broad career paths, exercises control through informal, implicit mechanisms, requires
T Management
Type Z
that decision making occur in groups and be based on full information sharing and consensus, expects individuals to take
responsibility for decisions, and emphasizes concern for people.
Organization Uncertainty
U Management avoidance
The extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations.
Organization Unconflicted
U Management adherence
Continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks.
Organization
U Management
Unconflicted change Making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks.
Organization
U Management
Unfreezing The recognition that some current state of affairs is unsatisfactory.
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The class of elemental units that constitute the population and the units selected for measurement, or the class of elemental
Organization
U Management
Unit of analysis units to which measurements are generalized. In an evaluation of an organizational capacity development effort, the unit of
analysis might correspond to the individual, group, project team, department, network, partnership, or other organizational unit.
Organization
U Management
Universal approach An organization design in which prescriptions and propositions are designed to work in any circumstances.
Organization Upward
U Management communication
Information that flows from the bottom of the organization toward the top.
Organization
U Management
Utility The extent to which an evaluation informs relevant audiences and is beneficial for their work.
Organization Utilization-focused
U Management evaluation
Evaluation done for and with specific, intended primary users for specific, intended uses.
Organization
V Management
Valence The expected value of work outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive.
Organization
V Management
Validation The process by which the soundness of causal relationships or the generalization of findings are established.
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Organization
V Management
Validity An index of the extent to which a measure truly reflects what it is supposed to measure.
Organization
V Management
Values A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others.
Organization Variable interval A partial reinforcement schedule in which some variable time period occurs between a reinforced response and the chance for
V Management schedule the next reinforcement.
Organization Variable ratio A partial reinforcement schedule in which some variable number of responses must be made between a reinforced response
V Management schedule and the availability of the next reinforcement.
Organization Variable-interval
V Management reinforcement
Varies the amount of time between reinforcements.
Organization Variable-ratio
V Management reinforcement
Varies the number of behaviours between reinforcements.
Organization Verbal
V Management communication
A reference to the many different ways you can get across your message orally (meetings, phone calls, conversation).
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The final step in the creative pro-cess, which involves determining the validity or truthfulness of the insight. (3) The feedback
Organization
V Management
Verification portion of communication in which the receiver sends a message to the source indicating receipt of the message and the
degree to which he or she understood the message.
Organization
V Management
Vertical integration The strategy of formally taking control of sources of organizational supply and distribution.
Organization
V Management
Vertical job loading Combining various job tasks together which involve increasing the skill set of an employee (as opposed to enlargement where
Organization Vigilant information Involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs and benefits before making a decision, and
V Management processing developing contingency plans.
Organization
V Management
Virtual organization A temporary alliance between two or more organizations that band together to undertake a specific venture.
Organization A group of physically dispersed people who work as a team via alternative communication modes (e.g., video conferencing, e-
V Management
Virtual team
mail, etc.).
Organization
V Management
Vroom-Yetton-Jago This model of leadership at-tempts to prescribe how much participation subordinates should be allowed in making decisions.
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Organization
W Management
Wage incentive plans Various systems that link pay to performance on production jobs.
Organization Well-structured A problem for which the existing state is clear, the desired state is clear and how to get from one state to another is fairly
W Management problem obvious.
Organization
W Management
Wheel network In this type of a network, information flows between the person at the end of each spoke and the person in the middle.
Organization These include all the people working in an area, are relatively permanent, and do the daily work, making decisions regarding
W Management
Work teams
how the work of the team is done.
Organization Differences among recruits and employees in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical
W Management
Workforce diversity
ability, and sexual orientation.
Organization Work-life
W Management relationships
The interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life.
Organization
W Management
Workplace behaviour The pattern of actions by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.
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Encyclopedia Organization Management (768 Terms) Powered by www.drawpack.com; All rights reserved.

Organization Classical organization

Organization Content theories of

Organization Entry stage

Organization Establishment stage

Organization Exit (withdrawal)

Organization Flexible reward

Organization Flexible work

Organization General adaptation

Organization Implicit personality

Organization Intersender role

Organization Intrasender role

Organization Isolate (isolated

Organization Job characteristics

Organization Leader punishment

Organization Leader reward

Organization Least Preferred Co-

Organization LPC theory of

Organization Michigan leadership

Organization Motivation and

Organization Need for

Organization Ohio State leadership

Organization Proactive ingratiation

Organization Process theories of

Organization Rational decision-

Organization Self-managed work

Organization Substitutes for

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Organization Technical (task)

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Organization Third-party conflict

Organization Total quality

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Organization Trial stage

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