INSULATION COORDINATION

Line insulation coordination is the specification of all the dimensions or characteristics of the
transmission line tower that affect its voltage withstand. These dimensions include:
1. Strike distance, or clearance between the phase conductor and the grounded tower sides and
truss
2. Insulator string length (number and type of insulators)
3. Location and number of overhead ground (shield) wires
4. Specification of supplemental tower grounds
5. Phase-phase strike distances
6. Conductor clearances at midspan

The goal behind line insulation coordination is to specify the minimum line insulation for a
specific degree of reliability at minimum cost.

A particular system component, in its lifetime, suffers stresses due to system power frequency
voltage as well as by overvoltages. The air gap clearances should be so chosen that it results into a
compromise between a satisfactory electric performance (due to various stresses) and reasonable
investments. Therefore, the intent of insulation coordination should be to design transmission
lines based on probabilistic methods (when sufficient probabilistic data exist) that combine low
risk (not no risk) with economy of design.

As per Kiessling, the statistical methods do not predict the specific overvoltages produced by any particular
switching operation, but they give the probability with which a certain overvoltage may be expected. The
coordination of stresses (overvoltages) and the strengths (clearances) to obtain the desired performance is by nature
a statistical procedure, as both the strengths and stresses have no fixed values but vary within ranges, that constitute
probability distribution of stresses and strengths. The distribution of withstand voltages is described by U90% (i.e.
the statistical withstand voltage measured at the 90 % withstand or 10 % breakdown point,). Similarly, the
distribution of overvoltage is described by U2% (i.e. 2% probability of exceeded the specified value).

The max. swithching overvoltage should be combined with the min. withstand voltage of narrowest gap for one tower
to determine the risk of failure for one typical tower. Using, the appropriate statistical formulae, it is then possible to
determine the risk of failure, also called probability of flashover, for the no. of towers that are supposed to be
reached by the overvoltages. Generally, PFO specified is in the range of 10 -2 to 10-4 meaning one line outage for 100
to 10000 switching operations. The above is illustrated in the figure below.
 Voltages & Overvoltages that stress the insulation

1. Power frequency voltage: Relatively low in amplitude,

Permanently stresses the insulation
Magnitude: Max. System voltage usually (5 to 10 % higher than
nominal) occurs under normal operating conditions at any time
Causes: Lightly loaded conditions, Reactive power Imbalance, etc.

2. Temporary Overvoltages: Oscillatory in nature

Long duration & are Undamped/ Weakly damped
Representative Voltage: Represented by power frequency wave
Magnitude: Rms value as per Table 2,IEC 60071-1(snapshot
provided below) & Clause 5.6 of IEC 60071-1, ed 8.1, 2011-03. It
is observed that with increase in magnitude of Um (max. system
voltage), Overvoltage magnitude (in terms of pu) decreases and it
becomes equal to 1 for 1100/ 1200 kV.
Causes: faults, switching operations such as load rejection,
resonance conditions, non-linearities (ferroresonances) or by a
combination of these

3. Transient Overvoltages: Power System components are generally exposed to three types of
transient overvoltages viz: slow front overvoltage, fast front overvoltage & very fast front
overvoltage.
a. Slow Front Overvoltage:
Representative Voltage: Represented by switching impulse wave of
front time 250 µs & time-to-half of 2500 µs.
Magnitude: Peak value as per Table 3,IEC 60071-1 ed 8.1, 2011-
03 (snapshot provided below).
Causes: line energization and re-energization; faults and fault
clearing; load rejections; switching of capacitive or inductive
currents; distant lightning strokes to the conductor of overhead
lines.
For slow-front impulses, the strength of external insulation
depends more on the impulse front than on its tail. The tail
becomes especially important only in the case of contamination on
the surface of external insulation.

b. Fast Front Overvoltage:

Representative Voltage: Represented by lightning impulse wave of
front time 1.2 µs & time-to-half of 50 µs.
Magnitude: Peak value as per Table 2 & 3, IEC 60071-1 ed 8.1,
2011-03 (snapshot provided below).
Causes: Lightning overvoltages are caused by direct strokes to the
phase conductors or by backflashovers, or are induced by lightning
strokes to earth close to the line. Induced lightning surges generally
cause overvoltages below 400 kV on the overhead line and are,
therefore, of importance only for systems in the lower system
voltage range. Owing to the high insulation withstand, back-
flashovers are less probable in range II than in range I and are rare
on systems at 500 kV and above.
The breakdown voltage of external insulation under lightning
impulse stress decreases with increasing tail duration.
 c. Very Fast Front Overvoltage:
Magnitude: The duration of very-fast-front overvoltages is less
than 3 ms, but may occur several times. On terminals of equipment
connected with a short high-voltage overhead line to the GIS, the
overvoltage oscillations show frequencies in the range from 0,2
MHz to 2,0 MHz and amplitudes up to 1,5 times the flashover
voltage
Causes: Very-fast-front overvoltages originate from disconnector
operations or faults within GIS due to the fast breakdown of the
gas gap and the nearly undamped surge propagation within the
GIS. Very-fast-front overvoltages may also occur at medium
voltage dry-type transformers with short connections to the
switchgear.
The representative overvoltage cannot be established because
suitable standardizations are not available at present. It is expected,
however, that very-fast-front overvoltages have no influence on the
selection of rated withstand voltages.

Analytical studies and field investigations revealed that insulation requirements for switching surges
exceeded those required for lightning and power frequency. To overcome such a problem, the breaker
design was changed by inserting a resistor in the closing stroke to reduce the switching surges.
Table-2
Table-3
 Methodology adopted for carrying out Insulation Coordination

IEC 60071-1, elaborates that the procedure for insulation co-ordination consists of the selection of
the highest voltage for the equipment together with a corresponding set of standard rated
withstand voltages which characterize the insulation of the equipment needed for the application.

i) As per the above mentioned IEC, various voltages and overvoltages (varying in
amplitude, shape and duration) that stress the insulation are initially determined by
means of a system analysis. These voltages & overvoltages are then defined in terms of
standardised representative voltages as mentioned above. The magnitude of switching
& lightning overvoltages as defined in in Table 2 & 3 of IEC 60071-1 ed 8.1, 2011-03
has a 2% probability of being exceeded.

ii) This is followed by determination of the co-ordination withstand voltages (Ucw) which
involves determining the lowest values of the withstand voltages of the insulation
meeting the performance criterion when subjected to the representative overvoltages
under service conditions. The co-ordination withstand voltages can be determined as
either conventional assumed withstand voltages or statistical withstand voltages.

As per IEC 60071-2, due to the restoring feature of self-restoring insulation, its
statistical response to stresses can be obtained by suitable tests. Therefore, self-
restoring insulation is typically described by the statistical withstand voltage
corresponding to a withstand probability of 90 %. For non-self restoring insulation, the
statistical nature of the strength cannot usually be found by testing and the assumed
withstand voltage deemed to correspond to a withstand probability of 100 % is applied.

The co-ordination withstand voltages of the insulation have the shape of the
representative overvoltages of the relevant class and their values are obtained by
multiplying the values of the representative overvoltages by a co-ordination factor
(Kcs). As per Appendix 3.4, Chapter-3, EPRI Reference Book, for a usually acceptable
value of risk-of-failure (R) in the range of 10 -4 in case of slow front overvoltages, the
value of Kcs is 1.15

iii) After this, the required withstand voltage (Urw) of the insulation is determined. The
required withstand voltage to be verified in standard type test conditions and at
standard reference atmosphere is determined taking into account all factors which may
decrease the insulation in service so that the co-ordination withstand voltage is met at
the equipment location during the equipment life. To achieve this, two main types of
correction factors shall be considered:- atmospheric correction factor Ka and a safety
factor Ks.

The rules for the atmospheric correction of withstand voltages of the external
insulation are specified in IEC 60-1 for the determination of the applicable
atmospheric correction factor, it may be assumed that the effects of ambient
temperature and humidity tend to cancel each other. Therefore, for insulation co-
ordination purposes, only the air pressure corresponding to the altitude of the location
need be taken into account for both dry and wet insulations.

As per IEC 60071-2, the correction factor (Ka) can be calculated from following:

where,
H is the altitude above sea level (in metres) and the value of m is as follows:
 m = 1,0 for short-duration power-frequency withstand voltages of air-clearances and
clean insulators. For polluted insulators, the value of the exponent m is tentative. For
the purposes of the long duration test and, if required, the short-duration power-
frequency withstand voltage of polluted insulators, m may be as low as 0,5 for normal
insulators and as high as 0,8 for anti-fog design.

M = 1,0 for co-ordination lightning impulse withstand voltages;

m according to figure 1 for co-ordination switching impulse withstand voltages;

Figure-1

As per IEC 60071-2, if not specified by the relevant apparatus committees, the
following safety factors (Ks) should be applied:
– for internal insulation Ks = 1,15;
– for external insulation Ks = 1,05.

iv) Thereafter, determination of rated insulation level (Uw) is carried out. This involves
selection of the most economical set of standard rated withstand voltages (Uw) of the
insulation sufficient to prove that all the required withstand voltages are met.
An Example of Insulation Coordination (from Appendix 3.4, Chap-3 EPRI Ref. Book)
 Calculation of Required Electrical Clearances

Annex-A, IEC 60071-2, specifies minimum clearances determined for different electrode
configurations. These clearances are intended solely to address insulation co-ordination
requirements. Safety requirements may result in substantially larger clearances. Tables A.1, A.2
and A.3 are suitable for general application, as they provide minimum clearances ensuring the
specified insulation level.

Table A.1 correlates the minimum air clearances with the standard lightning impulse withstand
voltage for electrode configurations of the rod-structure type and, in addition for range II, of the
conductor-structure type. They are applicable for phase-to-earth clearances as well as for
clearances between phases (see note under table A.1).

Table A.2 correlates the minimum air clearances for electrode configurations of the conductor
structure type and the rod-structure type with the standard switching impulse withstand voltage
phase-to-earth. The conductor-structure configuration covers a large range for normally used
configurations.

Table A.3 correlates the minimum air clearances for electrode configurations of the conductor
conductor type and the rod-conductor type with the standard switching impulse withstand voltage
phase-to-phase. The unsymmetrical rod-conductor configuration is the worst electrode
configuration normally encountered in service. The conductor-conductor configuration covers all
symmetrical configurations with similar electrode shapes on the two phases.

Further, Annex-A, IEC 60071-2 states that the air clearances applicable in service are determined
according to the following rules:-

a) For voltages in Range I (i.e. 1kV upto & including 245 kV), the air clearance phase-to-
earth and phase-to-phase is determined from table A.1 for the rated lightning impulse
withstand voltage. The standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage can be
disregarded when the ratio of the standard lightning impulse to the standard short-duration
power-frequency withstand voltage is higher than 1.7

b) For voltages in Range II (i.e. above 245 kV), The phase-to-earth clearance is the higher
value of the clearances determined for the rod structure configuration from table A.1 for
the standard lightning impulse, and from table A.2 for the standard switching impulse
withstand voltages respectively.

The phase-to-phase clearance is the higher value of the clearances determined for the rod
structure configuration from table A.1 for the standard lightning impulse and from table
A.3 for the standard switching impulse withstand voltages respectively.
As per Kiessling, for each kind of voltage stress, the coordination withstand voltage of the air gap
shall be equal or higher than the representative overvoltage. Therefore, following relationships
can be used for determining required electrical clearances under transient & temporary
overvoltage conditions:-

Fast front overvoltages

As per Clause G.3, Annex-G , IEC 60071-2, for standard lightning impulses applied to rod-plane
gaps from 1 m up to 10 m, the experimental data for positive polarity strength may be
approximated by U50RP = 530 d.
Further, as per Pg-65, IEC 60071-2, U10 = U50RP – 1,3 Z where U10 corresponds to coordination
withstand voltage having 90 % probability of withstanding and Z corresponds to the deviation
whose value is as follows:-
– for lightning impulses: Z = 0,03 U50
– for switching impulses: Z = 0,06 U50

Therefore, using the above, for lightning impulses,

U10 = U50X ( 1- 1,3 X .03)
= 0.961 X U50
= 0.961 X 530 d
Required withstand voltage, U90% = Ka X Ks X U10.

d = U90%/ (530 X Ka X Ks X Kz_ff X Kg_ff) where,

Ka is atmospheric correction factor
Ks is safety factor of 1.05 for external insulation
Kz_ff is the Deviation factor i.e. 0.961 for lightning impulse
Kg_ff is the Gap factor for fast-front lightning impulses of positive polarity which can be
approximated in terms of the switching impulse gap factor by: Kg_ff = 0,74 + 0,26 K where
K is gap factor for switching impulse as per Table G.1 below

Slow front overvoltages

As per Clause G.2, Annex-G , IEC 60071-2, for rod-plane gaps of length up to 25 m, experimental
data for positive-polarity critical-front-time strength can be reasonably approximated by:
U50RP = 1080 ln (0,46 d + 1) (kV crest, m)

For standard switching impulses, the following formula provides a better approximation:
U50RP = 500 d0,6 (kV crest, m)

Further, as per Pg-65, IEC 60071-2, U10 = U50RP – 1,3 Z or U10 = U50RP (1– 1.3 X 0.06) = 0.922 U50RP
Therefore, U10 = 1080 ln (0,46 d + 1) X Kz_sf
Also, Required withstand voltage, U90% = Ka X Ks X U10 & Also, U90% = Kcs X U2%
Therefore, Ka X Ks X 1080 ln (0,46 d + 1) X Kz_sf = Kcs X U2%
or, d = 2.17 X [exp {(Kcs X U2%)/ (1080 X Kz_sf X Ka X Ks)} -1]

where, Ka is atmospheric correction factor

Ks is safety factor of 1.05 for external insulation
Kz_sf is the Deviation factor i.e. 0.922 for lightning impulse
Kg_sf is the Gap factor as per Table G.1 below
Kcs is the Coordination factor (= 1.15) for slow front

Power frequency overvoltages

As per Clause G.1, Annex-G , IEC 60071-2, for air gap breakdown under power-frequency
voltage, the lowest withstand voltage is obtained for the rod-plane gap configuration. The 50 %
breakdown voltage for a rod-plane gap may be approximated by the following equation, for air
gaps upto 3 m:

U50RP = 750√2 ln (1+0,55 d1,2)

Also, for gaps larger than 2 m, the strength can be evaluated according to the following equation
(applicable to dry conditions): U50 = U50RP (1,35 K – 0,35 K2)
where K is the gap factor (determined from switching impulse tests) as shown in table G.1 below.

U10 = Kz_pf X U50RP

And, Urp = Ka X Ks X U10
= Ka X Ks X Kz_pf X U50RP
= Ka X Ks X Kz_pf X 750√2 ln (1+0,55 d1,2)

Also, as Urp = (√2/ √3) X Us where Us is rms value of max. system voltage (ph- to-ph)
Or, d= 1.64 [exp {Us /( Ka X Ks X Kz_pf X 750√3)}-1] 0.833

where, Ka is atmospheric correction factor

Ks is safety factor of 1.05 for external insulation
Kz_pf is the Deviation factor i.e. 0.91 for power frequency
Kg_pf is the Gap factor as per Table G.1 below