The Ecology of the Three Jewels

Buddhist resources for a crisis

Kenneth Männchen

Thailand is a predominantly Buddhist country; the Buddhism practiced and upheld there is
Therav​āda Buddhism, one of the eighteen oldest schools of Buddhism (and the only surviving
one of those eighteen). A decline in Buddhism over the past century has gone hand in hand
with an ever-growing environmental crisis, yet the rise of monks and farmers engaging in
environmental activism based on ecological tenets found in the Pali Canon (the oldest
recorded teachings of the Buddha) has influenced the direction of the local communities and
country towards more ecologically sound attitudes and lifestyles. Through an examination of
the teachings and activities of these monks and farmers and a correlation of these teachings
and activities with the Pali Canon, it will be possible to pinpoint doctrinal and sociopolitical
resources that Buddhism is able to bring to the ecological crisis the country faces.
A century ago, Thai rice farmers looked at nature and the environment from a
Buddhist perspective, and Buddhist monks were involved in the Buddhist and folk rituals
that sanctified the farmland and the farm animals ​(Kaufman and Mock, 2014, 875). During
the twentieth century, the encroachment of Westernisation and consumerism polluted the
mind, culture, and environment of Thailand ​(Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel, 1997, 47), and
brought about an energy crisis (De Silva, 1992, 21). The adoption of Western worldviews
correlates with a decline in adherence to Buddhism and Buddhist worldviews, which many
say has led to Thailand’s contemporary environmental crisis (Sponsel and Natadecha-
Sponsel, 1997, 56); a moral collapse has led to the country’s growing ecological imbalance
(Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel, 1997, 47). P ​ hra Prayudh Payutto (Dhammapiṭaka) points
out three erroneous beliefs found in the Western worldview that has led to the environmental
destruction: that humans are separate from nature; that humans are masters of nature; that
material acquisitions lead to happiness ​(Swearer, 1997, ​32). ​Thai Buddhist monks point to
greed, ignorance and hatred as the driving factors of capitalist development and consumerism
which has caused the country’s environmental degradation ​(Darlington, 2007, 170).
According to the Pali Canon, the period in which we are living in now is known as the
era in which the evolving world stands unfolded ​(Punnadhammo, 2018, 111); in this era,
three “intermediate periods” in which many living beings - and most of the human beings in
the world - die are possible: an intermediate period of famine occurs due to a predominance
The Ecology of the Three Jewels Kenneth Männchen

of greed in people; an intermediate period of disease occurs due to a predominance of

confusion (erroneous beliefs); an intermediate period of the sword occurs due to a
predominance of hatred in people (Punnadhammo, 2018, 127). In a discourse found in the
Anguttara Nikāya, it the Buddha explains that when lust, greed, wrong values and immorality
become widespread, timely rain will not fall, crops will become ill, and human mortality will
rise ​ ​(De Silva, 1992, 20).
The dhamma (teachings of the Buddha) are relevant to the resolution of Thailand’s
environmental crisis and for developing a more ecological society, and the principles of
Buddhism are relevant to the construction of an environmental philosophy and ethos
(Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel, 1997, 47; from now on this source will be referred to by
page number). These principles parallel ecological principles (47), and attributes and
characteristics of the sa​ṅgha (Buddhist monastic community) are similar and even identical to
those of an ecological society (48). There is enough material in the Pali Canon to delineate
such principles ​(De Silva, 1992, 18).
Of prime importance in the training of conduct in Buddhism is the first precept which
prohibits taking the life of a sentient being. Regarding the ontological status of flora, plant
life is considered to be alive, but not conscious or sentient. Killing a plant is not considered to
be a violation of the first precept which forbids the taking of life. Yet there is a monastic
injunction against the taking of plant life; this is not due to the animist view prevalent in India
during the time of the Buddha, but rather due to the understanding that celestial beings may
inhabit plant life, and also due to upholding the reputation of the sa​ṅgha, as felling trees was
at the time deemed inappropriate for ascetics and monks (Punnadhammo, 2018, 241).] The
Buddha taught about the kinds of people that “torments others and pursues the practice of
torturing others” and included in this category butchers of sheep and pigs, fowlers, trappers of
wild beasts, hunters, fishermen and people of high standing who order a sacrifice. In contrast
to this, he taught about the monk and the monk’s training and way of life that abstains from
killing living beings, with weapons laid aside, abiding compassionately to all living beings,
abstaining from injuring seeds and plants, abstaining from accepting animals, fields and land.
1
The Buddha even teaches that the perfection of morality lies in abandoning the taking of
life, without weapons, compassionate to all living beings.2 This ethos was instrumental in the
Buddha’s stance against animal sacrifice.3 The Buddha also prohibited monks from eating
meet if it was seen, heard or suspected that the animal had been slain for the monk, and
taught that the slaughter of a living being for the Buddha or his disciple was a highly
unvirtuous act.4
Moreover, monks and nuns abstain from actions that cause indirect and unintentional

1
​“To Kandaraka” (​Kandaraka Sutta​), in ​The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of
the M ​ ajjhima Nik​āya, trans. Bhikkhu ​Ñ​ā​ṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995, 447-449).
2
​“The Fruits of the Homeless Life” (​Sā​ ma​ññaphala​ Sutta)​ , in ​The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A New
Translation of the D ​ ​īgha​ ​Nik​āya, trans. Maurice Walsh ​(1995, 99-100).
3
​“A Bloodless Sacrifice” (​Kū​ ṭadanta Sutta)​ , in ​The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the
D​īgha​ ​Nik​āya, trans. Maurice Walsh ​(1995, 139).
4
​“To J​īvaka​” (​J​īvaka​ Sutta​), in ​The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the
Majjhima Nik​āya, trans. Bhikkhu ​Ñ​āṇ​ amoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995, 474).

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The Ecology of the Three Jewels Kenneth Männchen

harm to living creatures. One prime example of this is the rule devised by the Buddha against
travelling during the rainy season due to the proliferation of insects on the surface of the land
which would otherwise be trampled underfoot. Monastics are also not allowed to drink
unstrained water. On the other hand, the throwing of dish-washing water that contains tiny
food particles into a pool of water where there are small creatures is prescribed as a virtuous
act (De Silva, 1992, 23-24). Monastics have to confess if they dug soil or had it dug
(“Bhikkhu Pāṭimokkha”, 2007, para. 69; from now on this source will be referred to by a
paragraph number), if they damage a living plant (70), if they poured water containing living
beings — or had it poured — on grass or on clay (79),5 or if they make use of water
containing living beings (121). They observe a training that prohibits them from defecating,
urinating, or spitting on living crops or water (218-220).
An exemplary trait and virtue highly praised in Buddhism is contentment; miserliness
and wastefulness is deplored ​(De Silva, 1992, 22); this is evinced in a monastic prohibition
against something as seemingly insignificant as how much cloth to accept for making a robe
(more than is enough for an upper and lower robe is to be forfeited and confessed) (“Bhikkhu
Pāṭimokkha”, 2007, para. 31; from now on this source will be referred to by a paragraph
number), the composition of the cloth for making a blanket (if the felt contains silk, it is to be
forfeited and confessed) (40), and the minimum amount of time a monk or nun must keep a
blanket until he or she is allowed to have another made up for him or her (six years) (43).
The ​sa​ṅgha in Thailand has great potential to make people more aware and informed
of the environmental crisis, as well as to help shape an ethos that takes ecological concerns
into account ​(Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel, 1997, ​54; ​from now on this source will be
referred to by page number​); this is due to its anti-structural6 and liminal roles regarding
society and ethics, and due to the ecological aspects of the dhamma (48). The rite of passage
a layperson goes through in order to become a monk includes a liminal stage; this liminal
stage extends indefinitely throughout the that person’s monastic life and career, and it is this
liminality which allows for ecological agency and influence within the country and amongst
the laity (51). The “development monks” appeared in Thailand in the seventies; they
promoted national economic development at a grassroots level. From the “development
monks” emerged the “ecology monks”; their environmental efforts were directed at
promoting human responsibility toward nature​ (Darlington, 2011, 146).
Buddhad​āsa Bhikkhu and Dhammapiṭaka (Phra Prayudh Payutto) are two such
ecological monks with different hermeneutics concerning ecology ​(Swearer, 1997, ​21; ​from
now on this source will be referred to by page number)​. ​Buddhad​āsa Bhikkhu uses the
doctrinal principles of non-attachment and dependent co-arising for addressing the
environment, identifies the dhamma with nature, teaches that nature is the more appropriate
context for pursuing liberation, and promotes empathy towards the environment ​(​24-26); his
is a more innovative and liberal interpretation of the dhamma (30). On the other hand,
Dhammapiṭaka’s teachings are more systematic and rooted in the Pali Canon and ​Theravāda

5
​When an example is needed for the very smallest and most inconsequential animal, bed-bug eggs are
mentioned (Punnadhammo, 2018).
6
​It opposes the structure of society ​(Sponsel and Natadecha-Sponsel, 1997, 50).

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The Ecology of the Three Jewels Kenneth Männchen

traditions ​(​30-31); he teaches the centrality of Buddhist ethics for forming an environmental
philosophy (32), and that the forest is the ideal context for training the mind to overcome
hindrances to liberation (33). Dhammapiṭaka’s insistence on the value of nature for spiritual
cultivation is grounded in the stories of the Buddha and the early ​sa​ṅgha (34). The Buddha
constantly advised his disciples to resort to the forest and other natural habitats to devote
themselves to meditation undistractedly (​Silva, 1992, 24-25). However, the Buddha taught
that jungle-thicket resting places in the forest are not easy to endure, that seclusion is not easy
to practice, and that it is not easy to enjoy solitude; that jungles rob a monastic of his or her
mind if he or she does not possess concentration.7 The Buddha also taught that a monastic is
not to stay in a jungle thicket if he or she while living there does not establish mindfulness
and concentration, and does not destroy mental defilements that hinder the attainment of
liberation, even if the requisites of life such as robes, almsfood, a resting place, and medicine
are easy to come by; however, he taught that a monastic is to stay in a jungle thicket if the
requisite of life are hard to come by, even if he or she is unable to establish mindfulness and
concentration, and is unable to destroy the mental defilements.8 The Buddha also taught that a
monastic should resort to a secluded resting place in nature after returning from an almsround
in order to establish mindfulness, abandon ill will and hatred, “compassionate for the welfare
of all living beings.”9
In addition to development monks and ecological monks are self-proclaimed
“environmental monks”. These monks have been using rituals to oppose capitalist
development lead by the state in order to promote environmental conservation that is in line
with their interpretations of Buddhist teachings​; one such ritual has been the act of ordaining
trees, which has become accepted and popular throughout Thailand, and has raised awareness
of the consequences of deforestation (Darlington, 2007, 169; ​from now on this source will be
referred to by page number​). One such “environmental monk” who helped initiate tree
ordinations is Phrakhru Pitak Nanthakhun, who spent some time in the meditation center of
Buddhad​āsa Bhikkhu. Phrakhru Pitak’s sponsored a tree ordination in the forest of his home
village and sanctified the forest surrounding the neighbouring villages, influencing the
villagers to respect the forest and care for it (173). Another environmental monk is Phrakhru
Manas Natheephitak who adopted a northern Thai ritual to consecrate a local waterway (174).
Some of these environmental monks have confessed to not personally believing in the rituals
(only people can be ordained), but have attested to their efficacy in inspiring the lay
participants, as well as exposing them to the teachings of the Buddha (which are often
addended to the rituals) (175). Phrakhru Manas stated that such rituals can bring the villagers
together to collectively work on their ecological problems (176). Environmental monks and
their rituals challenge the state’s economic development projects and government policies
and help the villagers challenge businessmen and government officials who are behind the

7
​“Fear and Dread” (​Bhayabherava Sutta)​ , in ​The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation
of the M ​ ajjhima Nik​āya, trans. Bhikkhu ​Ñ​āṇ​ amoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995, 102-103).
8
​“Jungle Thickets” (​Vanapattha Sutta)​ , in ​The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of
the M ​ ajjhima Nik​āya, trans. Bhikkhu ​Ñ​ā​ṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995, 198-200).
9
​“The Greater Discourse at Assapura” (​Mah​ā-Assapura​ Sutta​), in ​The Middle Length Discourses of the
Buddha: A New Translation of the M ​ ajjhima Nik​āya, trans. Bhikkhu ​Ñ​ā​ṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995, 366).

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The Ecology of the Three Jewels Kenneth Männchen

deforestation, they help the villagers view consumerism and commercial agriculture critically
(177). Monks are expected to keep themselves separate from worldly issues such as politics;
however, Buddhism is concerned with resolving human suffering, and these monks see
environmental destruction as a key factor regarding such suffering (Darlington, 2011, 151).
As such, they inhabit a zone that intersects their traditional roles as spiritual leaders with roles
as social activists (Darlington, 2011, 152).
There has been a trend in Thailand for farmers to switch to organic farming methods
and Buddhist spiritual-ecological values. Research has shown that such farmers benefit
financially and physically from such a change (Kaufman and Mock, 2014, 871; ​from now on
this source will be referred to by page number​). It is the religious beliefs and values of such
farmers that factors into their decision to switch to sustainable farming (the first precept
prohibiting the killing of any living being is often interpreted as prohibiting the harming of
any living being) (873). Although most farmers attested to health and financial benefits as
reasons for shifting to organic farming, many explained that they had become interested in
organic farming due to having learnt about ecological values embedded in the dhamma (881),
such as the first precept (885). Farmers also expressed a social concern to provide healthy
food to their families and customers and a belief that they gained merit by doing so (884).
From the Buddha discoursing on the prohibition of spitting into water to discoursing
on the prohibition of taking the life of a living being, from environmental monks ordaining
trees and waterways and sanctifying forests, to farmers giving up chemical fertilisers,
ecological concerns have factored into Buddhist teachings and practices over the course of
2,500 years, spanning continents from India to Thailand and beyond. The resources
Buddhism can provide towards solving the ecological crisis range from the microcosmic,
entailing conduct towards a being so small as a bedbug egg, or towards a seed considered
alive yet not sentient, or macropolitical, concerning activist approaches towards entire
corporations and governments.

Word count (including footnotes): 2,513

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The Ecology of the Three Jewels Kenneth Männchen

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