ABSTRACT

As prescribed by Pokhara University syllabus “Civil Engineering Project” in final semester

serves as an effective tool to get acquainted with practical problem that one has to face as an
application of various theoretical knowledge gained during the four-year course. In the
concern subject‟s viz. survey Engineering, Highway Engineering, estimating and coasting,
Engineering geology etc. are helpful in safe, economic and stable analysis of Roadway
Design.

To get optimum good result more realistic approach has been adopted taking in account the
various consequences that may arise during the real practice. The detail estimate was made
based on DoLIDAR norms and Nepal Rural Road Standard (NRRS 1st Revision) and the
designed surface is blacktop.

Total 32 IPs stations along with Bench Marks were fixed and were carried from “Dovan” to
“Nuwakot”. The total length of road surveyed was 2.00 Km. Total project cost for the
construction of this road is NRs 1,99,20,281.61

i
 ACKNOWLEDMENT

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it possible. So, we acknowledge all
those whose guidance and encouragement helped us and crowned our efforts with success.
We express our heartiest gratitude with great pleasure to School of Engineering, Pokhara
University which provided us an opportunity in fulfilling our cherished desire of attaining
our goal and for the encouragement rendered by them.

We find no word to express our sincere gratitude and we are extremely thankful to our
supervisor Er. Buddhi Raj Joshi, who has been a constant source of inspiration and
encouragement. His valuable advice and expert suggestions have been the primary source for
the successful completion of this project.

We would also like express our deepest gratitude and special thanks to Er. Arjun Guatam
Director of School of Engineering and Er. Rajendra Aryal Co-ordinator of School of
Engineering for kind suggestion in surveying and design work of this project. We are also
thankful to all local participants and friends for kind co-operation, guidance and help during
execution of field survey work and required information.

SURVEY TEAM MEMBERS

AASHIS MALLA (13520833)

BIBEK RANA (13520845)
AMIT MODI (13480087)
DEEPAK POKHAREL (13520853)
INDRA PRASAD TIMILSINA (13520859)
KESHAB SINGH BADAL (13520864)
KISHAN PAUDEL (13520865)
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDMENT..............................................................................................................v

CHAPTER-1.............................................................................................................................x

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1 General............................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER: 2............................................................................................................................3

LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................3

2.1 Highway Alignment........................................................................................................3

2.2 Process of Identifying Best Route Location...................................................................3

2.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment........................................................................4

2.4 Engineering Surveys for highway locations...................................................................6

2.4.1 Map Study................................................................................................................7

2.4.2 Reconnaissance........................................................................................................7

2.4.3 Preliminary survey...................................................................................................8

2.4.3.1. Final Location and Detailed survey.....................................................................8

2.4.4 Leveling...................................................................................................................9

2.4.5 Composition of traffic..............................................................................................9

2.4.6 Geometric Features..................................................................................................9

2.4.7 Economy..................................................................................................................9

2.5 Geometric design of highway.......................................................................................10

2.5.1 Longitudinal profile...............................................................................................10

2.5.2 Cross-section..........................................................................................................11

2.6 Geometric Design Standards.........................................................................................13

2.7 Geometric parameters of Road.....................................................................................14

2.7.1 Design Speed..........................................................................................................14

2.7.2 Right of way...........................................................................................................14

2.7.3 Ground Level.........................................................................................................14

 2.7.4 Formation Level.....................................................................................................14

2.7.5 Sight Distance........................................................................................................14

2.7.6 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)..............................................................................15

2.7.7 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)..........................................................................16

2.8 Horizontal Curvature.....................................................................................................16

2.8.1 Super elevation.......................................................................................................16

2.8.2 Extra widening on curves.......................................................................................17

2.8.3 Horizontal alignment details..................................................................................17

2.8.4Vertical Alignment Details.....................................................................................24

2.8.5 Stopping sight distance..........................................................................................28

2.9 Factors affecting geometric design...............................................................................28

2.10 Design of Pavement in the Road:................................................................................29

2.10.1 Flexible Pavement................................................................................................29

2.10.1.1 Sub grade course...............................................................................................30

2.11Highway Drainage.......................................................................................................31

2.11.1 Importance of Highway Drainage.....................................................................31

2.11.2 Side Drains...........................................................................................................31

2.12 Retaining Structures....................................................................................................34

2.12.1 Types of retaining walls.......................................................................................34

2.13 Bio Engineering Technique........................................................................................38

2.13.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................38

2.13.2 Importance of Bioengineering.............................................................................38

2.13.3 Bioengineering Works as Road Side Development.............................................39

2.14 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)...................................................................40

CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................42

METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................42

3.1 Detail Survey Work......................................................................................................42

 3.3 Designing of earth retaining structure...........................................................................43

3.3.1 Design criteria for retaining wall...........................................................................43

3.3.2 Earth pressure due to backfill soil..........................................................................43

3.3 Design of pavement structure.......................................................................................46

3.3.1 Determination of pavement thickness........................................................................46

3.4 Design criteria of super elevation.................................................................................47

CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................49

CALCULATION, ANALYSIS AND RESULTS..................................................................49

4.1 Detail survey work undertaken.....................................................................................49

4.1 Hydraulic Design..........................................................................................................49

4.1.1 Design of Side Drain.........................................................................................49

4.1.2Design of Cross Drainage (Pipe Culvert)...............................................................50

4.2 Design of Geometric Parameter....................................................................................51

4.2.1 Horizontal Curve....................................................................................................51

4.2.2. Super Elevation:....................................................................................................53

4.2.3. Extra widening on curves:.....................................................................................53

4.2.4. Stopping sight distance.........................................................................................54

4.3 Retaining Structure.......................................................................................................55

4.2 Pavement Design...........................................................................................................58

CHAPTER 5...........................................................................................................................60

COST ESTIMATE..................................................................................................................60

4.1 Project cost....................................................................................................................60

4.2 Details of Measurements...............................................................................................60

4.2.1 Earthwork...............................................................................................................60

4.2.2 Side Drainage and Cross Drainage........................................................................60

4.2.3 Retaining Structures Earthwork.............................................................................60

4.3 Analysis of Rate............................................................................................................60

 4.3.1 Quantity Estimate...................................................................................................60

4.4 Cost Estimate................................................................................................................61

4.5 Report............................................................................................................................61

CHAPTER 6...........................................................................................................................62

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION......................................................................62

6.1 General Conclusion..................................................................................................62

BIBLIOGRAPHY 63

ANNEXES

Annex 1 (FIELD DATA)

Annex 2 (DESIGN DATA)
Annex 3 (ABTRACTS COST)
Annex 4 (SUMMARY OF PROJECT COST)
Annex 5 (QUANTITY SHEET)
Annex 6 (RATE ANALYSIS)
Annex 7 (DETAIL DRAWING)
MAP OF NEPAL
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
Road development in Nepal started only after the advent of democracy in 1950. The national
road network comprises of national highways, feeder roads, urban roads, district roads and
village roads. The national highways together with feeder roads constitute the strategic road
network (SRN) of country. The SRN is the backbone of the national road network. The
construction and maintenance of the SRN falls on the responsibility of the DOR. The district
roads together with village roads constitute the district road networks. At present the national
road networks has altogether 11,635.58Km (64% blacktop, 25% gravel and 11% earthen
road) according to last update of 2012 by DOR.

Total SRN Length=11635.58km

Earthern
11% 0%

Gravel
25%

Black top
64%

The proposed road is situated in Lumbini zone, connecting Dovan V.D.C. to Nuwakot
V.D.C. of Palpa district. At present, the roadway is a 3.0m wide earthen road which
excessively degrades during rainy season making it nearly impossible for use due to absence
of proper drainage system. The road is also found to be narrow for efficient use. Road is
used by local residents for commute. Farmers use it to transport produced goods and
emergency use like ambulance, fire brigade and the police.
The road is not subjected to extreme landslides and soil erosion but ruts and potholes of mud
during monsoon hinder effective use of the road.

1
The site is so located that it has a great importance in connecting the places from point of
agricultural production. Although it is very near from the Butwal city, most of the peoples
are uneducated and it lacks proper schooling for the children. Thus it may provide an
opportunity for the children to be in touch with butwal city to have better communication
with national and international world.

1.2 Statement of problem

The lack of proper road in the area has made difficulty in the transportation of agricultural
products and in the vehicular service as well. Thus the proposed alignment would play the
best role for overcoming the above mentioned difficulties.

The existing surface is covered almost with broken stones and earth thus making difficulty in
the movement of vehicle in the opened track. The road excessively degrades during rainy
season making impossible for use due to proper drainage system. Furthermore the existing
earthen road is washed out by rain water during rainy season deteriorating the condition of
the road more and more. The upgrade of the proposed alignment would help in the overall
development of the Dovan and other connected VDCs.

1.3. Objectives of the project

The survey of any alignment of road leads to the development and design of an economic
and safe road. The main objectives of survey can be listed as follows:

 Detail survey and design of hill road.

 Networking rural and urban area and hence reduction of poverty.
 To be familiar with technique and equipment for hill road construction.
 Providing short, easy, safe and economical transportation system.

1.4. Scope of the project

The various scope of the project can be summarized as follows:

 Conduct the detail engineering survey of the proposed alignment

 Layout of the plan, profile and cross section of the road project
 Design the necessary geometrics of the road
 Estimate the total cost of the project along with cost in every components
 CHAPTER: 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
The previous project thesis, detail reports of road design, Nepal Road Standards, training
manual for engineers were thoroughly taken in consideration and discussed among the
project team during the development of project work. The study of different road related
publications, documents, etc gave the good idea of the project scenario and guided
significantly for the completion of the final year project.

2.1 Highway Alignment

Highway alignment may be defined as the position or layout of the centre line of the
highway on the ground. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical
alignments of road. To determine the precise position of the road centerline from the design
drawing on ground during construction, it is essential to determine three coordinates of all
points of the centre line. Thus, highway alignment is located on the ground with the help of
its two components. A new road should be aligned very carefully, as improper alignment
will result in one or more of the following disadvantages.
 Increase in construction cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in accident rate

It is highly uneconomical to change the road alignment once it is aligned and constructed
due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road
side. Thus careful consideration should be taken while finalizing the alignment.

2.2 Process of Identifying Best Route Location

The necessary points to be considered while selecting an ideal alignment in a highway can
be listed as under: 4
Short: The alignment between two terminal points need to shortest in distance. Theoretically
a straight alignment is a shortest but practically considering the alignment there are many
implications in doing so due to the high gradient of the road.

Easy: The selected alignment should be easy in construction and it should have minimum
complications while it is in maintenance phase. In addition, the alignment should be easy for
the operation of vehicles with easy gradients and curves.

Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance from the
viewpoint of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes and foundation of
embankments. In addition, it should be safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric
features.

Economical: The road alignment can be considered economical only if the total cost
including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest along with the
consideration that it is short, easy and safe. All these factors should be given due
consideration before working out the economics each alignment.

2.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

Along with the consideration of the above points the alignment should be such that it would
offer maximum utility by serving maximum population and products. The alignment should
be straight between two terminal stations to be a shortest alignment. Due to various practical
difficulties such as obstructions and topography, it is not always possible to keep the
alignment straight. The shortest route might have very steep gradients. Similarly, there may
be construction and maintenance problems along a route, which may otherwise be short and
easy. Roads are often deviated from the shortest possible route in order to fulfill the demand
of road as per the importance of obligatory points.
A road, which is economical in the initial construction cost, need not necessarily be the most
economical in the maintenance or in cost of vehicular operation. It is possible that the
shortest route may be the most costly route, thus it is seen that an alignment can seldom
fulfill all the requirements simultaneously; hence, a judicial choice has to be made
considering all the factors.
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
a) Obligatory points

b) Traffic

c) Geometric design

d) Economics

e) Other considerations

a) Obligatory points
These are the control points governing the alignment of highway .These are of two
categories.
 Points through which a highway is to pass such as:
 An industrial area or mine zone to which a highway is to serve additionally
 Tourist spots
 Bridge site (suitable)
 Hill pass
 Link with intermediate towns

 Points through which highway should not pass such as

 Marshy place, water logged area etc.
 Historically and archeologically important property
 Restricted zone for defense, national security
 Costly structural elements requiring heavy compensation

b) Traffic
Traffic requirements need to be fulfilled while selecting the alignment. The desire lines
should be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow and the detail study of their origin and
destination points need to be carried out. The desired lines, traffic flow patterns and future
trends need to be carefully considered while aligning the highway.
c) Geometric design
Factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also would govern the final
alignment of the highway. The gradient should be flat and less than ruling or design gradient
as far as possible. Adjustments considering the horizontal alignment along with the view of
design speed, maximum allowable superelevation and lateral friction need to be considered.

d) Economy
In working out the economics, the initial cost of maintenance and vehicle operation should
be taken into account. There should be balance in cutting and filling with the decrement of
high embankment and deep cutting.

e) Other considerations
Factors like drainage considerations, hydrological factors, political considerations and
monotony may govern the alignment. The vertical alignment is guided by drainage
considerations. The subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood level are the factors
to be kept in view.

For hill roads, special considerations have to be given, for the followings:
a) Stability

b) Drainage

c) Geometric standards of hill roads

d) Resisting length

2.4 Engineering Surveys for highway locations

The engineering surveys are to be carried out before a highway alignment is finalized in
highway project. The surveys may be computed in four stages. The first three stages
consider all possible alternative alignments keeping in view of the various requirement of
highway alignment. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey of the selected
alignment.
The four stages of the engineering surveys are
1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance
3. Preliminary surveys
4. Final location and detailed surveys

2.4.1 Map Study

While finding the alternative path of highway it is easier in doing it if the topographical map
of the area is available. Topographic maps are available from the department of survey,
Government of Nepal. The likely routes of the highway can then be easily found out by
studying these maps. The new maps are available in 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 scales. The main
features like rivers, hills, valley is carefully shown in color in these maps. By the careful
study of such maps it is possible to have an idea of the several possible alternate routes so
that the further details of these may be studied later at the site. The probable alignment can
be located on the map from the following details available on the map,

1. Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

2. When road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a hill pass.
3. Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river if
any.
4. When a road is to be connected between two stations, one on the top and the other
on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the
permissible gradient.
Thus map study suggests the alternative routes in a highway. It may also be possible from
map study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable obstructions or undesirable
ground in route. Thus, map study gives a rough guidance of the routes necessary for the
survey.

2.4.2 Reconnaissance
The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the
general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A
field survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative
routes of map in the field using simple instruments like Abney level. All relevant details not
available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are mentioned as follows:
1. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
obstruction along the route, which are not available in the map study.
 2. Approximate value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternative
alignments
3. Number and types of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural
ground water level along the probable routes.
4. Soil type along the routes from the field identification tests and observation of
geological features
5. Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.
6. When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc may be
observed so as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway
alignment.
Aerial survey is the best method of reconnaissance especially when the area is vast and the
terrain is difficult. From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment
proposed after map study may be altered or even changed completely for better design of
road.

2.4.3 Preliminary survey

Preliminary survey outlines the following objectives:
1. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all necessary details of topography, drainage and soil.
2. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
3. To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.

2.4.3.1. Final Location and Detailed survey

The centerline is to be established in the field after the finalization of the alignment as a first
act of preliminary survey. The necessary data are collected by the detail survey for the
preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.
Benchmarks:
Benchmark is a permanent point of reference whose elevations with respect to some
assumed datum is known.

Plan:
It is the top view of project in a map. It consists of
a) North line.
 b) Location of IPs and BMs with references.
c) Location of road centerline, formation width and right of way.

2.4.4 Leveling
Leveling is the branch of surveying which deals with the measurements of relative heights of
different points on the surface of earth. The objective of leveling is to find the elevations of
given points with respect to a given elevations or at a different elevations with respect to a
given or assumed datum. Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. For the
purpose of road construction, the profile leveling is carried out to determine the R.L. of the
centerline located with driven pegs. The leveling determines the alignment of the road. The
leveling is taken at the suitable interval according to the site.

2.4.5 Composition of traffic

The alignment of road passing from shortest route is deviated due to the volume and
composition of traffic. For highway with intensive heavy vehicles and high volume of traffic
alignment yielding minimum length of steep ascend/descend is much desirable than the
shortest route distance.
Similarly, a highway leading to a recreation spot, or tourist spot that might have predominant
by light passenger car and had a few buses, alignment may be chosen with higher slope. In
addition, the origin and destination study should be carried out in the area and the desire
lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. The alignment should be chosen based on
origin/ destination study, traffic desire lines, flow pattern, future trends etc.

2.4.6 Geometric Features

Geometric design factors such as permissible limit of descending or ascending slopes, sight
distance requirements, degree of curvature and bends, width of the road and many other
dimensional features of the road may also govern the final alignment of the highway.

2.4.7 Economy
On the basis of above requirements the alignment should be finalized and should also be
economical. The initial construction cost might be the governing factor due to budget
constraints and alignment is selected accordingly even if the road yields highest maintenance
cost and vehicle cost. The initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankments
and deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to balance the cutting
and filling.
2.5 Geometric design of highway
The dimension and layout of visible features of highway such as alignment, sight distance
and intersections are dealt in the geometric design of road. To provide optimum efficiency in
traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost, the geometry of the road should
be designed carefully. The safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed
to a large extent by the care with which the geometric design has been worked out. Efficient
and comfortable operation of traffic is possible only if the design elements have been
meticulously considered .A well designed highway has to be consistent with economy .Too
liberal standards may not fit with the available resources, whereas if the standards are too
lows, the cost of operation may mount up.

2.5.1 Longitudinal profile

Leveling operation carried out to determine the elevations of the points at known distances
apart, and other salient features, along a given straight line is called profile leveling. It is the
process of determining the elevation of points at short measured interval along a fixed line
such as the centerline of highways or canal. The fixed line may be a single straight line or it
may be composed of a succession of straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected
by curves. By means of such section, an engineer is enabled to study the relationship
between the existing ground surface and levels of the purposed construction in the direction
of its length. Longitudinal leveling is also called profile leveling.
The profile consists of the following:
 Ground level
 Formation level
 Chainage
 Cut-fill data
 Longitudinal gradient
2.5.1.1 Ground level
Ground level in hilly terrain consists of steep land surface, which results in rise and fall of
the leveling. Hence, to maintain the gradient for the formation level a larger number of
retaining structures and deep cuttings are necessary.

2.5.1.2 Formation Level

The gradients standards for the district roads need to be fulfilled according to the norms
provided by the NRS 2070. Special and practical considerations are taken if it is in need. The
maximum permissible gradient provided is 12% for the maximum of 300m and then average
7% of gradient has been taken into consideration.

2.5.1.3 Chainage
The total length of the road alignment can be defined as the chainage. The proposed road
alignment consists of hilly terrain in almost all chainage. The cross sections were taken at
20m intervals in all places. The total chainage of the highway alignment we have surveyed is
approximately 2km.

2.5.1.4 Cut-fill Data

The cut and fill data were such taken that the volume of cut and fill may be balanced. But
due to the location and the inaccessibility of the site and the standards of the norm as per
NRS 2070, it was not possible to maintain equal cutting as filling. As a result of which the
amount of filling exceeds the amount of cutting.

2.5.1.5 Longitudinal Gradient

The maximum longitudinal gradient to be provided according to NRS 2070 is 12% for
maximum of 300m distance and then average gradient as mentioned is to be provided.

2.5.2 Cross-section
Cross-sections run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of it for the
purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. Cross-sections provide the data for
estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes. The scale selected for plotting is
equal in both the axes. Cross-sections are plotted for each elements of curve. The cross-
section consists of the following:
  Existing ground level
 Right of way
 Formation width
 Carriageway
 Retaining wall
 Pavement Width
 Shoulder width
 Side Drains
 Building line
 Control lines

2.5.2.1 Right of way

The area of land acquired for the road along its alignment can be termed as the right of way.
The width of this acquired land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of
the road and possible future developments. According to the recommendation provided by
the NRS 2070 the right of way may be kept as 15m on either side of the road.

2.5.2.2 Formation Width

Formation width is the sum of width of pavement or carriageway including median strips if
any, and the shoulders. It is the top width of the highway embankment or the bottom of
highway cutting excluding the side drains. The proposed road is the single lane road with a
formation width of 5.25m including a shoulder width of 0.75m on each side.

2.5.2.3 Carriageway
Deduction of the width of shoulders from the formation width gives the width of the
carriageway. It depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The designed
Dovan - Nuwakot road is single lane road. So according to the NRS 2070 Standards the
width of carriageway is 3.75m.

2.5.2.4 Retaining wall

The primary function of retaining wall is to resist the lateral thrust of a mass of earth on one
side and sometimes the pressure of subsoil water as well. And in many cases the wall may be
required to support vertical loads from a structure above it called as surcharge load. It is
constructed parallel to the centerline of highway in general.

Functional requirements of retaining wall:

Retaining walls constructed parallel to the centerline of the road must essentially possess the
following requirements:
 Strength and stability
 Durability

The retaining wall must not

 Slide
 Overturn
 Overstress the materials of which the wall are constructed
 Overstress the soils in which the wall rest

2.6 Geometric Design Standards

The design standards of various geometric parameters of a road are to be fixed in road
project as a major work. The geometry of a highway should be designed to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost. While fixing the
standard of parameters, one should consider static and dynamic factors including
government plans and road policies. Without considering these policies and plans it may
lead to the obstruction in road in the future.
Volume of traffic, type of traffic, probable load of traffic can be considered as the dynamic
factors whereas the other forces which may affect the life of road as static factors can be
attributed to soil properties, rock types, topography of land, meteorological and hydrological
factors, ground water and construction materials.
Based on the above stated factors, the major considerations for the fixation of standards are:
i. Width of formation, carriageway and shoulder
ii. Dimension of side drain
iii. Right of way
iv. Camber
v. Gradient
vi. Design speed
vii. Sight distance (SD, SSD, OSD etc)
viii. Design of horizontal and vertical curves
ix. Passing zone
x. Super elevation
xi. Extra widening
xii. Vertical elevation
xiii. Minimum radius of curvature

2.7 Geometric parameters of Road

2.7.1 Design Speed

The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design elements depend. The sight
distance, radius of horizontal curve (R), super elevation (e) extra widening of pavement,
length of summit and valley curve are all dependent on design speed.
The design speed of road depends on:
 Class of road
 Terrain

As per the Dolidar, the design speed based on above classification is taken 15 km per hour.

2.7.2 Right of way

It is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. The width of this acquired
land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road and possible future
developments.

2.7.3 Ground Level

The existing surface of the earth at the site is called ground level where rise and fall of the
gradient is expected.

2.7.4 Formation Level

The level of the ground where actually we construct the road is called formation level. Thus
it is the final level that we have to achieve.

2.7.5 Sight Distance

The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on roads depends, among other factors on the
road length at which an obstruction, if any becomes visible to the drivers in the direction of
travel. The following are the three sight distance situations considered in the design of a
highway:
  Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance
 Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
 Safe sight distance for entering into controlled intersection

The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions:
 Driver traveling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road
visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead,
without collision.
 Driver traveling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake, at the
reasonable intervals, the slower vehicles without causing obstruction or hazard to
traffic of opposite direction.
 Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle.

2.7.6 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should have a sufficient
length to stop a vehicle, traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstructions.
The sight distance available on a road to a driver at any instance depends on
 Features of the road ahead
 Height of the driver‟s eye above the road surface
 Height of the object above the road surface.
Stopping distance = Lag distance +Breaking
distance
SD, m = v t +

Where, v = speed of vehicle, m/s

f = design coefficient of friction
2.7.7 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against of opposite direction is known as the overtaking sight
distance or the safe passing sight distance available.
Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight distance required for
the safe overtaking maneuver depends, are:
 Speed of (i) overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicles (iii) the vehicle coming from
opposite direction, if any.
 Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum spacing
depends on the speeds.
 Skill and reaction time of the diver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road

2.8 Horizontal Curvature

Horizontal curves are inserted when the alignment changes and it has to be followed with
necessary modifications considering the topography, geology and hydrology of that area.
When a vehicle travels in a horizontal curve, centrifugal force acts horizontally outward
through the centre of gravity of the vehicles. This centrifugal force must be balanced to keep
the vehicle moving in a safe way without skidding or overturning.
For the safety purpose at the bends the following provisions have been made:
 Super elevation
 Extra widening on curves
 Minimum radius of curvature

2.8.1 Super elevation

To counteract the centrifugal force at curves which tends to skid or overturn the vehicle
super elevation is provided. The maximum value of super elevation provided is 0.1.
2.8.2 Extra widening on curves
Extra widening is provided to prevent off tracking of the vehicles at the inner shoulder and
transverse skidding of vehicle due to centrifugal force to have greater visibility and greater
clearance between the vehicles during crossing and overtaking.

According the IRC the values of the extra widening is accounted as

We = Wm + Wps
Where,
We = extra widening
Wm = Mechanical widening
Wps = Psychological widening

𝑊e = + √
Where,
n = no. of traffic lane
l = length of wheel base
R = Radius of curve
V = design speed, kmph

Extra widening has been provided in the inner side of the circular curve. Introduction of
extra widening commences gradually from the point which is ahead by length of curve from
beginning point of curve. The gradual introduction reaches to 2/3 We at the beginning of the
curve. The remaining 1/3 widening is provided on the circular curve.

2.8.3 Horizontal alignment details

The design of horizontal curves considers the following elements:

2.8.3.1 Horizontal curve:

A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the central
line of road. They are generally used on the highways where it is necessary to change the
direction of motion. The horizontal curves, which are generally used in highways, are
circular.
Elements of horizontal curves are as follows:

1. Tangent Length (T): The length between the beginning of the curve or end of the
curve and the point of intersection is called the tangent length. It depends on the
deflection angle, and radius of the curve.

2. Length of curve (L): The length of curve from the point of commencement to the
point of tangency is called length of the curve. If the curve is designated by its degree
of curvature, the length of the curve will depend upon the criteria used for the
definition of the degree of curve.

3. Length of chord (l): It is the chord joining the point of curve with the point of
tangent.

4. Deflection angle: The angle between which a survey line makes with the
prolongation of the proceeding line is called deflection angle. It is measured to the
clockwise or anticlockwise from the prolongation of the previous line.It's value
ranges from 0-180.

5. Radius of curve(R): For the certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is
dependent on the radius of the horizontal curve. To keep the centrifugal ratio within
low limit the radius of the curve should be kept corresponding high.
 6. Apex distance (E): It is the distance between the points if intersection to the middle
of curve length. It also depends in the deflection angle and radius of the curve.

7. Bearing of line: The bearing of line is the angle made by that line with respect to the
magnetic north direction. It is also known as whole circle bearing (WCB).

2.8.3.2 Camber
The traverse slope provided on the either side from the centre line of the road is known as
camber. The main purpose of providing the camber is to drain out the surface water from the
road surface. Usually, camber is provided, by raising the centre portion of the road with
respect to the edge, but during the design of road, we use the following camber.

Types of camber are

1. Straight
2. Parabolic
3. Combined

According to NRS 2070, camber slope for bituminous pavement is 2.5%.

2.8.3.3 Super elevation (e)

To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the curve. This transverse inclination to
the pavement surface is known as super elevation or cant or banking. The NRS
recommendation for the super elevation, the maximum value is 7% for plain and rolling
terrain.

There are two ways of attainment of super elevation which are:

a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b) Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation.
Design criteria of super-elevation
Various steps in the design of the super elevation in practical are summarized as given
below:

i. The super elevation for 75% of design speed (V kmph) is calculated neglecting the
friction.

e=
or

e=

ii. If the calculated value of e is less than 1/15 or 0.07, then the value so obtained is
provided.
If the value of e exceeds 1/15 or 0.07 then provide the maximum super elevation
equal to 1/15 and proceed with steps given below.

iii. Check the coefficient of the friction developed for the maximum value of e = 0.07 at
the full value of the design speed.

f= – 0.07 „v‟ in m/s.

OR
f=
– 0.07 „V‟ in kmph.

If the value of thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation is safe for the design
speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed from the above step.

iv. As an alternative to step iii, the allowable speed ( , kmph) at the curve is calculated
by considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum super
elevation

e + f = 0.067 + 0.15 = 0.217 =

Calculate the safe allowable speed.

=√ , m/sec.

=√ , kmph.

If the allowable speed as calculate above higher than the design speed, then the designs is
adequate and then provides a super elevation of 'e' equal to 0.07. If the allowable speed is
less than the design speed then the speed is limited to the allowable speed V a kmph
calculated above.

2.8.3.4 Transition Curve

A non-circular curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve, is known as
transition curve. The curvature of such curves varies from zero as its beginning to a definite
value at its junction with the circular curve.
The function of transition curves in the horizontal alignment of the highway may be summed
up into the following points:
i. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
ii. To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security.
iii. To enable gradual introduction of the designed super-elevation and extra
widening of pavement at the start of the circular curve.
iv. To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road

Calculation of the length of transition curve

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfill following three conditions
i. Rate of the change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually.
ii. Rate of the introduction of the designed super-elevation to be at reasonable rate.
iii. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula.
Rate of the change of centrifugal acceleration (C)

C=
(m/sec3)

The length of transition curve Ls

Ls =

Where,

Ls = length of transition curve, m

R = radius of the circular curve, m
C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration m / sec3

C= m/sec3 [0.5 < C < 0.08]

Rate of introduction of super elevation

Ls= = ; If outer edge is rotated about center line.

Ls= EN = eN(W+We); If pavement is rotated about the inner edge.

Where,
Ls= Length of transition curve, m
e = rate of super elevation in %
E = e(W+We)
We = extra widening provided at the circular curve
N = 150 in plain rolling terrain
= 60 in hilly terrain
By empirical formula:
a) for plain and rolling terrain :

Ls = V = Velocity in Kmph

b) for hilly and steep terrains

Ls =
V = Velocity in Kmph

2.8.3.5 Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curves

When a sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced in a certain section of the road, which has
already maximum permissible gradient, then the longitudinal gradient should be corrected
and reduced to compensate the loss of tractive effort due to various reasons. Some of them
are:
i. Increased rolling resistance.
ii. Increased grade resistance
iii. Increased air resistance

Due to the turning angle of vehicles, the curves resistance is developed at the horizontal
curves. When there are horizontal curves in addition to the gradient, there will be increased
resistance to traction due to both gradient and curves; it is necessary that in such cases, the
total resistance due to grade and curve should not exceed the resistance due to the maximum
value of gradient specified. For design purpose, this maximum value may be taken as the
ruling gradient and in some special cases as limiting gradient for the terrain. When the sharp
horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road, which has already the maximum permissible
gradient, the gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss of tractive effort due to
the curves.

This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called grade compensation. This is
calculated from the relation:

Grade compensation, % = , subject to a maximum value of .

Where,
R = Radius of circular curve, m
The grade compensation is not required for the curves flatter than 4% gradients.

2.8.4Vertical Alignment Details

While aligning a highway it must follow the general topography of the land. But the natural
ground may be level only at some places and otherwise the ground may have slopes of
varying magnitudes. Hence, the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well
slopes or grades. In order to have smooth vehicle movements on the roads, the change in the
grade should be smoothened by the vertical curves. Followings are important to be
considered in vertical alignment:

i. Design of Vertical Curve

It is necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersection of different grades to smoothen
out the vertical profile because of changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway and
thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles. If not so, the drastic
change in the rate of grade may subject a vehicle passing over it to an impact, which would
be dangerous leading to the loss of property and lives. Hence, the vertical curve contributes
to the safety, comfort and appearance.

ii. Types of Vertical Curve

a. Summit curve
b. Valley curve

a. Summit curve
The summit curve is introduced when an ascending gradient meets with descending gradient
in the alignment. The maximum permissible gradient is taken as 12% and maximum average
gradient is 8 % (NRS2070). During the design, the minimum value of stopping sight
distance is considered as 50m for the design speed 40 Km/hr. according to NRS 2070.
 Figure No. 2: Summit Curve

a) When L> SSD

L= √√

Height of driver's eye (H) = 1.2m (above the pavement surface)

Height of object above the pavement surface (h)=0.15m
S = Stopping sight distance, (SSD), m
N = Algebraic difference of grade
SSD = 50 m for design speed 40 kmph

b) When L < SSD

√ √
L = 2S -
b. Valley curve
In the alignment, the valley curve is introduced when descending gradient meets with an
ascending gradient. The length of valley transition curve is designed based on the two
criteria: (i) the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (ii) the head light sight
distance, and the higher of the two values is adopted. Usually the second criterion of head
light sight distance is higher and therefore governs the design. During design, sight distance
is considered and according to NRS2070, which consist that the headlight sight distance will
be the stopping sight distance, minimum value of stopping sight distance is 50mand that the
centrifugal acceleration will be of 0.6m/sec2.

a) The length of transition curve Ls for comfort condition is given by equation,

Fig 3: Valley curve

The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of
equal length. Refer figure 3 where ABC is the valley curve of total length L and AB and BC
are two equal transition curves each of length Ls=L/2, having minimum radius R at the
common point B.

Length of valley curve L = 2Ls = 2 * +

N = deviation angle
L = Total length of valley curve
𝑣 = speed in m/s
𝐶 = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

V kmph = * + m/s

L=2*+
 L = 0.38 [𝑁 3]12
Minimum radius of valley curve for cubic parabola is given by R = 𝐿𝑠 𝑁 = L 2𝑁

b) Length of valley curve for headlight sight distance.

i. L > SSD

Fig 4: Head light sight distance when L>S

L=

Where, L = length of summit curve,

S = stopping sight distance, (SSD), m
N = deviation angle
α= Beam angle = 1⁰
h1=average height of the headlight, 0.75m

ii. L < SSD

Fig 5: Head light sight distance when L < S

L = 2S -
Substituting h=0.75 m and =1⁰ when L<S
 L = 2S -

iii. Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x.Sometimes it is also expressed as a percentage, n i.e. n
in100.
Gradients are divided into following categories:
a) Ruling gradient
b) Limiting gradient
c) Exceptional gradient
d) Minimum gradient

2.8.5 Stopping sight distance

It is the clear distance ahead needed for the driver to bring his vehicle to or stop before
meeting another vehicle (stationary or moving) for no obstruction on his way .The factors
affecting SSD are:
1. Reaction time
a) Perception time
b) Brake or foot reaction time
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Co-efficient of friction
4. Slope of road
5. Efficiency of brakes

2.9 Factors affecting geometric design

There are various factors, which affects the geometric design of road.
Design speed
It is the maximum speed allowed for the vehicles to move on the road .The design speed is
the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements such as requirements of
pavement surface characteristics, cross section elements of road, elements of horizontal
alignment and element of vertical alignments. Higher design speed is not required because of
economic status, lack of maintenance, topography etc. The NRS 2070 recommendation for
the design of class-IV road is 40km/hr.
Design vehicle
Vehicles that govern the design of geometric elements are referred as design vehicles. The
design of some elements of road is governed by length, some by weight, height and so forth.
Hence, there could be no one vehicle which can be considered as a design vehicle for a
particular road.

Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions also influence the geometric design of highway.
The terrain is classified based on general slope of the country across the alignment i.e.; level,
rolling, mountainous and steep.
As per NRS,
Level : < 10%
Rolling : 10%-25%
Mountainous : 25%-60%
Steep : > 60%
The adopted topography under consideration is mountainous road.

2.10 Design of Pavement in the Road:

Based on structural behavior, pavements are generally classified into two categories:
a) Flexible Pavement
b) Rigid Pavement
The various factors to be considered for the design of pavements are; design wheel load, sub
grade soil, climatic factors, pavement component materials and environmental factors.
Flexible pavement has been adopted for the pavement design of road.

2.10.1 Flexible Pavement

The pavement which have low or negligible flexural strength and are rather flexible in their
structural action under the loads are known as flexible pavements. The flexible pavements
layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on-to the surface of the layer. Thus, if the
lower layer of the pavement or soil sub grade is undulated, the flexural pavement surface
also gets undulated. The flexible pavements yield no excessive stress due to occasional
wheel load passing over it being heavier than design. Temperature variation due to atm
condition does not produce stress. These have self-healing properties. Empirical charts are
used in design.

Typical flexural pavement consists of four components.

 Subgrade course
 Sub base course
 Base course
 Surface course or wearing course

2.10.1.1 Sub grade course

The layer of natural soil at the bottommost layer of the pavement to receive the load of the
upper layers can be said as the subgrade. Formation level is also known as subgrade level.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the soil subgrade are dispersed to the
earth mass. It is essential that at no time, the soil subgrade is overstressed. It means that the
pressure transmitted on the top of the subgrade is within the allowable limit, not to cause
excessive stress condition or to deform the same beyond the elastic limit. The total thickness
of pavement depends upon the strength of the sub grade soil.

2.10.1.1 Sub-base course

The pavement layer just above the sub grade soil is known as sub base course. Well- graded
materials like gravels with sand, broken stones, bound or unbound aggregates etc are used as
sub base course. It transfers the load coming it to the sub grade.

2.10.1.2 Base course

The quality of base course is better than sub base course. The pavement layer immediately
above the sub base and below the wearing course is called base course. It consists of broken
stones with five particles. The course materials are superior to the sub grade. The objective
of a base course and sub base course is to provide a stress- transmitting medium to spread
the surface wheel loads in such manner as to prevent shear and consolidation deformations.

2.10.1.3 Wearing course

It is a layer just above the base course or uppermost pavement layer. Its quality is better than
the other flexible layers. The main purpose of the wearing course is to give smooth riding
surface that is dense. It resists pressure exerted by tires and takes up wear tear due to traffic.
It offers a watertight layer against the surface water.

2.11Highway Drainage:
The process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface water within the
right of way can be termed as highway drainages. This includes interception and diversion of
water from the road surface and sub-grade. Highway drainage is achieved by two methods as
given below.
a) Surface drainage.
b) Sub surface drainage.
 Lowering of water table.
 Control of seepage flow.
 Control of capillary rise.
 Drainage of infiltration water.

2.11.1 Importance of Highway Drainage

i. It maintains the bearing capacity of soil.
ii. It removes water from flowing or standing on the carriageway.
iii. It prevents from failure of pavement.
iv. It reduces necessity of maintenance cost.
v. It provides safety travel in place of freezing temperature.
vi. No chances of mud pumping pavement failure.

2.11.2 Side Drains

Side drains are for the drainage of the surface water. These are provided on the both side of
the road to drain off the surface water from the Carriageway. The longitudinal slope of drain
is made parallel to the longitudinal slope of the alignment.

Surface drainage system

This deals with disposal of water from the road way due to precipitation of rain or show on
the surface of road, flow of water from adjoining land this type of water is disposed off from
the road by cambering the road surface, slopping the shoulder and providing side drains and
disposed off safely in existing natural waterway.
2.11.3 Cross-Drainage Structure
Whenever stream has to cross the road, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. There
are numbers of cross drainage structure to be constructed in order to drain off the water from
the side drain.

Culvert
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the
roadway. Culvert is preferred than a minor bridge because it is more hydraulically efficient
according to Nepal Road Standard 2070; bridge structure of span less than 6 m are preferred
as culverts.

Slab culverts: A slab is placed over abutments made of masonry, sometimes called box
culverts if the span is below two meter.

Pipe culverts: Pipe of minimum diameter 60 cm and made of steel or pre-cast RCC is used
when the discharge is low. But, pipe culverts of diameter 75 cm, 90 cm, 120 cm are available
in the market.

2.11.4 Design of Surface Drainage System

Design of surface drainage system involves:
i. Hydrologic analysis

ii. Hydraulic analysis

A. Hydrologic Analysis

The peak runoff is calculated by rational formula:

Q=CIA
Where,
Q= Runoff in m3/s
A= Area of catchment in hectare
C=Runoff coefficient
 I= Rainfall intensity, mm/hr.

B. Hydraulic Analysis
Once the design discharge is determined the hydraulic analysis is done. The side drains are
designed based on principle of open channel flow. Longitudinal slope of channels, which is
parallel to the road profile, is selected. The type of lining from which value of „n‟
and permissible „V „is obtained is selected.

Then,

Q=A x V

Q=A x (R2/3 x S1/2)/n (1)

For the semi-trapezoidal section, select economical section as,

R=D/2, B=2 x D

Solve equation (1) to get B and D

Calculate V by
V= (R2/3 x S1/2)/n for the design section which should be within the permissible limit
otherwise change lining material and redesign the section.

Where,

V= velocity of flow (m/sec)

N= Manning‟s roughness coefficient
A=Area, m2
P=wetted perimeter, m
R=Hydraulic radius =A/P, m
S=Longitudinal bed slope of channel
2.12 Retaining Structures
Walls constructed in order to resist the active earth pressure is suitable in any slope where
there is a problem of deep-seated (>500 mm) instability or where the steepness of the slope
makes benching impractical.

2.12.1 Types of retaining walls

 Gravity retaining wall
 Semi-gravity retaining wall
 Cantilever retaining wall
 Counter fort retaining wall

Active earth pressure: it occupies when the soil mass yields in such a way that it tends to
stretch horizontally. It is a state of plastic equilibrium as the entire soil mass is on the verse
of failure. A retaining wall when moves away from the backfill ,there is a stretching of the
soil mass and the active state of earth pressure exists.

Passive earth pressure: it occupies when movement of the wall is such that tends to
compress horizontally. It is another extreme limiting equilibrium condition. Angle of repose:
it the natural slope taken up by any soil and it is given in term of the angle to the horizontal
base line. Angle of repose varies from 45˚to …….for wet clays but most of the soil angle of
repose is near about 30˚.

Surcharge load: The part of the material or load supported by a retaining wall at level of the
wall.
Let

H= Height of wall in meter

ˠs = density of soil in kg/cum

ˠm= density of wall material in kg/cum F

= angle of repose in degree

a and b = top and bottom width

Considering per meter length of the wall, by Rankin‟s formulae the lateral earth pressure
which is denoted by P is given which acts at H/3 above the base.

P = ˠsH2(1- )/2(1+ )

The weight of the wall per meter length denoted by W is given by:

W= ((a+b)*H*ˠ m )/2
2

This weight, w acts at x from the face BC.

X=
For the structure to be in equilibrium, the following condition must be satisfied:

i. The algebraic sum of all vertical forces must be zero i.e. ƩV=0.
ii. The algebraic sum of all horizontal forces must be zero i.e. ƩH=0.
iii. The moment of all forces acting on the wall about any point must be zero to check its
overturning i.e. ƩM=0.

Let R, and RH be the vertical and horizontal reactions at the point of application of the
resultant force R on the base of the wall.

From statement a. W = Rv

From statement b, P = Rh taking moment about B.

P× + W×x = RV (x+z)

Where z = shift i.e. EF

Since, Rv = W

P× + W×x = RV (x+z)

z=

If o is the 3 middle point of the base AB, then

e = OF = BF-BO

e=x+z–

it is called eccentricity.

For safe design, the retaining wall has to be checked for following:

Safety against sliding:

µ is the coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and the soil, the maximum
frictional resistance set up is equal to t.

FOS =

This factor of safety is generally archived to be greater than 1.5.

Safety against overturning:

The section is in equilibrium under the action of four forces:

i. Horizontal pressure, P of the earth pressure acting at H/3 from the base.
ii. The weight W of the section acting at x from the face BD.
iii. The vertical component, Rv = W at F and
iv. The horizontal component RH = p, due to the frictional resistance.

The horizontal earth pressure, p and the frictional resistance µ, W at the base forms the
couple of magnitude and it tends to overturn the retaining wall. For the stability of the

section against overturning, the balancing moment must be equal to the overturning moment.

Therefore,

W×Z = PH/3

Z = PH/3W

As the resultant. R hits the base, the section cannot over turn. If R hits the base at A, The
section is on the point of overturning and if it falls outside the base, the section will overturn.
Hence, the limiting value equal to W×EA.

Limiting balancing moment W×EA.

FOS = =

The recommended fos against overturning is usually 1.5 to 2.

Safety against bearing capacity failure:

The pressure cause by Rv at the toe must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the
soil. The maximum compressive stress for the masonry for avoiding crushing of masonry at
the base.

The pressure distribution at the base is assumed to be linear. The maximum compressive
stress at the base of the wall denoted by fmax is given by;
fmax = V(1+ )
FOS =

A factor of safety of 3.00 is recommended for safe against no bearing capacity failure.

No tension:

There should be no tension at the base of the wall. When the eccentricity (e) is greater than
b/6 tension develops at the heel. Tension is not desirable. To avoid the tension within the
structure, the eccentricity. E should not be more than b/6 on either side of middle of the base
i.e. point o. in such a condition, the resultant; R will have to be with in middle third. The
extreme limit for F will then be:

BF =

Or, BE+EF =

Or, x + z =

In designing the gravity type retaining wall, a trial section is chosen and it is checked with
all the condition of the stability stated above. If the stability checks yield unsatisfactory
results, the section is changed and rechecked.

2.13 Bio Engineering Technique

2.13.1 Introduction
The use of live plants either alone or in conjugation with small scale civil engineering
structures or non-living plant materials for reducing the shallow seated instability and
controlling erosion on slopes of any watershed can be named as bioengineering.

2.13.2 Importance of Bioengineering

Without the knowledge of bioengineering, a road engineer cannot be perfect. Every road
engineer must have the knowledge about slope stabilization, choice of suitable plants
according to altitude and environmental condition for plantation on both sides of road and
makes the road stable, erosion free and beautiful.
2.13.3 Bioengineering Works as Road Side Development
Roadside development deals with the development of aesthetic and other amenities of road
and the right of way. Proper planning is needed for roadside development right from the
stage of survey and during construction. For this, following points are considered.
 Wide right of way
 Consistent alignment
 Flint side slope in embankment and cutting
 Planting of trees along the roadside and proper maintenance
 Turfing on side slopes

Afforestation along the roadside or the arboriculture is one of the very important aspects in
roadside development. Trees are proposed to plant on both sides of the road to enhance road
in the following ways.

 It helps to improve road landscape from aesthetic point of view. Greenery along the
road apparently makes the road beautiful and attractive.
 It provides shade and a highly cool feeling
 It intercepts the annoying sound of vehicles.

Both forests resources and land for agriculture become economically important with access.
Under such conditions threat of vegetation becomes imminent. Roadside land provides an
excellent habitat for the conservation of such species. The management or the conservation
of plantations on the roadside is relatively easy and more effective to control. Representative
of all the endangered or threatened life forms such as trees shrubs and herbs can be
conserved in this fashion. In this process priority should be given to those plants that are
most need. Roadside plantation can also enhance the scope of bee keeping and increasing the
possibility of farmers to earn additional income from honey. This also increases the crop
production through pollination. List of species to be used are proposed as follows.
a) Trees
 Uttis
 Chilaune
 Bamboo
 Khannue
 b) Shrubs
 Nigalo
 Assuro

c) Grass
 Amliso
 Khar
 Narkat
 Babiyo

2.14 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Any development activities have its advantages and disadvantages. The major activity in
road constructions is cutting of stabilized land slope. Earth work excavation through blasting
can disturb the stabilized mass. Balance volume of soil, which is supported by itself under
gravity. Hence the major environmental impact of road construction is destabilization of
stable slope. In general following is the main environmental effect may result during the
construction of road.
1. Deforestation
2. Air pollution
3. Mass movement of soil

For prevention on the environmental impact following measures will be adopted during
construction.

1. While selecting road alignment selection in such a way that uncultivated land was used by
road.

2. Cut/Fill volume should be minimum to reduce erosion soil dump area requirement and
change in landscape protection the susceptible surface affected by erosion at construction
site.

3. Implementation forestry conservation and development program.

4. Limitation on use of fuel wood and prohibition of unauthorized falling of trees and use of
open fire during construction.

5. In the entire cut slope major, minor, good water management is required, which is the
main cause of land unsuitability of the region.

The alignment mostly following the existing track is within the manageable limit.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Detail Survey Work

The following hierarchy is used in project
 Project‟s Concept
 Map Study
 Field visit and Walkover survey
 Feasibility/Environmental/Socio-economic Study
 Alignment Section
 Detail Survey
 Design
 Estimation
 Detail Project Report Preparation
 Presentation And Submission

The list of equipment‟s that were used in surveying work can be mentioned as follows:
 Total station
 Measuring tape
 Plumb bob
 Level
 Staff
 Ranging rods and arrows
 Abney level
 Hammer
 Wooden pegs
 Paint and brush

3.2 General
After selecting the proposed project area, necessary secondary data on planning aspects and
costs was gathered. Socio-economic status, geological and demographic data of the area was
collected. The temperature, rainfall, vegetation, climate, of the area were studied which are
important for analysis of hydrological data. After the complete analysis of secondary data
and decision of alignment made, engineering survey was done along the proposed alignment
considering several geometrical parameters according to NRS2070. Collection of several
primary data such as type of the soil at different chainage, buildings, type of crop
production, deflection angle, and reduced level was done during engineering survey. Cost
estimate of the proposed road alignment was made considering various types of works to be
carried out during road construction with the help of Road Design Software, AutoCAD and
Excel program.

Reconnaissance is the first step in surveying. Reconnaissance work is done for selected
alignment. Detail survey was started from the first point of the starting chainage with taking
the bearing of the first line. At the beginning of the road, Benchmark was fixed having RL as
………..m as a reference point.

3.3 Designing of earth retaining structure

Penetration field test is performed by using ½ inch can be used to determine the relative
density of soil.

3.3.1 Design criteria for retaining wall:

Considering per meter length wall the lateral earth pressure denoted by „p‟ is given by
ranking‟s formula.

3.3.2 Earth pressure due to backfill soil

Ps = ˠsH2

k
a=

43
Above figure-Gravity retaining wall

Where

a = top with of wall

b = bottom width

w = total downward force

R = resultant force

P = total active pressure

X = distance of CG form the face BC

H = height of wall

Ws = surcharge load

Fig: Different forces acting on retaining wall

44
Above figure retaining wall

Epa = active earth pressure

EPp = Passive earth pressure

F = friction force at inter face

RV = Vertical reaction

M = M ass of wall

Ws = Surcharge load

This pressure „Pi‟ act at above the base of the wall.

This weight of the wall act at „X‟ from face BC.

∑
= ∑

For the structure to be in equilibrium, the following condition must be satisfied:

i. The algebraic sum of all the vertical force must be zero i.e. ƩV=0.
ii. The algebraic sum of all the horizontal force must be zero i.e. ƩH=0.
iii. The moment of all forces acting on the wall about any point must be zero to
check its overturning i.e. ƩM=0.

For the safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied

i. Safety against sliding

FOS = >1.5

ii. Safety against overturning

FOS= >1.5
 iii. No tension case

e>

Where,

e>-

iv. safety against bearing failure:

fmax < SBC

a = top width of the retaining wall

b = bottom width of the retaining wall

e = eccentricity (m)

H = height of the wall (m)

ˠs = density of the soil in kg/m3

ˠm = density of the wall material in kg/m3

F = angle of response

Ws = weight of surcharge KN/m2

fmax = maximum compressive stress of the base of the wall(KN/m2)

SBC=safe bearing capacity of soil (KN/m2)

FOS=factor of safety

3.3 Design of pavement structure

3.3.1 Determination of pavement thickness

The CBR value of the sub grade soil sample from the site is found out in the lab. The
appropriate design curve is chosen on the basis of no.of commercial vehicles. The total
thickness of flexible pavement needed to cover the sub grade of the known CBR value os
obtained.
Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on the strength parameter of the sub
grade soil and subsequent pavement material.

CBR test is performed for the soil samples collected at the field. Load Vs penetration curve
is plotted for different load and penetration combinations. Thus the load for 2.5 mm and 5
mm penetration of the soil sample is found out.CBR value is obtained as,

CBR2.5 = × 100%

CBR5= × 100%

Normally CBR value of 2.5 penetrations which is higher than of 5 mm is reported as the
CBR value of the sample. The higher value obtain is adopted as CBR value of the sample.
The thickness of the pavement is given by any of the seven curves from the graph. The
future traffic is estimated on the basis of existing traffic and probable growth rate and it is
given by:

P = N (1+r)n+10

Where,

P = Future traffic per day

N = Present vehicle no. per day

r = Probable growth rate

n = Construction period

3.4 Design criteria of super elevation

Various steps in the design of super elevation in practice may be summarized as given
below:

i. The super elevation for 75% of design speed(V Kmph) is calculated neglecting the
friction.

e=
i.e. e=

ii. If the calculated value of e is less than 7% then the value so obtained is provided.
If the value of „e‟ exceed 0.07 then provide the maximum super elevation equal
to 7% and proceed with steps given bellow.
iii. Check the coefficient of friction developed foe the maximum value of e=7% at
the full value of design speed.

f=

If the value thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe for the design
speed. If not, calculated the restricted speed is given in step(iv).

ii. As an alternative to step (iii) the following allowable speed at the curve is
calculated by super elevation.

e + f = 0.07+0.015=0.22=

Calculate the safe allowable speed,

Va = √

Or if the allowable speed, as calculated above higher than the design speed, then the design
speed is adequate and provides a super elevation of „e‟ equal to 0.07. if the allowable speed
is less than the design speed the speed is limited to the allowable speed Va kmph calculated
above.
 CHAPTER 4

CALCULATION, ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Detail survey work undertaken

The survey and design work has been undertaken for 1.734Km of the proposed road from
Dovan to Nuwakot.

Detail, Design and drawings

i. Plan

Plan of the proposed road is plotted for each IP in 1:1000 scales.

ii. Longitudinal Profile

The longitudinal profile is plotted for each IPs in 1:1000 horizontal and 1:100 vertical scales.
While designing the L-profile 7% of minimum longitudinal gradient is provided.

iii. Cross section

Cross-section for each IPs and pegs has been plotted in 1:200 scales.

4.1 Hydraulic Design

4.1.1 Design of Side Drain

We have relation

Q=AV

Let us assume, Q=0.6 m3/sec

n= manning‟s roughness coefficient= 0.02

V= average velocity

S= Longitudinal slope = 4%

Hydraulic mean depth(R) = (Wetted area)/ (Wetted perimeter)

 = (B*D)/ (B+2D)

Q=

Taking B=0.40m

Now, from equation

0.6 =

We get D = 0.54

Adopt D = 0.6m with free board 0.1m

Check the permissible velocity

V = (For most economical section R=D/2)

V = 4.48m/sec

4.1.2Design of Cross Drainage (Pipe

Culvert) Hume pipe:

Design discharge for Hume pipe Q = 1.1 𝑠

Longitudinal slope of the pipe culvert=3%

Manning‟s coefficient=0.012

Q=A*V

Q= ( ) ( )

For most economical section

R = 0.29D

Now, 1.1 = (1 /0.012) ( ) (0

D = 0.438m
Adopt D=0.6m

Check for velocity,

V=

V=1.53m/sec<3m/ sec (which is less than permissible velocity hence ok)

Adopt D=0.6m Hume pipe

4.2 Design of Geometric Parameter

4.2.1 Horizontal Curve

Curve Design at IP2,

 = 45.24°

First assumption of radius (R) = 29m


R tan
a) Tangent length = 2
45.24
= 29  tan
2

= 12.083m
 R
b) Length of curve =
180

  29  45.24
= 180

= 22.898m

  
c) A R  sec  1
pex distance  2 
=
 45.24 
= 41 sec 1
 
 2 

= 2.41m

D) Chainage of BC = Ch of IP-TL

Chainage of BC = 280 – 12.083

= 267.917 m

E) Chainage of mid of curve ( MC ) = Ch of BC +

(LC/2) Ch of mid of curve = 267.917 + (22.898/2)

= 279.336 m

F) Chainage of end of curve (EC) = Ch of BC + LC

= 267.917 + 22.898

= 290.815 m

Where,

R = radius of curve
 = deflection angle in degree
 BC= Beginning of curve

MC= mid of curve

LC= Length of curve

EC=End of Curve

TL= Tangent length

4.2.2. Super Elevation:

Super elevation at IP1,

Here,

( ) ( )

and,
√ √

4.2.3. Extra widening on curves:

At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to provide safe passage
of vehicles. Widening is dependent on curve radius, width of carriageway and type of
vehicle (length and width).

We know,

Here, at IP1
 𝑊
√

4.2.4. Stopping sight distance:

S = Reaction distance + Braking distance

= 0.278 V T 
V2
254  ( f  G)

Where

V = Design speed in Kmph = 15 Kmph

T = Reaction time of driver in sec = 2.5sec

f = Coefficient of friction between tire and road surface

= 0.4

G= Gradient expressed as a fraction

For plane road stretch

S = 0.278 15  2.5 152

 254  (0.4 
0)

S = 12.64 m

For 5% descending gradient,

S = 0.278 15  2.5 152


254  (0.4 
0.05)

S = 12.95 m
(Adopted S = 11 m )
4.3 Retaining Structure
Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls for supporting the soil mass laterally so that the soil
can be retained at different levels on two sides and sometimes the pressure of subsoil, water
and in many cases the wall may also be required to support vertical loads from above the
wall called surcharge.

Design of retaining wall

Let, H =Height of wall in meter

f = Angle of repose in degree

a & b = top & bottom width of wall

W = Total downward force

P = Total active earth pressure

R = Resultant force
Ẍ = Distance of Cg from the face BC

Ws = Surcharge load

H = 3m

A = 0.6

B = 1.5m

ɸ = 38

= 19.82 KN/m³

KN/m³

Ws = 5 KN/m³

Self – weight of wall „W‟

W = *V =75.6 KN

K = 1- sinɸ/1+sinɸ

= 1- ( ) = 0.361

Total pressure „p‟

P = P1 + P2

= ½ ka* *H² + Ws*ka*H

= 24.6875 KN/m

Ẍ = a/b

Check for sliding:

FOS = >1.5

RF = W tan

= 75.6tan28
 = 59.065 KN/m

SF = P

= 24.685 KN/m

FOS = (Resisting force)/ (Sliding force)

= 2.39 > 1.5OK

Check for Overturning

FOS = > 1.5

RM= W * X¯ + * V (a+ + Ws * (a+ )

= 78.280 KN/m

OM = P1*H/3 + P2* H/2

= 21.323 KN/m

FOS = > 1.5

= 3.356 KN/m > 1.5 OK

Check for no tension

e<

e = –z

Z* RV = RM

z = RM/RV

= 0.942m

e = 0.088
b/ 6 = 0.25
Here,

e < hence OK

Fmax = W (1+6e/b)

= W (1+6e/b)

= 102.219 KN/m² < 150.00 KN/m² OK

For the soil the safe bearing capacity, SBC = 102.219 KN/m²

Fmax< SBC

4.2 Pavement Design

Using California Bearing Ratio Method:

Calculation of design thickness of different layers:

Where,

Therefore, Design Curve „D‟ is used for design as the design traffic volume is in the range
150 to 450 cv/day.

58
 Figure 4.1: Design Charts for Flexible Pavements - CBR Method

Table 4.4: Selection of Design Charts According to volume of

commercial vehicles

Curve No. of comm. vehicles per Day (veh/day)

A 0-15
B 15-45
C 45-150
D 150-450
E 450-1500
F 1500-4500
G Over 4500

Using the design chart, the total thickness over subgrade having CBR of 7% is obtained as
30 cm from curve D.
Thus, 30 cm of pavement material is required to cover the natural soil subgrade having 7%
CBR value. Now to compute the thickness of compacted soil, the design curve D is again
used for CBR value of 15%. So, pavement thickness of 23 cm is required above the
compacted soil subgrade having CBR value of 15%, hence providing sub-base course layer
of thickness 18cm and thickness of the remaining layer is Similarly, the
thickness of pavement required over well graded gravel of CBR 40% is 10 cm. providing the
minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surface is 2 cm. The final pavement section is
shown in figure below:

Figure: Flexible Pavement Design by CBR Method

59
 CHAPTER 5

COST ESTIMATE

4.1 Project cost

Project cost estimate was obtained based on Rate Analysis and basic district rate of Palpa
district. The project is classified as following
1. Net project cost
2. Gross project cost

Net project cost includes the contractor‟s overhead and contractor tax whereas the gross
project cost is inclusive of provisional sum @ 4%, contingencies @5% and VAT @ 13%.
Basic unit rates of labor, material and equipment are adopted as per district rates of Palpa
district.

4.2 Details of Measurements

4.2.1 Earthwork
The earthwork in cutting and feeling is derived in cubic meters from average area method.
This is given by the combine computation of design line, summit curve and valley curve.
This is maintained in appendix.

4.2.2 Side Drainage and Cross Drainage

The quantity of side drain is determined by taking sectional area for each type of side drain
and multiplying it by the length of the corresponding side drain.

4.2.3 Retaining Structures Earthwork

Earthwork in retaining structure is computed from the cross section diagram. Cross section
diagram shows depth of earth work required for the structures.

4.3 Analysis of Rate

Analysis of rates of different items of work is mentioned in appendix.

4.3.1 Quantity Estimate

Quantity estimate of different items are provided in appendix which provides the estimate
quantities of different items of work for the road alignment.
4.3.2 Manpower Estimate
The necessary number of skilled and unskilled manpower is estimated for different kinds of
road construction works according to norms and quantity of works included in rate analysis.

4.4 Cost Estimate

The costs are estimated in basis of rate analysis and norms available.

4.5 Report
Final report and drawings including salient features and all outputs from detailed design and
survey was prepared.
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1General Conclusion

The alignment selected for this road, in general is successful as it considers topographic
conditions, engineering and geological features and road design parameters passes through
stable terrain. The environmental protection measures are also considered. The selected road
alignment does not possess major hydrological problems; designed drainage can resist
scouring and erosion problems. There are no other problems and this road alignment seems
as one of the most economical and stable route. The construction of road provides easy
accessibility to the people in turns of the following:

1. To ensure constant supply for consumers needs and other services.

2. To ensure reliable transportation route for providing access to nearby market.
3. To reduce travel time for transporting agricultural products.
4. To achieve sustainable economic development and eliminate poverty.
5. To provide potential benefit for local communication by improving access and efficient
transportation.

Therefore, it is recommended for immediate construction. Transportation projects can have

major impacts upon the economic, biological, physical and social environment. Road
construction in hills of our country has become serious threat to the ground stability.
Therefore, special attention should be given for slope stability, soil erosion and siltation
problems through the application of bio-engineering. The following mitigation measures are
proposed to minimize the adverse environmental impacts in the vicinity of the road:

1. Periodical reforestation on off road side for soil conservation.

2. Bio-engineering and slope stabilizing measures are highly recommended.
3. Routine maintenance activities should be carried out.
4. The excess cut material should be dumped at a safe place without damaging the natural
environment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Agor, R., 1996- Eight Edition, A Textbook of Survey And Leveling. New Delhi:

Khanna Publishers.

2. Agrawal, Amarjit and Upadhaya,A.K.,2002- Seventh Edition, Civil Estimating,

Costing and Valuation. New Delhi: S.K Kataria& Sons Publication.

3. Arora,Dr. K.R., 2003 -Sixth Edition, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.

New Delhi: Standard Publishers Distributors.

4. Howell, John, 1999, Roadside Bioengineering: Reference Manual. Kathmandu: DoR

Publication.

5. Khanna, Dr. S.K. and Justo,Dr. C.E.G.,2001-Eight Edition, Highway Engineering.

Roorkee: Nem Chand & Bros publication.

6. Manual for Survey, Investigation and Preparation of Road Project, 2001. New Delhi:

IRC Publication.

7. Nepal Road Standard 2070.

8. Nepal Rural Road Standard 2071.

9. Punmia,Dr. B.C., 1985- Third Edition, Introductory Irrigation Engineering. New

Delhi: Standard Publishers Distributors.