GLOBAL ENGINEERS & TECHNOLOGISTS REVIEW

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PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MANGROVE

FROM KILIFI IN KENYA
MANGURIU1, G.N., OYAWA2, W.O. and ABUODHA3, S.O.
1, 2
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, KENYA
1
gmanguriu@gmail.com
3
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering
University of Nairobi
P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, KENYA
3
sabuodha@uonbi.ac.ke

ABSTRACT
The structural behaviour of mangrove (Rhizophora Mucronata species) specimens are evaluated as
for a renforcement material of cement based matrices such as normal and lightweight concrete, soil-
cement and cement mortar. This study looks at the suitability of the mangrove harvested at Kilifi
district along the Kenyan coast.The mangrove were haversted along the Kenyan coast between
Kiunga north to Vanga in the south. Specimens of different moisture contents were tested for tensile,
compressive, flexural loads,shear and their hardness both perpendicular or along the grains. Based
on the results obtained mangrove are fairly strong materials that may be used to reinforce cement
matrices.

Keywords: Mangrove, Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Flexural, Reinforcement.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are types of evergreen forests, which are found in the zones between the open ocean and the dry
land. They are found between the latitudes of 320 North and 380 South along the Sub-tropical and tropical coasts
of Africa, Australia, Asia and the Americas. Tomlinson (1995) have scientifically established that there are
approximately 16 to 24 mangrove families and 54 to 75 species respectively the majority of which are in
Southeast Asia. Most mangroves vary in height from mere shrubs to 40 meters tall, these sizes depending on the
species and environment in which the forests are found.
Mangrove forests in Kenya are found along the coastal strip in the tidal estuaries, creeks and the
protected bays, between latitudes 1° 40’S and 4° 25’S and longitudes 41° 34’E and 39 17’E as shown in Figure 1.
In Kenya the largest mangrove forests are mainly found in Lamu and the Tana River counties along the coastal
strip. There are also less extensive mangroves forests found in Mida, Kilifi, Mombasa and Gazi-Funzi areas,
which border Tanzania. Mangroves in Kenya may be divided into two main blocks; area north and south of River
Tana. Mangroves forests found in the north of Tana River Delta are structurally more complex than those found
in the south largely due to the influence of river Tana as well as due to the East African Coastal Currents (Kairo,
2001). Most mangroves are self propagating in their marine environment and have special adaptations in
favourable soil conditions (Snedaker, 1993) hence through embryo germination on the tree itself the process of
self propagation begins. The tree later drops its developed embryos called seedlings which take root in the soil
below.
Lewis et al., (1995) stated that it is possible to restore some functions of the mangrove tree forests
although certain parameters such as the condition and type of soil and the flora and fauna may have changed.
Further, the restoration of selected ecosystem traits and the replication of natural functions stand a better
chance of success than complete restoration of the mangrove forests to pristine conditions. In an effort to
restock the forest cover in the country, in October 1991, the Kenya Government launched pilot reforestation
projects to transform disturbed forests into uniform stands of higher productivity. This included the
rehabilitation of the degraded mangrove areas. This initiative involved the commercially important mangrove
species such as, Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia alba and Ceriops
tagal that proved to be suitable for reforestation. Initial planting was carried out with a spacing of 1.0–1.5 m for
propagules and 2.0 m for saplings. Further in 1993, the Forestry Department (now Kenya Forest Service) in
conjunction with the Kenya Wildlife Services passed a resolution banning all clear-felling and uprooting as well
as a halting the commercial harvesting of both the boriti and mazio pole size classes of the mangrove. Moreover,

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a total protection against deforestation of the Sii and Chale Islands, River Tana delta and Kiunga area was also
enacted. The extensive use of mangrove as a construction material, especially, along the Kenyan coastal region
and in many other global regions has been going on for centuries. Mangroves have been used in the framing of
roofs, general structural framing of lattice wall systems filled with adobe and as reinforcement material in floor
slabs and beams with a lot of success in terms of structural performance, integrity and durability.

Figure1: Mangrove Forest Distribution in Kenya.

Mangrove poles have been used in Kenya for composite structures (i.e. structures framed using mangrove
poles in conjunction with other building materials such as coral, concrete, soil, etc.). They have been used as
reinforcement for structural elements such as beams and slabs for a long period since early of fifteenth century.
Despite this prolonged usage, there seems to be limited documented work regarding engineering design data
although the existing historical and modern structures testify to their structural integrity and environmental
benefits. Mangrove poles have been and are currently used in their natural state as “mkoko” or in their
processed state as “banaa” for beam, wall and slab reinforcement and in the framing of wooden pole structures.
They have been proven as high integrity materials for concrete reinforcement. In the olden and modern
structures, the mangrove timber elements were and are used as reinforcement for floor slabs and beam
elements consisting of coral rag prepared from lime mortar mixed with coral aggregate/hardcore and some soil.
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2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Physical Properties

To evaluate the physical properties of the mangrove, the moisture content of every sample considered
have to be determined and measured before the tests performed by weighing the specimens before and
after drying. The specimen sizes were as specified in BS 373. There was no volumetric variation noticed
either along the length or in the lateral dimensions, before and after drying mangrove specimens; whose
nominal dimensions were remained the same.

2.2 Mechanical Properties

Mangrove poles for the study were sourced from Mombasa Kenya. The diameter of the poles ranged
between 120 and 140 mm, the reason of choosing this range of diameters was to ensure that clear
samples for the various tests are obtainable from the poles. The poles were converted into rectangular
pieces of timber as the test samples. The tests carried are as referred to in BS 373 1957 that is towards
grain, janka hardness, shear parallel to grain and static bending (centre-point loading).

2.2.1 Compression parallel to grain test

The test specimen geometry shown as in Figure 2 with dimensions 20×20×60mm were used for
this test., the end faces of the specimen were made truly parallel to each other and at right angles to
the longitudinal axis. In this test the compression platen is attached to the underside of the moving
crosshead while the plunger carrying the hemispherical bearing on its top end and resting on the
spigot is at the bottom. The load was then applied continuously at a crosshead rate of 0.6mm per
minute until failure and the failure load recorded.

20 m m
6 0 m m

20 m m

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Specimen (a) under load, (b) dimension geometry.

2.2.2 Janka hardness test

This test required specimen with dimension 20×20mm in cross-section and 100mm long. The
Janka indentation tool was fitted to the underside of the moving cross-head of the Universal
Testing Machine while the specimen holder was fixed to the machine table as shown in Figure 3.
The load applied continuously work at a rate of crosshead motion of 6.4mm/minute and removed
immediately an alarm went on. Two indentations were made on the radial face and two others on
one of the tangential faces. During the test, care was taken to ensure that no indentations were
within 20mm of the end face, and that no two indentations were closer than 30mm. Any specimen
which split during the test was rejected. The maximum load for each indentation was recorded.

Figure 3: Janka hardness test assembly.

2.2.3 Static bending with centre-point loading

The static bending test is carried using specimen measuring 20×20×300mm and loaded at the
centre as shown in Figure 4. After the specimen is measured, three small nails were driven
perpendicular to one tangential face in the neutral plane, at the centre and at 140mm on either side
from the centre. The bending knee was attached to the underside of the moving crosshead, and
then the truni on supports fitted on the machine table. For the purpose of manual load-deflection
curve tracing, the load was read at predetermined deflection intervals.

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 Global Engineers & Technologists Review, Vol.3 No.3 (2013)

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Specimen (a) under load, (b) dimension geometry.

2.2.4 Shear parallel to grain test

This test was carried out on 20mm cubes as shown in Figure 5. The specimen was prepared in such
a way that there were matching pairs for both radial and tangential loading. The compression
platen was attached to the underside of the moving crosshead of the universal strength testing
machine and the appropriate shear tool fitted on the machine table. The load was applied
continuously throughout the test at a rate of crosshead motion of 0.6mm per minute.
Measurements were taken at the shear plane. At the end of the test the maximum load and all the
data was recorded.
P

20 m m

P 20 mm

(a) (b)
Figure 5: Specimen (a) under load, (b) dimension geometry.

3.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Moisture Content

Based on the experiments carried out the average moisture content of all mangrove samples was found to
be approximately 11.03 percent. The strength properties of wood are to a large extent influenced by its
moisture content which is a good indicator of almost all of its other characteristics. Ideally a moisture
content of approximately 12 percent is required to ensure accurate results for tests on clear small
specimens. It has been shown that the moisture content of any specimen has a bearing on the reliability of
the results conducted on timber specimens. Specimens with low values of moisture content below fibre
saturation point giving better and more reliable results than those with higher values of moisture content.

3.2 Density
The average density of mangrove was experimentally established to be approximately 890kg/m³. Almost
all strength properties of any wood have a marked correlation with its density especially the ones of
special structural interest such as compression, bending strength and shear.

3.3 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of the mangrove species used in this research (Rhizophora) is 0.81. The specific
gravity of any type of timber will usually affect the ease with which it can be worked with hand tools. The
lower the specific gravity the easier the cutting of the wood with sharp tools. The specific gravity
generally affects the strength properties because they depend to a greater or lesser extent on the
thickness of the fibre walls of individual kind of tissues.

3.4 Mechanical Properties

The experimental strength tests results on clear small specimens of mangrove tested according to (BS 373
1957) are tabulated in Tables 1. From the tables it can be seen that the strength tests on the mangrove
(Rhizorphhora mucronata) species compares very well with its average bending strength of
100.62N/mm² which is slightly higher than the commonly used structural timber cypress it also has
higher strength compared to other species of the common locally available hardwood species in Kenya. Its
average shear strength parallel to the grain is 18.14N/mm² radially and 22.62N/mm2 tangentially which
are within the range of the toughest hardwoods in Kenya.
The average compressive strength parallel to the grain on the same clear specimens was
79.96N/mm2. This value is above the standard compressive strength of most Kenyan mangrove. The high
shear strength of mangrove poles renders it suitable for use as a torsional moment resistance material as
it has ability to resist shear loads; this is an important phenomenon with respect torsional stresses in
beams which are essentially shear stresses.
Mangroves have an average tangential and radial hardness of 8085 KN and 8.67 KN respectively
which give it a good resistance to impact loading and abrasion a good quality for quality for structural

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 Global Engineers & Technologists Review, Vol.3 No.3 (2013)

timber. From the experiment the average modulus of rupture was determined as 134.83N/mm² which is
relatively higher than for most other local hardwood species. The modulus of elasticity is a measure of
stress and strain within limit of proportionality which provides a convenient model of expressing the
stiffness or flexibility of a material, the higher it is the stiffer is the material. This species of mangrove had
an average modulus of elasticity (M.O.E) of about 16689.80 N/mm². The average tensile strength of the
mangrove was established to be 158.91(N/mm2) which higher than the average tensile strengths of other
species.

4.0 CONCLUSION
From the experimental results and the analysis of the materials used in this research it is concluded that the
results derived from this study confirm the structural viability of using mangrove poles as reinforcement for
lightweight concrete beams. More specifically, it is concluded;

i) Mangrove forests can be adequately regenerated with a short span of ten years due to their
tendency of self propagation, this would provide enough reinforcement continually.
ii) That the basic physical and mechanical (strength) characteristics of mangrove poles present
suitable levels for use as reinforcement in concrete beams. The compressive strength is determined
as 79.96N/mm2, the Bending tensile strength as 100.62N/mm2,tensile strength as 158.91/mm2, the
shear strength as Tangential 23.01N/mm2 and Radial 18.04N/mm2the strength values are much
higher than that of ordinary structural timber.
iii) Mangrove is an eco-friendly material which has a high strength to weight ratio which can be used
to replace steel as reinforcement and help reduce the carbon emission problem associated with the
production of steel.

REFERENCES
[1] Tomlinson, P.B. (1995): The Botany of Mangroves – Cambridge Tropical Biology Series, Cambridge
University Press.
[2] Kairo, J.G. (2001): Ecology and Restoration of Mangrove System in Kenya, PhD thesis at University of
Brussels.
[3] Snedaker, S.C. (1993): Impact on Mangroves, Routledge, Chapman and Hall Inc., New York.
[4] Lewis, R.R., Kusler, J.A. and Erwin, K.K. (1995): Lessons learned from Five Decades of Wetland Restoration
and Creation in North America, in the Proceeding of Bases Ecologicas Para La Restauracion De Humedales
En La Cuenca Mediterranea, Andulucia, p.107.

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