LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

(LLE)
Expected Outcomes
Students should be able to:
1. Explain the basic theory and principle of liquid-liquid extraction.
2. Demonstrate the liquid-liquid extraction under batch and continuous mode.
3. Calculate the number of theoretical stages and height equivalent to a theoretical
stage using theory as well as graphical methods.
4. Discuss industrial liquid extraction equipment.
 Easy

Difficulty
of
separation

Difficult
 EXAMPLES OF LLE COLUMN IN PLANT
WHAT DO YOU SEE?? DOES IT LOOK EASY OR COMPLICATED??

Source from: http://www.liquid-extraction.com/industrial-applications.htm 3

 Figure 8.1
TYPICAL LLE SYSTEM OF
ACETIC ACID IN WATER

o If mixture has purity < 50%,

then extraction is considered

oUsually will followed by 2

distillation columns to separate
Extract stream (D1) and
Raffinate stream (D2)

oAddition of solvent to solute

soluble species in Feed (to be
3 components in liquid phase)

4
Table 8.1
3 major components in LLE –
Carrier =A ; Solute = B ; Solvent = C

Justification of solvent selection is based on

solubility of the solute with the solvent (due to
chemical structure difference in the components)

Choice of distillation/extraction for

separation depends on cost

Examples of LLE in industrial chemical plants:

• Acetic acid in water using Ethyl acetate
• Penicillin in broth in pharmaceutical
• High MW of fatty acids separated from vegetable oils with liquid propane

5
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR LIQUID-
LIQUID
EXTRACTION
 Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Equilibrium Stage
Ternary Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)
In this case:
• We create two liquid phases by introducing a solvent (C) to a liquid mixture of a carrier (A)
and a solute (B)
• Solvent (C) and carrier (A) have very little solubility in each other while solvent
(C) and solute (B) is highly soluble or partly soluble in each other

Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Solvent Feed, S
Solvent Rich Liquid Out (Extract), E
C
A, B, C
Liquid Feed, F
Carrier Rich Liquid out (Raffinate), R
A, B
A, B, C
Define the raffinate as the exiting phase rich in carrier
; the extract as the exiting phase rich in solvent.
7
 Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Equilibrium Stage

Case 1 (carrier and solvent have some solubility in each other)

then the raffinate will have a small amount of solvent in the stream
and the extract will have a small concentration of carrier:

Liquid-Liquid Extraction

Solvent Feed
Extract out
S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XA (E), XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed

F : XA(F), XB(F), [T, P] Raffinate out

R : XA (R), XB (R), XC (R), [T, P]

A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent All A, B, C components

The raffinate is the exiting phase are in the Extract and
rich in carrier. Raffinate
The extract is the exiting phase
rich in solvent.
8
 Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Equilibrium Stage

Case 2 (carrier and solvent have no solubility in each other)

then the raffinate will have no solvent in then stream and the
extract will have no carrier in it:
All of solvent
in the extract

Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Solvent Feed
Extract out
S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed
F : XA(F), XB (F) [T, P] Raffinate out
R : XA (R), XB (R) [T, P]

All of carrie
A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent
in the raffin
The raffinate is the exiting phase rich in carrier.
The extract is the exiting phase rich in solvent.
9
 Mass and Mole Ratios

Often the concentrations are as mass or mole ratios, rather than mass or mole fractions.
This is generally done to simplify the expressions used in the analysis.

Mass ratio XB: The ratio of mass of component B to another component of the stream.
Mole ratio XB: The ratio of moles of component B to another component of the stream.

Note that the basis (choice of component) for the mass or mole ratio must be chosen.

Mass Ratio Example: No solubility of solvent with carrier

Solvent Feed
Extract out
S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out
F : XA(F), XB (F) [T, P]
R : XA (R), XB (R) [T, P]

E
F   
B R

S
  Rate of
F B in the
feed is

XBF the ratio
of B to
A, times
feed rate
A of A.
XESRate of B
E E in the
 X extract is
B B the ratio
of B to C,
times rate
of C.
C
  Rate of
R R B in the
  raffinate
is the
A A ratio of
 SB to A,
X B times
SC
rate of
XR0
XF A.
Bthe
in B solvent is
the ratio of B to
C, times feed
rate of C.
10
 Material Balances

Solute (B) Material Balance:

Solvent Feed
Extract out
S ; XC(S) E : XB (E), XC (E)
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out

F : XA(F), XB
R : XA (R), XB (R)
F
F X Rate of B in the feed is the ratio of B to A, times feed rate of A.
B B
E X E S
E X Rate of B in the extract is the ratio of B to C, times rate of C.
B B B
R R
R X  X F Rate of B in the raffinate is the ratio of B to A, times rate of A.
B B
B A
S 
S X Rate of B in the solvent is the ratio of B to C, times feed rate of C.
B B

Solute, B, Material Balance: F S R E

B B B B
 F X A X
X B FA SS X RR EE
B C B BC
 F  R  E
X B FA  X B FA  X B S
11
 Equilibrium Distribution

The way the solute (B) will distribute itself between the extract and raffinate at
equilibrium is given by the K-Value: Note that the K-value is
primed to signify that this
 E ' R is a ratio of mass or mole
XB  K DB X B ratios, not a ratio of mole
fractions.

Solvent Feed
Extract out
S: XC(S)
B E: XB (E), XC (E)
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out
F: XA(F), XB(F) R: XA (R), XB (R)

Note that concentrations

B will be
of exiting streams from
transferred from
an equilibrium stage are
pink to blue part in
always
the LLE column
related by equilibrium.
12
 The Extraction Factor
The degree of separation of the solute (B) between the exiting streams (extract and
raffinate) is expressed as the extraction factor:


Extraction Factor, B : The ratio of solute flow in the
extract to solute flow in the raffinate.

 E E
E X E X E 
B B C B E X S
R R
  B  B
R X R X B
R X
R 
F
B B A B B B A

EC = S (all solvent in Extract), RA = FA (all carrier in Raffinate)

Combining this definition with the equilibrium relationship:

E '
X K
B D
B

results in another expression for the extraction factor:

 B 
KD' S
B
FA
The larger the
equilibrium
driving force to '

separate B, KD , and
the larger the ratio of B

solvent to
fee (S/F ), the larger the
d extraction
fact
or  B .
A
13
 Extraction Efficiency
We can determine the amount not extracted (ratio of RB/FB) starting with the material balance
of the solute (B):
 E
F E R E X E X
X F X SX F B B C
B A B B A
R
R X R 
B B A
We substitute in the K-value ratio:
'  R R
X K X S X F
D B B A
B
And simplify the above equation:
R
X F
This ratio gives the amount B  A
'
of solute (B) left in the X F
K SF
raffinate to the amount D A

B
originally in the feed stream,
B

 F
X  R XB
B

 1 1 The larger the
 extraction factor, the
B
 smaller fraction of
K' S 1 solute (B) not
D
B

F1 extracted

A
14
 Ternary Phase Diagrams

It is convenient to construct ternary phase diagrams

C
on a Gibbs Triangle (shown at right). Note that the
variables for these diagrams are only composition
and that pressure and temperature are held constant
(means that these diagrams are slices through a four
dimensional space with constant T and P).

At each point, xA + xB + xC = 1.0

C B
4 points located on the diagram:

Point 1: xA = ? ; xB = ? ;x
Point 2: xA = ? ; xB = ? ;x3
Point 3: xA = ? ; xB = ? ;x 4
Point 4: xA = ? ; xB = ? ;x
2

1
A B

A 15
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Ternary Phase Diagrams
Compositions are read as follows:
Draw three lines from the Composition
C
point parallel to the composition lines.
[94% C, 3% B, 3% A]
Read the compositions off of the three
axes.

Note: Only two mole fractions are

needed. Meaning that the total percentage
is 100% at each point. So the third
fraction as a check only. [33% C, 33% B, 33% A]
Compositions can be in mole fractions
or mass fractions.

[30% C, 70% B]

[100% A]

A B

[20% C, 20% B, 60% A]

Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
16
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
If the two phases both have a partial solubility of the other component,
then the analysis is somewhat more complicated.

The difficulty is that now equilibrium data must be obtained for the ternary
which relates the partial solubilities. Equilibrium data can be obtained
graphically, or from tables. The ternary phase diagram is a typical way of
representing the equilibrium compositions of the two phases.
Ethylene Glycol
Solute

66% EthGly
7% Furfural
27 % Water
A composition where
only a single liquid
exists.

50 % EthGly 17% EthGly

50% Furfural 27% Furfural
56 % Water
A composition where
100% Furfural two liquid phases
coexist.
Furfural Water
Solvent
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
Carrier
21
 Specification of Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium
For two phase equilibrium (either complete insolubility, or partially solubility):
• the equilibrium is between two liquids phases ( = 2)
• three components (ternary) distribute between the two phases (C = 3)

For the static equilibrium case we can specify 3 variables:

If we specify T and P we are left with one additional variable:

Thus if we specify the concentration of one component in either of the

phases this completely defines the state of the system.

Equilibrium-Line:
Show the compositions
of the equilibrium phases.
Ethylene Glycol
Wat

Tie-Lines:
Show the compositions of
the equilibrium phases.

Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

Furfural 22
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Example: Consider a feed of 200 kg of 30% ethylene glycol in water. Add 300kg of pure
furfural solvent.
Solvent Feed
Extrac
S, XC(S)
E, XB
Liquid Feed
Raffin
F, XA(F), XB
R, XA

Ethylene Glycol
Wa
 Furfural

23
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Determination of Solvent Free Point

In order to know the highest percent of separation (Separation

efficiency) that we might get in certain feed (mixtures of solute and
carrier) solvent flows, these steps need to be done in a specific
ternary diagram:

Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points

Step 2: Locate the mixing point M

Step 3: Use the tie-line to get the raffinate and extract compositions

Step 4: Determine the amount of extract and raffinate (can

use lever rule)

Step 5: Determine the solvent free extract: Mixtures of A and B.

Extend line from S through E to solvent free point at H.

24
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Example: Consider a feed of 200 kg of 30% ethylene glycol in water. Add 300kg of
solvent which is pure furfural.

Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points

Ethylene Glycol
Water
F
60 kg EG
140 kg wate

S Furfural

300 Kg
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

25
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Step 2: Locate the mixing point M:
F
X S 0.3  200kg  0  300kg
B
  0.12
500kg
From Solute (B)

Ethylene Glycol
W

F 60 kg EG
140 kg water

S
Furfural
300 Kg
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

26
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Step 3: Use the tie-line to get the raffinate and extract compositions.
Get the most accurate ratio of both extract and
raffinate between the two tie lines that locate M

Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

Raffinate (87% water, 8%EG, 5% furfural)

Ethylene Glycol

F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R

S
Furfural
300 Kg
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
27
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Step 4: Determine the amount of extract and raffinate (can use lever rule)

X M   X E  0.63  0.82 Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

Rf  C

R  E 
C
 Raffinate (87% water, 5%EG, 8% furfural)
XC  XC 0.08  0.82 Mixing (25%, 12%EG, 63% furfural)

R  0.257  500kg  128.4kg E=M(distance of RM/RE)

E  1  0.257  500kg  371.6kg

Ethylene Glycol
W

F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R

S
Furfural
300 Kg
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

28
 Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
Step 5: Determine the solvent free extract: Mixtures of A and B only. Extend line from S
through E to solvent free point at H.

Solvent free extract H (20% water, 80% EG) (Separation efficiency)

Ethylene Glycol
W

F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R

S
Furfural
300 Kg
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

29
 HUNTER NASH GRAPHICAL
EQUILIBRIUM-STAGE METHOD
FOR LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

To find: Number of equilibrium stages needed for

a countercurrent cascades LLE
and
Minimum@maximum solvent-to-feed
(S/F)
min@max

30
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Ternary Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Single-Stage

Solute, B
Ternary Phase Diagram
Solvent: tetrachloroethane (TCE)
Solute: Acetone
Carrier: Water

Plait Point
P

Extract
F
Feed

E
Mixing point
R
Raffinate
Tie-lines

Solvent C Carrier, A
31
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Cascades
What if we have a countercurrent cascade of Liquid-Liquid
Contacting Stages?

E E E E
E1 E2 3 n n+1 N-1 EN
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F R
1 R R R R R R
2 n- 1 n N-2 N-1 N

Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)

Can we use a similar analysis to the one we used for countercurrent

absorption or stripping?

Yes, but also different since equilibrium here is given by a liquid-

liquid ternary diagram rather than a vapor-liquid equilibrium.

Considerations:
countercurrent flow; N-equilibrium-stage contactor for LLE under
isothermal, continuous, steady state conditions at a pressure
sufficient to prevent vaporization
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
32
 Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Specifications

E1 E2 E3 E E E E
n n+1 N-1 N
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F
R R R R R
R1 2 n- 1 n N-2 N-1 R
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)

Specifications: F, (xi)F, (yi)S, T and one of:

1) S and (xi)RN
2) S and (yi)E1
3) (xi)RN and (yi)E1
4) N and (xi)RN
5) N and (yi)E1
6) S and N
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

33
 Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Hunter Nash Method
Sol
E E
E1 E2 E3 En n+1 N-1 EN
Extract S
1 2 n N–1 N
F Raffi
R R R R
R1 R2 n- 1 n N-2 N-1 RN
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Solute
Product Points:
Step 1) Find the mixing point M=F+S
Step 2) Determine mixing point
compositions from component
material balances or inverse lever
rule
Step 3) Since we know RN lies on the Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage Solvent C
equilibrium curve and we know
(xA)RN we can determine (xB)RN and
(xC)RN
Step 4) Since we know RN, M and E1
lie on a mixing line we can locate
E1 by extending a line from RN
through M to the equilibrium curve
where it intersects E1.
 Plait Point
P
Extract
Feed
E1
Raffinate
M
R1
Tie-lines
RN

34
Carrier
 Hunter Nash Method: Operating Lines

E E
E E2 E3 En n+1 N-1 E
1 N
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
R
F R R N-1
R1 R2 n-1 Rn N-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)

Operating Points and Lines

Mass Balance around entire cascade: FSR E
N 1
We define the operating point P as the
difference between passing streams: FE R SP
1 N

E E E E
E E2 3 n n+1 N-1 E
1 N
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
R
F R R R R R N-1
1 2 n-1 n N-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)

Mass Balance around the first n stages: F  En1  Rn  E1

 We rearrange this equation to find that all passing streams are
related by the same operating point P. F  E1  Rn  En 1 
35
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Hunter Nash Method: Operating Point
E
E E N-1
1
En n+1 EN S Solvent C
Extract n N–1 N
1 Raffinate
R R
F n-1 Rn R N-1 RN
N-2

Operating Points and Lines

Mass Balance around an internal stage (n): R E R E
n n n 1 n1
We can rearrange the above expression to find
that Rn is just a mixing point between P and En+1. R R E E PE
n n 1 n n1 n 1

E E
The following figure illustrates this concept: E n+1
n n+1 Replace Rn-1
The stream Rn is the mixing point between P P
n and En by P n
and En+1 because P is the net flow into stage
n from passing streams Rn-1, and En. R R Rn
n-1 n

The N mass balances around the N FE R E R SP

individual stages result in: 1 n1 n N

Extract E E
E E3 En n+1 N-1 E S
N
E1 Solvent C

1 2 n N–1 N
 F Raffinate
R R
2
R
n-1 Rn R
N-2 R R
N-1
N 36
Lecture 7: Liquid-
Liquid Ternary
Single Stage
 Hunter Nash Method: Operating Point
E E
E E2 E3 En n+1 N- 1 E
1 N
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
R
F R R N-1
R1 R2 n-1 Rn N-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Solute
Operating Points and Lines
Step 1) Locate the Operating Point by finding
the intersection of operating lines for the
leftmost and rightmost stages
a) Draw a line through E1 and F
b) Draw a line through S and RN
c) Locate the intersection P. This point is the operating point
Plait Point P.

E1
Feed
Operatin
g Point
M
P

RN
 S
37
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage Carrier
 Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Equilibrium Stages
Operating Lines:
The raffinate points are mixing points between P and corresponding extract points. This is shown
graphically in the following diagram. Notice that to get the point P we need just F, S, E 1 and RN.

Solute

E1

E2 F
E3 Operating Point
E4 R1
P
E5
E6
RN
S

Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

Carrier 38
 Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Stages
E E
E E2 E3 En n+1 N- 1 E
1 N S Solvent C
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
Raffinat
R
F R R N-1 RN
R1 R2 n-1 Rn N-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Solute
Operating Lines and Tie Lines: Stepping
Off Stages:
Step 1) Locate point R1 from the tie line
intersecting E1
Step 2) Draw a line from the operating poin
P through R1 to the extract side of the
equilibrium curve. The intersection locate
Plait Point
E 2.
Step 3) Locate point R2 from a tie line.
E1 Step 4) Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until RN is
obtained.
E2
Feed
E3 Oper
R1
E4 M P
E5
E6
 RN
Solvent C
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
InCarrierStep3, Get the most accurate ratio of
both En and Rn-1 between the two tie lines 3
 Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Stages
E E
E E2 E3 En n+1 N-
1 E
1 N
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F R R
R
R1 R2 n-1 Rn N-2
N-1
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Product Points:
Step 1) M=F+S
Step 2) Determine mixing point compositions from component material balances or inverse lever rule
Step 3) Since we know RN lies on a tie line and we know (xA)RN we can determine (xB)RN and (xC)RN
Step 4) Since we know RN, M and E1 lie on a mixing line we can locate E 1 by extending a line from
RN through M to the equilibrium curve where it intersects E 1.

Operating Points and Lines

Step 1) Locate the Operating Point by finding the intersection of operating lines for the
leftmost and rightmost stage
1a) Draw a line through E1 and F
1b) Draw a line through S and RN
1c) Locate the intersection P. This point is the operating point P.

Operating Lines and Tie Lines: Stepping Off Stages:

Step 1) Locate point R1 from the tie line intersecting E1
Step 2) Draw a line from the operating point P through R1 to the extract side of the equilibrium curve.
The intersection locates E2.
Step 3) Locate point R2 from a tie line.
 Step 4) Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until RN is obtained.

40
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Hunter Nash Method: Minimum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F) min

Operating Points and Lines

Step 1) Locate the raffinate Operating Line by extending
a line from S through RN
Step 2) Extend the tie lines to intersect the operating line
Step 3) The tie line that intersects furthest from RN
gives the minimum operating point, Pmin.
Solute Step 4) Extend a line from Pmin through F to the extract side
of the equilibrium curve to find E1.
Step 5) Extend a line from E1 to RN. The intersection with
the line SF gives the minimum mixing point, M.

S
M
max
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Note: If the tie lines slope down towards
the solvent side of the diagram, then
the minimum operating point will lie on
Plait Point the operating line at an intersection with
a tie line nearest S.
E1

M
min
P
min

RN
41
Carrier
 Hunter Nash Method: Minimum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F) min

Stepping off Stages for the minimum solvent case

After locating the points Pmin, E1, and Mmin the
stages can be stepped off. If the minimum
solvent is used then the separation will be pinched
off and will require an infinite number of stages
Solute [means if we use (S/F)min, then N will be infinite]

Plait Point

E1

M
min

S P
RN min

42
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
Carrier
 Hunter Nash Method: Maximum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F) max

Stepping off Stages for the maximum solvent case

After locating the points Pmin, E1, and Mmin
the stages can be stepped off. If the maximum
solvent is used then the separation will require
a minimum number of stages.
Solute
A solvent ratio (S/F) must be selected such that
(S/F)min < (S/F) < (S/F)max

Plait Point

S P
RN max

M
max
43
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
Carrier
 44
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

45
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

46
 Use of Right-Triangle Diagram

• Ternary, countercurrent extraction calculations also can be made on a right-triangle diagram.

• Disadvantage: mass-percent compositions of only two of the components are plotted; the third being
determined.

• Advantage: ordinary rectangular-coordinates graph paper can be used and either one of the coordinates
can be expanded (to increase the accuracy of the constructions).

47
 Use of Right-Triangle Diagram

How to plot right- triangle diagram Solute

1. Draw right-triangle with scale 1.0
2. Label x-axis and y-axis with solute, solvent or
carrier
0.8
3. Construct equilibrium line by using
equilibrium data
4. Draw tie-lines


5. Determine the location for Feed (F) point, Solvent 0.6

Wtfractionsolute
(S) point, Extract (E) point and/or Raffinate
(R) point and/or Mixing Point (M) point.
F
Construction of Operating Line 0.4
- The same method used as in ternary phase
diagram

Determination of composition in 0.2

extract, raffinate and no. of equilibrium
stages S
- The same method used as in ternary phase 0
diagram (mass balance) Solvent
R
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Carrier
Wt fraction carrier 
48
 Use of Right-Triangle Diagram

• Examples of right-triangle diagrams

49
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
 Use of Kremser equation

• Ternary phase diagram & right-triangle diagram are used for partially miscible ternary system.

• While McCabe-Thiele or Kremser equation are used for completely immiscible ternary system.

+1
ln 1−
∗

1− 1

N=

ln

where =
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

50
Use of Right-Triangle Diagram

51
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
5
2
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

5
3
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

5
4
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage

5
5
56
57
58
59
60