Condition monitoring

Intelligent condition
monitoring and asset
management
Partial discharge monitoring
for power transformers
Condition monitoring of power transformers is a significant issuefor electrical
utilities, Recent research has demonstrated the efficacy of employing ultra high
frequency measurement ofpartial discharge in the monitoring of transformers.
A condition monitoring architecture is described that supports the capture and
interpretation of diagnostic data, and provides engineers with meaningful
diagnostic advice using intelligent system technologies.

by M. D. Judd, S. D. J. McArthur,
J.-R. McDonald and 0. Farish

ffectivc asset management is a key information from the condition monitoring

E business objective of all generation,

transmission and distribution compa-
nies. The backdrop to this requirement
is ever increasing financial constraints married
to reductions in manpower and expertise.
data is diilficnlt.
The translation of the health of the plant item
into an estimate of its lifetime expectation is
not always apparent.

Technology is seen as a means of solving A complete condition monitoring and asset

the asset management problem, driving the
research and development of advanced moni-
toring systems with a view to implementing
condition-based maintenance regimes.
As a result, an increasing volume of con-
dition monitoring data is captured and
presented to engineers. This leads to a number
of problems:
The data volume is onerous for engineers to
deal with.
The relationship between the plant item, its
health and the condition monitoring data
generated is not always well understood.
Therefore, the extraction of meaningful
management approach, which tackles these
issues, is therefore required. To illustrate
this approach, power transformers have been
selected as the major application covered in
this article.
Background to condition monitoring of
transformers
Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) has been used
for many years as an indicator of the condition
of transformer insulation. Oil samples taken
at intervals of typically 6 or 12 months are
analysed for characteristic gases such as
hydrogen (Hi) and acetylene (C;Hd that may
be indicators of internal electrical discharges

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002 297

Condition monitoring
o r arcing. Moisture levels and
particulatr content can also
provide information about the
insulation condition. Inter-
pretation of such data is not
straightforward, but new
techniques are being developed
that use software to analyse the
large body of historical data
available and identify patterns of
progression towards failure. If
similar deterioration is detected
for a transformer in service,
remedial action can be taken.'
The sampling interval for DGA
testing is long compared with the time in which
a transformer fault can develop. As the power
transmission infrastructure ages and is worked
harder for economic reasons, there is an
increasing drive towards developing online
condition monitoring techniques that provide
a continuous indication of the health of key
plant items. A range ofphysical parameters can
be monitored on a transformer, such as oil
temperalures, moisture levels, the operation of
cooling fans and electrical load levels. These
have been combined with appropriate models
(e.g. therniohydraulic. moisture) within early
condition monitoring systems to provide
useful information relating to plant health.'
Partial discharges (PDs) occur within a
transformer when the electric field exceeds the
dielectric strength of the insulation within a
localised volume. Possible causes include a
temporary overvoltage, an incipient weakness
in the insulation introduced during manu-
facture or deterioration due to
ageing effects over the plant
lifetime. Although the I'D may be
quite small in its early stages of
development, it is by nature
a damaging process, causing
chemical decomposition and
erosion of materials. Left
unchecked, the damaged area may
grow,, eventually risking complete
failure. Unanticipated plant failure
can result in large financial
penalties for utilities. damage to the
environment and in the worst cases
may pose a serious hazard to
employees or the public (Fig. 1).
Various technologies have been
developed to address the problem
of PD monitoring in electrical
plant. including electrical, acoustic
298
and chemical methods. Recent
years have seen the successful
development and application of
ultra high frequency (UHF) PD
monitoring technology for gas
insulated substations.' In metal-
clad electrical plant, PD current
pulses excite electromagnetic
resonances at frequencies in the
500-1500 MHz range that can be
detected using broadband UHF
sensors. This expertise is now
being applied to power trans-
formers where it has the
potential to rapidly identify the
1 In the most serious defect location and type. Field trials on a
cases, effective condition 1000 MVA 400 kVl275 kV transformer (Figs.
monitoring may to 2-41 have demonstrated the ability of the
prevent unfortunate
incidents such as this technique to detect and locate multiple dis-
[photograph: courtesy of charge sources?
Lee Lane1
Transformer condition monitoring
application
Condition monitoring architecture
The following key requirements for a condition
monitoring system have been identified:
0 Raw sensor data, from various sensors, must
he conditioned and tested for any significant
deviations (such as the exceeding of certain
limits and unexpected rates of change).
When significant deviations are identified,
diagnosis OS the failure must occur through
2 1000 MVA transformer
used for testing and interpretation of the data.
of UHF PD 0 It must be ascertained whether there is a
monitoring sensor Sailure or an actual plant failure. This
is achieved by corroborating the
interpretation results and sensor
data with other relevant data
sources.
0 Once diagnosed, key infor-
mation and remedial advice
must be presented to the
relevant engineers.
An additinnal requirement, which
is essential for longevity and
practical implementation, is that
the architecture must be scalable
and support the introduction of
new sensors. data sets and
interpretation techniques as they
become available. This suggests
that each of the required functions
should be standalone, with the
ahility to co-operate and exchange
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002

datdinformation as required.
This led to the design of a
'layered' condition monitoring
system, where functional
modules are grouped by their
overall goal. Architecturally, the
condition monitoring system
uses distributed modules that
have no constraints on their
physical location. This allows
data handling modules to be on
the plant or close to it.
Importantly, modules are
designed such that only relevant
data and information enters the
telecommunications system, thereby avoiding
the current practice of sending all data to a
central point.
The layers are:
data monitoring layer
interpretation layer
corroboration layer
information layer.
The modules in each layer require fundamental
knowledge of how the plant behaves and fails,
and how this is exhibited through the sensor
data captured. The resulting system will
integrate various monitoring technologies
and data sources, such as oil temperature
measurements, electrical loading (from voltage
and cnrrent sensors), dissolved gas analysis
results (online or periodic measurements),
UHF PD measnrements, tap changer position
and additional relevant data such as records of
maintenance and servicing.
A key focus of recent research has been to
harness UHF monitoring of PD within trans-
formers, through a combination of laboratory
based experiments (Figs. 5 and 6) coupled with
experience gained from field testing. Know-
ledge, data and the understanding required to
implement the UHF monitoring system wilhin
the overall architecture described above will
result from these activities.
Data munitoring layer
The data monitoring layer functions as a
gatekeeper, the first line of defence in the effort
to stop engineers from being overwhelmed by
masxs of unintelligihle data. This first layer
in the architecture is intimately associated
with the front-end hardware used to monitor
physical phenomena relating LO plant opera-
tion, and is therefore the most plant-specific
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002
Condition monitoring
of the four layers. Raw data from
the sensors and associated
monitoring systems is received
and all necessary pre-
conditioning (such as Fourier
transforms, feature extraction
etc.) takes place. Most
importantly, this layer is
responsible for identifying any
significant changes in measurands
that may indicate abnormal plant
operation. For this reason, a
module will be specifically tuned
to each sensor or data type.
3 UHF PD monitoring Assuming that only two UHF sensors are
equipment used for fitted to the transformer (this being the mini-
on-site diagnosiics
mum required for effective monitoring), the
acquired raw data takes the form of a pair
of sampled, digitised UHF signals, captured
simultaneously at both sensors whenever a
UHF signal appears inside the transformer.
However, this data only indicates that an event
has taken place and is not necessarily evidence
of a problem since switching transients and
spurious signals may also trigger the system.
The UHF data can he analysed in a number
of ways that can be deployed in parallel:
time-energy mapping and clustering of PD
data
time-frequency analysis combined with
feature extraction and clustering
0 phase-resolved data representation and
feature recognition based on statistical para-
meters.
While these techniques have some character-
istics in common, they also possess comple-
mentaly capabilities, allowing an acceptable
fallback position to he maintained in the event
of partial system failure. For example, time-
r
UHF to a
dielectric window on
top of the transformer
299
Condition monitoring
energy mapping requires that
signals from two or more
sensors are available and is
able to y d d information
about the location of a defect.
Time-frequency analysis can
perform a similar clustering
function using signals from
only one sensor, hut is less
effective for determining the
defect location.
The graphical output from
each of these diagnostic tools
is shown in Fig. 7. Only an
expert would he able to
deduce the important features
of this data and draw
conclusions ahout the action required.
More generally, if three or four UHF sensors
were being used, the difficulty of representing
the data graphically would prevent the full
benefits of the system from being realised. It
is important therefore to capture and deploy
the expertise gained by individuals within
knowledge-based modules at the interpretation
layer, which will he capable of functioning in
the multi-dimensional data space.
The data monitoring layer extracts key
features from the data set (using algorithms
established through fundamental research and
field experience) and compresses data by
eliminating redundancy Clusters in the time-
energy plot relate to different points of origin
for the signals. By grouping together the data
in individual clusters, each can he analysed
separately in phase-resolved form. In 'effect,
this process de-noises the raw data by sepa-
rating it initially according to the point of
origin within the transformer.
Features extracted from time-frequency data
can be used to cluster data on a different basis,
but also helo to simdifv subsequent
. I
analysis. Within each cluster, there
is important information relating to
the PD pulse patterns, energy and
the distributions of signal sources
in time and space. When the data
gives cause for concern, relevant
information is collated and passed
upwards to the interpretatinn layer,
conveying messages such as:
A new signal source has appeared.
The signal is registering a mean
energy of 220 pJ with a standard
deviation of 80 pJ.
300
The feature vector repre-
senting the phase-resolved
discharge pattern is as
follows (binary datal.
Mean time-of-flight differ-
ence in signal arrival time
at the two sensors is 8-511s.
Interpretation layer
The interpretation layer
begins the process of turning
the data into information that
is of greater use to the plant
operator, using plant models.
In addition, the modules in
this layer use advanced
intelligent system tech-
5 Test hay used for niques, coupled with codified knowledge and
characterising PD expertise in the area of plant monitoring, to
sources in transformer
diagnose problems, provide remedial advice
insulation
and offer a prognosis. A key aspect of the
architecture is that it will support more than
one interpretation technique.
It has become apparent over several years
of research that no single data interpretation
method can completely automate condition
monitoring and diagnostic tasks. Instead, the
combination of a powerful suite of techniques
is required, resulting in a hyhrid ~ y s t e m . ~
Currently, the expertise and knowledge con-
cerning fault identification from PD signals is
being captured and deployed within know-
ledge based modules. Data interpretation is
also being achieved through the use of
techniques such as Kohonen classification and
K-means clustering.
An example of this combined interpretation
process can he given in relation to the time-of-
6 High-voltage test rig
designed to support a flight measurements between two UHF
range of defects for sensors. Using a physical model of the plant,
experimental PD studies the interpretation layer can highlight the
-
reeionk) inside the transformer
where the discharge might be
located. If these included more
than one phase, there are
implications for the interpretation
of the phase-resolved PD pulse
patterns, and it is likely that only
one variant would yield sensible
results. Having narrowed down
the options in this way, historical
and expert knowledge can be
drawn upon to indicate whether
the diagnosis is sensible in
engineering terms. If necessary.
the interpretation layer can seek to
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002
 Condition monitoring

clarify its analysis by requesting further 7 Examples of graphical

presentationof raw PD
information from the data monitoring layer.
data fmm test bay and
site trials: (a1 Time-
Cor?-oborationlnyrr energy plot showing
The corroboration layer takes a wider view of clusters of signals from
the interpretations that it receives, with the different PD sources;
aim of piecing together a picture of what is
(bl Time-frequency
analysis revealing
happrning based on the widest possible range characteristic
of available information sources. At one level, signatures from
the corroboration layer will identify suspicious different PO sources;
diagnoses that might be a consequence of (c] Phase-resolved data
fmm the UHF
sensor failure. For example, suppose the
monitoring system can
interpretation layer indicates that a particular reveal the type of PD
U H F sensor is detecting regular large bursts source
of signal that are not detected elsewhere. The
corroboration layer does not discount this
signal immediately as invalid, but looks for
any evidence that something exceptional is
happening:

Are the loading or weather conditions

unusual?
Are gas levels beginning to change?
Are temperatures at normal levels?

Just as an expert would rarely make an instant

diagnosis, the interpretation layer might
take some time to observe trends, thereby
improving confidrnce and refining the
eventual interpretation. I f no corroborating
evidence of plant deterioration is found, the
module may deduce that some kind of sensor
hardware failure is responsible and generate a engineer as the information recipient. An
request for repair, producing a report giving individual transformer will be one of a large
details of the analysis that has led to this number of assets for which an individual has
conclusion. responsibility Hdshe can access full details of
8 Proposed graphical
More usually, when the interpretation layer the plant's operational history at any time by
interface for presenting
is indicating that valid discharges are delving into the information layer. However, transformer condition
occurring, the corroboration layer is then laced the plant itself will only demand attention monitoring information
with the task of deducing an explanation on the
basis of the interpretations it is receiving.
Suppose that significant PD activity appears
during a period of exceptional loading in hot
weather, but after a few hours conditions
return to normal and the transformer is once
again free of discharges. The fact that some
discharge activity might have been expected
causes the module to be less concerned than if I I
some continuous discharges had appeared
under normal conditions without a clear cause. I\
Information layer
The final layer is the intelligent interface that
provides high-level information to managerial,
engineering and maintenance staff as appro-
priate. We will concentrate here on the

POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002 301

Condition monitoring
when sufficient evidence exists to warrant the
request. The engineer can be alerted to urgent
requests for attention through a pager or may
receive cautionary e-mail messages generated
by the information layer. Access to more
detailed information could be provided by
linking to a web page containing a graphical
interface.
As well as summarising the reasoning used
by the corroboration layer in reaching its
conclusion, the graphical interface allows the
engineer to drill down through the layers, even
accessing the raw data if necessary During this
process, the information layer retains the
function of a gateway to the other layers,
providing the framework for visual presenta-
tion of underlying interpretations and data
streams. For example, if a PD source becomes
active in the transformer, its position might be
highlighted graphically, as illustrated in Fig. 8.
protection -
signal conditioning
data acquisitiion
model
information assets
9 Structure ofihe
Uinformation management
integrated appmach lo
condition monitoring
and plant lifetime
modelling
302
By interacting with this image, the user can
bring up a range of options, which might
include trend analysis or details of the internal
components of the transformer present in that
region. The option to go online would also be
available, allowing animation of events in real
time and providing access to plots of the kind
shown in Fig. 7.
In addition to managing the user interface,
the information layer liases with other high-
level modules that are part of the intelligent
system. Suppose an event such as the period of
exceptional transformrr loading described in
the previous section has occurred. Since this
may have consequences for the lifetime of the
plant, the corroboration layer will pass this
information on to the plant lifetime model,
which will assess the effect on the transformer
as a capital asset and report on any financial
implications of the period of heavy loading
data streams from:
lother sensors1
~
,controlsystems/
/periodic measurements/
corroboration
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002

0' information
iayer agents
I 3 corroboration
layer agents
I ' inleipietation
layer agents
Kohonen K-means
ClassIIIcatlOn clustering
agent agent
time of flight
feature extraction agent
lmplementatiun uf the condition monitoring
architecture
The proposed architecture, illustrated in Fig. 9,
relies heavily on co-operating software
modules which are able to exchange data and
information. Fortunately, a technology exists
to support such a rcquircinent. Agent-based
systems have received widespread attention in
recent years. While this technology is not a
condition monitoring panacea, in engineering
terms it provides a system integration
technology to support all the aforemenhned
requirements. Importantly, it also permits the
easy integration of further modules (in any of
the layers) in the future.
Each module described is implemented as
an agent, which is a self-contained functional
software niodule having its own goals to
achieve. However, agent technology provides a
standardised Agent Communication Language
(ACL) that permits the easy exchange of
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002
Condition monitoring
10 Agent-based
condition monitoring
architecture for PD
monitoring of
transformers
knowledge maintenance
based data
agent
operational
CalCUlatlOn data
agent
information and supports co-operation among
the independent modules. Figs. 10 and 11
provide a diagrammatic representation of the
agent-based condition monitoring architec-
ture, and more detail concerning the functions
within a single agent.
The future
Technological advances in the fields of com-
puting and communications continue apace
and will have a dramatic impact on the level
of integration that can be achieved in the
monitoring of complex systems like the power
transmission network. All of the software
techniques and intelligent system paradigms
required to implement the approach presented
in this article are in existence. The hardware
costs associated with advanced monitoring
techniques such as UHF PD detection are
decreasing rapidly due to developments in low-
cost data-storage devices and the technological
303
Condition monitoring
11 Functional blocks
within a s i n g l e agent
agent lunctional code
ontology
(data dictionary)
agent communlcation
language
v standardised message format permining
advances driven by mobile telephony operating
in the UHF band. Bringing them together into
a fully integrated condition monitoring system
will result in the more elfective operation of
electrical energ9 systems.
A challenge currently being addressed is
how our understanding of the economic
consequences and impact on plant lifetime of
the monitored parameters can he improved.
Experience and records 01 historical data are
vital inputs to this process. A comprehensive
monitoring framework can therefore be
regarded as a prerequisite if effective inter-
pretation is to be achieved.
Acknowledgment
This article is based on work funded under the
ESR-21 programme by ScottishPower and the
EPSRC ( G M 9 8 7 7 7 ) .
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IEE: 200z ,
The authors are with, the Institute for Energy and
Environment, Universiry of Srinrhclyde, Glasgmv, UK,
e-mailm.juddOece.strath.ar.uk
POWER ENGINEERING JOURNAL DECEMBER 2002