Introduction

Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for
distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design,
evaluation, and production of packages. Package labelling is any written, electronic, or
graphic communications on the packaging or on a separate but associated label.

Packaging is heavily integrated into our daily lives, we see it all around us, on everyday
items such as chocolate bars and potato chip (crisp) packets- As explained below, the
main use for packaging is protection of the goods inside, but packaging also provides us
with a recognisable logo, or packaging, we instantly know what the goods are inside.

The importance of packaging

The importance of packaging can be summarised as follows:

* Adequate packaging aids distribution.

* Rapid and reliable distribution helps reduce malnutrition, removes local food surpluses
and allows the consumer more choice in the foods available.
* Packaging and distribution reduce post harvest losses, this together with a larger market
allows producers to increase their income.

Therefore, inadequate packaging in developing countries has profound effects on the

whole pattern and total amount of food consumed.

Functions of packaging

Packaging is a means of providing the correct environmental conditions for food during
the length of time it is stored and/or distributed to the consumer. A good package has to
perform the following functions:

* It must keep the product clean and provide a barrier against dirt and other
contaminants.
* It should prevent losses. Its design should provide protection and convenience in
handling, during transport, distribution and marketing. In particular, the size, shape
and weight of the packages must be considered.
* It must provide protection to the food against physical and chemical damage (eg
water and water vapour, oxidation, light) and insects and rodents.
* It must provide identification and instruction so that the food is used correctly and
have sales appeal.

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Different packaging materials:

a) Paper based packaging

1) Paper

Paper is a commodity of thin material produced by the amalgamation of fibers, typically

vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are subsequently held together by
hydrogen bonding. While the fibers used are usually natural in origin, a wide variety of
synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, may be incorporated into paper
as a way of imparting desirable physical properties. The most common source of these
kinds of fibers is wood pulp from pulpwood trees, largely softwoods and hardwoods,
such as spruce and aspen respectively. Other vegetable fiber materials including those of
cotton, hemp, linen, and rice may be used.

1.1) Papermaking

a) Fiber processing/pulping

Wood or plant cell walls are composed of fibers bound together. During pulping, these
fibers are separated from each other and carbohydrate surfaces, primarily cellulose or
hemicellulose, are exposed. Hydrogen bonding between these carbohydrate surfaces
gives paper its strength. Fibers can be separated chemically, mechanically, or via a
combination of the two.

b) Chemical pulping

Most chemical pulp is made using the Kraft process. The purpose of a chemical pulping
process is to break down the chemical structure of lignin and render it soluble in the
cooking liquor, so it may be washed from the cellulose fibers. Because lignin holds the
plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibers and makes pulp. After Kraft
pulping the pulp can be used directly for bags and boxes or further delignifed, during
bleaching, to produce white pulp for printing and writing. Chemical pulps tend to cost
more than mechanical pulps, largely due to the low yield, 40-50% of the original wood.
Since the process preserves fiber length, however, chemical pulps tend to make stronger
paper. Another advantage of chemical pulping is that the majority of the heat and
electricity needed to run the process is produced by burning the lignin removed during
pulping.

c) Mechanical pulping

There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood.
In the TMP process wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where
the chips are squeezed and fiberized between two steel discs. In the groundwood process
debarked logs are fed in into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and
fiberized. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >

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95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and become brittle over time.
Mechanical pulps have rather short fiber lengths and produce weak paper. Although large
amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than
chemical pulp.

Paper recycling processes can use either chemical or mechanical pulp. By mixing with
water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and
fibers separated again.

Drying

After the paper web is produced, the water must be removed from it in order to create a
usable product. This is accomplished through pressing and drying. The methods of doing
so vary between the different processes used to make paper, but the concepts remain the
same.

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet,
another absorbent material must be used to collect this water. On a paper machine this is
called a felt (not to be confused with the traditional felt). When making paper by hand, a
blotter sheet is used.

Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the
earliest days of papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In
more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper
machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These dryer cans heat to
temperatures above 200°F (93°C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans.
The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

The paper may then undergo "sizing" to alter its physical properties for use in various
applications.

1.2) Applications

For packaging:

• corrugated box
• paper bag
• envelope
• wrapping tissue
• wallpaper

As paper is produced from natural fibres, its mechanical properties depend upon their
individual strength, their length, orientation and the degree of inter-fibre bonding which
can be achieved. Flow patterns in the lay-down of separate fibre layers are one aspect
which can be improved by mechanical and electrostatic techniques.

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1.3) Types of paper

1) Kraft paper
2) Butter paper
3) Glassine paper
4) Asphalt paper
5) Vegetable parchment paper
6) Wax paper
7) Pouch paper

food packaging paper

Various sizes and designs acceptable
Paper material: 24g anti-oil and anti-water paper
for food packaging

Greaseproof paper

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 Glassine paper (having butter paper lining of butter)

Tetra bricks (Made of paper-aluminum-PE seven-layer laminated material

Suit for milk, fruit and vegetable juice packaging. Shelf life up to 8
- 12 months)

Different confectionery paper packaging materials( pouch papers)

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2) Paperboard

Paperboard is a paper-like material, usually over ten mils in thickness. Some types of
paperboard (corrugated medium and linerboard) are used in the construction of
Corrugated fiberboard. Other types of paperboard are used for folding cartons, set-up
boxes, carded packaging, etc.

Cardboard is a generic, non-specific, lay term used to refer to any heavy paper-pulp
based board.

Thickness, bulk and caliper are significant aspects to paperboard manufacture, as the end
product must be able to withstand the bending forces of packaging, load carrying,
shipping etc., while still maintaining their shape. Consequently, these paperboard
products are usually comprised of two or more plies to provide the required stiffness.

Within the industry, paperboard is referred to by weight (pounds per 1000 square feet
(MSF) or edge-crush pounds per lineal inch for stacking strength properties), pressure
(pounds per square inch), by thickness (by thousandths of an inch, or 'points' - i.e. 0.009"
thick paperboard is also known as 9-point) or by name (foodboard, corrugating medium,
boxboard etc.).

Will Keith Kellogg first used paperboard folding cartons to hold flaked corn cereal, and
later when he began marketing it to the general public, a heat-sealed waxed bag of
Waxtite was wrapped around the outside of the box and printed with their brand name.
This marked the origin of the cereal box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic
and is kept inside the box rather than outside.

Today paperboard packaging in general, and especially products from certified

sustainable sources, are receiving new attention, as manufacturers dealing with
environmental, health, and regulatory issues look to renewable resources to meet
increasing demand. It is now mandatory in many countries for paper-based packaging to
be manufactured wholly or partially composed of recycled as well as tree-free fibers.

2.1) Types of paperboard

1) Kraft board
2) Non bending board
3) Chip board
4) Solid bleached sulphate board
5) Single white liner board

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3) Corrugated Fiberboard

Corrugated Fiberboard describes paper-based constructions of a fluted corrugated

medium and flat linerboard(s). It is widely used in the manufacture of corrugated boxes
and shipping containers.

Paperboard is a paper-like material, usually over ten mils in thickness. Some types of
paperboard (corrugated medium and linerboard) are used in the construction of
Corrugated Fiberboard.

3.1) Prefabricated Boxes (Cartons, Cases, etc)

The Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the corrugated box in 1842, consisting of pre-cut
flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's invention, as with so many
other great innovations, came about as a result of an accident: he was a Brooklyn printer
and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, and while he was printing an order of seed bags a
metal ruler normally used to crease bags shifted in position and cut the bag. Gair
discovered that by cutting and creasing board in one operation he could make
prefabricated cartons. Extending this to corrugated boxboard was a straightforward
development when the material became available. By the start of the 20th century,
corrugated boxes began replacing the custom-made wooden crates and boxes previously
used for trade.

3.2) Board contruction

Today's corrugated board usually consists of outer flat sheets (liners) of puncture-
resistant paper sandwiching a central "filling" of corrugated short-fibre paper (fluted
paper, or "medium") which resists crushing under compression and gives cushioning
protection to the box's contents.

The "liner" and "medium" (outer and inner portion of the final corrugated board product)
are glued together along the outsides of the peaks and valleys of each flute, normally
using starch adhesives. The starch is derived from corn, wheat, potato or tapioca. Thus
the complete make-up of corrugated board is from natural, sustainable materials in
plentiful supply and the board is fully recyclable and can be pulped down to make more
paper for more board once it has ended its own life.

The board has high end-to-end strength along the corrugated flutes, so the box is
normally designed with the flutes running vertically for stacking strength. The modern
method of testing the stacking strength of a corrugated box is called the Box
Compression Test (BCT). To measure the resistance against penetration of the box wall
the bursting strength test (known as a Mullen Test) is used. Box Manufacturers often
certify the strength of boxes by imprinting a Box Maker's Certificate (BMC) on the
bottom of cartons. This will contain the name of the company that made the box as well
as the city and state where it was manufactured along with the pertinent test information.

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Paper made from hardwood, short fibre pulp, has good compression strength and is easily
moldable with moisture and heat, but is weak in tension and tears easily. Paper made
from softwoods, with their longer fibres, on the other hand, is strong in tension and resists
puncturing and tearing better and is less plastic, so tends to keep its shape. It also
provides a better surface for printing.

3.3) Flute selection

Common flute sizes are "A", "B", "C", "E" and "F" or microflute. The letter designation
relates to the order that the flutes were invented, not the relative sizes. Flute size refers to
the number of flutes per lineal foot. For example, "B" flute is approximately 1/4 inch
from the top of one flute to the next, or 50 flutes per foot. "C" Flute is 5/16 inch from
flute to flute or 42 flutes per lineal foot. "E" flute is 1/8 inch flute to flute or 90 flutes per
lineal foot. Board thickness is an unreliable metric, due to various manufacturing
conditions. However, a rough guide is: "C" flute=5/32 inch thick, "B" flute=1/8 inch
thick, "E" flute=1/16 inch thick.

Double and triple-wall corrugated is also manufactured for specialized industrial

applications and, at the other extreme, microflute is manufactured for fine printed
packaging or displays or presentation packaging for high-value contents such as spirits,
perfume, jewellery, etc. Almost all corrugated boxes are shipped flat for ease and
economy of transport, then erected, filled and closed at packing stations.

Old corrugated boxes are an excellent source of fibre for recycling. They can be
compressed and baled for cost effective transport to anywhere in need of fibre for
papermaking. Thus they help developing countries without sustainable wood resources
build a paper and packaging industry locally and develop their exports to global markets.

3.4) Application

The corrugated box was initially used for packaging glass and pottery containers, which
are easily broken in transit. Later, the case enabled fruit and produce to be brought from
the farm to the retailer without bruising, improving the return to the producers and
opening up hitherto unaffordable export markets. (There had previously been a great deal
of waste when, for example, oranges were craned out of the hold of a ship, having been
bulk loaded into it.)

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 Broad flutes

White corrugated
sheets box

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b) PLASTICS

The use of plastics in packaging has increased markedly over the last few decades,
particularly for foods and drinks.. The reasons for this are:

1) lower costs than other materials

2) Lower energy content
3) Wider range of properties
4) More scope in forming and shape
5) Light weight coupled with strength
6) Easier disposal after use.

1) Polyethylene

→ History & Discovery

Polyethylene was first synthesized by the German chemist Hans von Pechmann, who
prepared it by accident in 1898 while heating diazomethane. The first industrially
practical polyethylene synthesis was discovered (again by accident) in 1933 by Eric
Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at the ICI works in Northwich, England.[3] Upon applying
extremely high pressure (several hundred atmospheres) to a mixture of ethylene and
benzaldehyde, they again produced a white waxy material. Since the reaction had been
initiated by trace oxygen contamination in their apparatus, the experiment was at first
difficult to reproduce. It was not until 1935 that another ICI chemist, Michael Perrin,
developed this accident into a reproducible high-pressure synthesis for polyethylene that
became the basis for industrial LDPE production beginning in 1939.

Subsequent landmarks in polyethylene synthesis have revolved around the development

of several types of catalyst that promote ethylene polymerization at more mild
temperatures and pressures. The first of these was a chromium trioxide based catalyst
discovered in 1951 by Robert Banks and John Hogan at Phillips Petroleum. In 1953, the
German chemist Karl Ziegler developed a catalytic system based on titanium halides and
organoaluminum compounds that worked at even milder conditions than the Phillips
catalyst. The Phillips catalyst is less expensive and easier to work with, however, and
both methods are used in industrial practice.

By the end of the 1950s both the Phillips and Ziegler type catalysts were being used for
HDPE production..

A third type of catalytic system, one based on metallocenes, was discovered in 1976 in
Germany by Walter Kaminsky and Hansjörg Sinn. The Ziegler and metallocene catalyst
families have since proven to be very flexible at copolymerizing ethylene with other
olefins and have become the basis for the wide range of polyethylene resins available

10
today, including VLDPE, and LLDPE. Such resins, in the form of fibers like Dyneema,
have (as of 2005) begun to replace aramids in many high-strength applications.

Until recently, the metallocenes were the most active single-site catalysts for ethylene
polymerisation known - new catalysts are typically compared to zirconocene dichloride.
Much effort is currently being exerted on developing new single-site (so-called post-
metallocene) catalysts, that may allow greater tuning of the polymer structure than is
possible with metallocenes. Recently, work by Fujita at the Mitsui corporation (amongst
others) has demonstrated that certain salicylaldimine complexes of Group 4 metals show
substantially higher activity than the metallocenes.

→ Introduction

Polyethylene is a thermoplastic commodity made by the chemical industry and heavily

used in consumer products

Polyethylene is a long chain ,partially crystalline polymer ,produced by polymerization

of ethene. It can be produced through radical polymerization, anionic addition
polymerization, ion coordination polymerization or cationic addition polymerization..
Each of these methods results in a different type of polyethylene. It is tasteless,non toxic,
lighter than water, it is highly water resistant, chemical resistant,low temperature resistant
and provides good electrical insulation.

→ Chemical & physical properties

Depending on the crystallinity and molecular weight, a melting point and glass transition
may or may not be observable. The temperature at which these occur varies strongly with
the type of polyethylene. For common commercial grades of medium-density and high-
density polyethylene, the melting point is typically in the range 120-130 °C. The melt
point for average commercial low-density polyethylene is typically 105-115 °C. Most
LDPE, MDPE, and HDPE grades have excellent chemical resistance and do not dissolve
at room temperature because of the crystallinity. Polyethylene (other than cross-linked
polyethylene) usually can be dissolved at elevated temperatures in aromatic hydrocarbons
(i.e. toluene, xylene) or chlorinated solvents (i.e. trichloroethane, trichlorobenzene).

Polypropylene or polypropene (PP) is a thermoplastic polymer, made by the chemical

industry and used in a wide variety of applications, including food packaging, textiles,
plastic parts and reusable containers of various types, thermal pants and shirts made for
the military, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer
banknotes. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and

11
unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Its resin identification

code is .

Most commercial polypropylene has an intermediate level of crystallinity between that of

low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE); its Young's
modulus is also intermediate. Although it is less tough than HDPE and less flexible than
LDPE, it is much more brittle than HDPE. This allows polypropylene to be used as a
replacement for engineering plastics, such as ABS. Polypropylene is rugged, often
somewhat stiffer than some other plastics, reasonably economical, and can be made
translucent when uncolored but not completely transparent as polystyrene, acrylic or
certain other plastics can be made. It can also be made opaque and/or have many kinds of
colors. Polypropylene has very good resistance to fatigue, so that most plastic living
hinges, such as those on flip-top bottles, are made from this material. Very thin sheets of
polypropylene are used as a dielectric within certain high performance pulse and low loss
RF capacitors.

→ Classification of Polyethylene

Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on its density and
branching. The mechanical properties of PE depend significantly on variables such as the
extent and type of branching, the crystal structure, and the molecular weight.,and catalyst
involved.

a. LDPE (low density PE)

b. LLDPE (linear low density PE)
c. HDPE (high density PE)
d. Polypropylene (PP)
e. Polystyrene (PS)
f. Cellulose Acetate (Cac)
g. Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
h. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
i. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)

a) LDPE (Low density PE)

It is the largest polymer used in food packaging in both the film and blow molded form. It
has density range of 0.910 - 0.940 g/cc. LDPE has a high degree of short and long chain
branching, which means that the chains do not pack into the crystal structure as well. It
has therefore less strong intermolecular forces as the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole
attraction is less. LDPE is created by free radical polymerization

This results in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility,burst strength,impact

resistance. It is an excellent barrier to water and water vapors, but not a good barrier to

12
gases. It has excellent chemical resistance, particularly to acids, alkalis, inorganic
solutions, but is sensitive to oils and greases. These compounds are absorbed by
LDPEwhich then swells.. The high degree of branches with long chains gives molten
LDPE unique and desirable flow properties. LDPE is used for both rigid containers and
plastic film applications such as plastic bags and film wrap. its permeability to oxygen is
fairly high so where oxidation is likely to be a problem, low density polythene is not
suitable.

b) LLDPE (Linear low density PE)

It has density range of 0.915 - 0.925 g/cc. is a substantially linear polymer, with
significant numbers of short branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene
with short-chain alpha-olefins (e.g. 1-butene, 1-hexene, and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher
tensile strength than LDPE. Exhibits higher impact and puncture resistance than LDPE.
Lower thickness (gauge) films can be blown compared to LDPE, with better
environmental stress cracking resistance compared to LDPE but is not as easy to process
LLDPE is used in packaging, particularly film for bags and sheets. Lower thickness
(gauge) may be used compared to LDPE. LLDPE is used predominantly in film
applications due to its toughness, flexibility, and relative transparency.

c) HDPE (High density PE)

HDPE is defined by a density of greater or equal to 0.941 g/cc.. HDPE has a low degree
of branching and thus stronger intermolecular forces and tensile strength. HDPE can be
produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts.
The lack of branching is ensured by an appropriate choice of catalyst (e.g. Chromium
catalysts or Ziegler-Natta catalysts) and reaction conditions. HDPE is used in products
and packaging such as milk jugsmargarine tubs, garbage containers and water pipes.

It posseses a much more linear structure than LDPE & has more of crystallinity .HDPE
film is stiff and much harde than LDPE.it has better resistance to oils and greases
,excellent protection against moisture, decreased gas permeability and more opaque than
LDPE. Heat sealing properties are poor.

d) Polypropylene

Polypropylene has a melting point of 320 degrees Fahrenheit (160 degrees Celsius).
Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from polypropylene
because it can withstand the heat in an autoclave. Food containers made from it will not
melt in the dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling processes. For this
reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with aluminium foil
(both heat-resistant materials). After the product has cooled, the tubs are often given lids
of a cheaper (and less heat-resistant) material, such as LDPE or polystyrene. Such
containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference in modulus, since the
rubbery (softer, more flexible) feeling of LDPE with respect to PP of the same thickness
is readily apparent. Rugged, translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a wide

13
variety of shapes and sizes for consumers from various companies such as Rubbermaid
and Sterilite are commonly made of polypropylene, although the lids are often made of
somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap on to the container to close it. When
liquid, powdered, or similar consumer products come in disposable plastic bottles which
do not need the improved properties of polypropylene, the containers are often made of
slightly more economical polyethylene, although transparent plastics such as
polyethylene terephthalate are also used for appearance. Plastic pails, car batteries,
wastebaskets, cooler containers, dishes and pitchers are often made of polypropylene or
HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar appearance, feel, and properties at
ambient temperature.

It is similar chemically to low density polyethylene and high density polyethylene. It is

harder than either ,has less waxy feel. It can be injection moulded, blow moulded
and extruded into film and sheet. Its has excellent grease resistance and more
resistant to solvents.it is not subject to stress cracking. It has high resistance to
fatiguewhen flexed. Although rigid polymer.it is more resilient than polystyrene.

An important concept in understanding the link between the structure of polypropylene

and its properties is tacticity. The relative orientation of each methyl group (CH3 in the
figure at left) relative to the methyl groups on neighboring monomers has a strong effect
on the finished polymer's ability to form crystals, because each methyl group takes up
space and constrains backbone bending.

e) Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride (IUPAC Polychloroethene) commonly abbreviated PVC, is a widely

used thermoplastic polymer.

Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride, as

shown.

Plastic wrap, known as cling-film in the United Kingdom, is a thin polymer material,
from 0.007 to 0.013mm (0.003in) thick, typically used for sealing food items in
containers to keep them fresh. The wrap, typically sold on rolls in boxes with a cutting
edge, clings to many smooth surfaces and can thus remain tight over the opening of a
container with no adhesive or other devices.

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Commonly known brands of plastic wrap in the United States include Saran wrap, Glad
wrap, and Stretch-Tite. In Australia and New Zealand, Glad wrap is the leading brand,
known well enough to make its manufacturer concerned about its trademark becoming
genericized. [1] In Canada, Saran wrap is the genericized trademark. In Hong Kong, a
company named Fine Vantage Limited is the major private label LDPE plastic wrap
manufacturer.

PVC has good gas barrier properties and is moderate barrier to moisture vapour.
Chemically, it is resistant to weak or strong acids and alkalis. It is splouble in esters and
ketones and is attacked by aromatic hydrocarbons. It is excellent oil and grease resistant.

Characteristics

An ideal plastic wrap should meet the following user expectations. Some testing labs,
such as SGS, can offer plastic wrap testing to certify it is suitable for food contact and has
the right tensile strength.

• Easy to pull out of the box and easily separated by the cutter.
• Cling well with glass, ceramics and stainless steel, but will not cling heavily to
itself.
• Close to total transparency with no haze, film wrinkles, tension marks, un-even
thickness, or gel.
• High tensile strength and puncture resistant so that the film will not easily break
apart. This is difficult to achieve, as plastic wrap is only 7 to 15 microns thick.
• Packaged in a food-grade recyclable plastic or paper box printed with soy ink.
Historically, about 30% of imported food-related products are fined by the
customs officer because of a failure to meet packaging requirements.

Materials used

Plastic wrap was first made from PVC, which remains the most common material, but
non-PVC alternatives are now being sold because of concerns about the risk in transfer of
plasticizers from PVC into food. It is also problematic to achieve full polymerization of
the material, which could contain remains of vinyl chloride. For food catering
applications, PVC is the most common. For household use, LDPE is gaining market share
because it is purportedly safer.

More and more countries over the world are concerned about the environmental impact
of PVC, as the material is told to be toxic and harder to recycle. Nevertheless, PVC is still
used because its stretching properties offer excellent food catering presentation on the
shelf, and it clings well to more kinds of surfaces. Even so, some countries are starting to
ban the use of PVC in toys for infants and food contact applications.

15
f) Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC).

The most popularly known use of polyvinylidene chloride came in 1953, when Saran
Wrap, a plastic food wrap was introduced.The original Saran Wrap is made of
polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC).

PVdC is a copolymer of vinylidene chloride with vinyl chloride ued either for film or as
coating. The PVC-based films contain plasticizers, most often bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate
(DEHA), but phthalates (most often dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate (DEHP), in spite of being prohibited in most countries, also cause concern. The
plasticizers were found to migrate to some foods, for example cheeses or fatty fish and
meat

A common alternative to PVC is low density polyethylene (LDPE), which is less clingy
than PVC, but also does not contain traces of potentially toxic additives. Newer
production processes are closing the clingy gap between PVC and LDPE. Linear low
density polyethylene (LLDPE) is sometimes added to the material, as it increases the
clinginess and the tensile strength of the film. [3] Brands like Glad Cling Wrap or Handi-
Wrap are LDPE-based. Saran Premium Wrap, a newer version of Saran Wrap, is based
on LDPE as well.

PVdC has better barrier properties than the more-permeable LDPE, making the foods
wrapped in it less subject to freezer burn. it has lower permeability to watervapour and
and gases. It can be heat sealed.However, LDPE is substantially cheaper and easier to
make.

Natural polymers of LDPE and PVdC are insufficiently clingy on their own, and they do
not adhere to themselves. To achieve the desired clinginess, certain polymers with lower
molecular weight have to be added; the most common two are polyisobutene (PIB), and
poly[ethylene-vinylacetate] (EVA) copolymer. Their chains readily interact with each
other and their lower molecular weight makes them more mobile within the host polymer
matrix.

g) Polystyrene

Polystyrene is a polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is
commercially manufactured from petroleum by the chemical industry. At room
temperature, polystyrene is normally a solid thermoplastic, but can be melted at higher
temperature for molding or extrusion, then resolidified. Styrene is an aromatic monomer,
and polystyrene is an aromatic polymer.

Polystyrene was accidentally discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon[4], an apothecary in

Berlin, Germany..

Pure solid polystyrene is a colorless, hard plastic with limited flexibility. It can be cast
into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene can be transparent or can be made to take on

16
various colors. It has fairly high tensile strength. It softens at about 90-95° C. and is
intrinsically brittle.it is resistant to strong acids and alkalis and is insolouble in aliphatic
hydrocarbons and lower alcohols, but is solouble in esters ,aromatic hydrocarbons, higher
alcohols ,ketones and chlorinated hydrocarbons, its has poor moisture barrier. It is high in
brittleness and to overcome this synthetic rubber can be incorporated

h) Cellulose Acetate (Cac)

Cellulose acetate is an amorphous thermoplastic material belonging to the cellulosic resin

family. It is obtained by introducing the acetyl radical of acetic acid into cellulose (as
cotton or wood fibres) to produce a tough plastic material. Furthermore, it has high
melting-point, good toughness, Deep gloss ,clarity, High transparency and good
resistance to ultraviolet light, chemicals, oils, and greases. It is sensitive to moisture and
is dimensionally not stable. It has high rate of water vapor and gas transmission.
Therefore used in packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables. it is soluble in ketones, esters
and alcohols. It is not heat seal able , commercially it is sealed with solvent adhesives.

i) Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)

Unlike most vinyl polymers, PVOH is not prepared by polymerization of the

corresponding monomer. The monomer, vinyl alcohol, almost exclusively exists as the
tautomeric form, acetaldehyde. PVA instead is prepared by partial or complete hydrolysis
of polyvinyl acetate to remove acetate groups. Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film
forming, emulsifying, and adhesive properties. It is also resistant to oil, grease and
solvent. PVOH is an atactic material but exhibits crystallinity as the hydroxyl groups are
small enough to fit into the lattice without disrupting it. It has high tensile strength,
flexibility, as well as high oxygen and aroma barrier. However these properties are
dependent on humidity, in other words, with higher humidity more water is absorbed.
The water which acts as a plasticiser will then reduce its tensile strength, but increase its
elongation and tear strength. PVA has a melting point of 230°C and 180-190°C for the
fully hydrolysed and partially hydrolysed grades. PVA also decomposes rapidly above
200°C.Used as a water-soluble film useful for packaging.

2) Polyesters

Polyester is a category of polymers, or, more specifically condensation polymers, which

contain the ester functional group in their main chain.

Polyethylene terephthalate (aka PET, PETE or the obsolete PETP or PET-P) is a

thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family that produced by the chemical
industry and is used in synthetic fibers; beverage, food and other liquid containers;
thermoforming applications; and engineering resins often in combination with glass fiber.
It is one of the most important raw materials used in man-made fibers.

17
Depending on its processing and thermal history, it may exist both as an amorphous
(transparent) and as a semi-crystalline (opaque and white) material. Its monomer can be
synthesized by the esterification reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
with water as a byproduct or the transesterification reaction between ethylene glycol and
dimethyl terephthalate with methanol as a byproduct. Polymerization is through a
polycondensation reaction of the monomers (done immediately after
esterification/transesterification) with ethylene glycol as the byproduct (the ethylene
glycol is recycled in production).

The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%) with
bottle production accounting for around 30% of global demand. In discussing textile
applications, PET is generally referred to as simply "polyester" while "PET" is used most
often to refer to packaging applications.

It is manufactured under trade names Arnite, Impet and Rynite, Ertalyte, Hostaphan,
Melinex and Mylar films, and Dacron, Terylene & Trevira fibers. [1]

Chemical structure of polyethylene terephthalate

Light absortion spectrum of polyethylene terephthalate measured using a light

spectrophotometer (Cary

PET can be semi-rigid to rigid, depending on its thickness, and is very lightweight. It
makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol (requires
additional "Barrier" treatment) and solvents. It is strong and impact-resistant. It is
naturally colorless and transparent.

When produced as a thin film (often known by the tradename Mylar), PET is often coated
with aluminium to reduce its permeability, and to make it reflective and opaque. PET
bottles are excellent barrier materials and are widely used for soft drinks, (see
carbonation). PET or Dacron is also used as a thermal insulation layer on the outside of
the International Space Station as seen in an episode of Modern Marvels "Sub Zero". For
certain specialty bottles, PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol to further
reduce its oxygen permeability.

18
When filled with glass particles or fibers, it becomes significantly stiffer and more
durable. This glass-filled plastic, in a semi-crystalline formulation, is sold under the
tradename Rynite

While all thermoplastics are technically recyclable, PET bottle recycling is more practical
than many other plastic applications. The primary reason is that plastic carbonated soft
drink bottles and water bottles are almost exclusively PET which makes them more easily
identifiable in a recycle stream. PET has a resin identification code of 1. PET, as with
many plastics, is also an excellent candidate for thermal recycling (incineration) as it is
composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with only trace amounts of catalyst elements
(no sulfur) and has the energy content of soft coal.

PET was patented in 1941 by the Calico Printers' Association of Manchester. The PET
bottle was patented in 1973.

food containers (PP, PET, PVC) plastic food tray(Material: PP, PET,
PS,PVC with many colors)

coextruded plastic films(printed)

19
 Reverse Printed PET Film / Multilayer Polythene Film: It is used for packing
Food & Non-food items.

Laminated HDPE/PP Woven Bags

These are used for attractive bulk packs used for packing bulk food, atta. These packing
materials are durable and hence provide the needed protection of the products avoiding
spillage, spoilage, infestation, etc.

20
 plastic packaging pouches and film
used for food (for coffee or coffee beans, milk powder, spices, sauces, meat, frozen food,
pets food, seafood, juice, noshes, etc. nearly including all kinds of foods).
The styles are mainly stand up, zipped, heat-sealed, heat-cut, cold-cut, blowing, seal-in-
the-middle, three-side-sealed, with handle or hanger hole.

21
1) Material: lamination from high quality BOPP, PET,PA, CPP, AL, PE
2) Suitable for dozens of food packaging, pet food, beverage, agriculture, daily
chemical products and tea packaging
3) Good printing quality, low temperature heat sealing property, high transparency,
excellent moisture, oxygen and gas barrier

3) Films and foils

a) Cellophane

Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of processed cellulose. It first appeared

commercially in the United States in 1924, and it revolutionized the packaging industry,
which had been using opaque waxed paper or glassine as wrapping materials. Cellophane
was invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger, a Swiss textiles engineer in 1908..
Cellophane's low permeability to air, grease and bacteria makes it useful for food
packaging.

Cellophane is manufactured in a process that is very similar to that for rayon. Special
wood pulp, known as dissolving pulp, which is white like cotton and contains 92–98%
cellulose, is treated with strong alkali in a process known as mercerization. The
mercerized pulp is aged for several days.

The aged, shredded pulp is then treated with carbon disulfide, which reacts with the
cellulose and dissolves it to form a viscous, orange solution of cellulose xanthate known
as viscose. Rayon fibers are formed by forcing the viscose through a small hole into an
acid bath that regenerates the original cellulose while carbon disulfide is given off. To
make cellophane, the viscose passes through a long slot into a bath of ammonium sulfate
which causes it to coagulate. The coagulated viscose is then put into an acidic bath that
returns the cellulose to its original, insoluble form. The cellophane is now clear.

22
The cellophane is then treated in a glycerol bath and dried. The glycerol acts like a
plasticizer, making the dry cellophane less brittle. The cellophane may be coated with
nitrocellulose or wax to make it impermeable to water vapor; it is coated with
polyethylene or other materials to make it heat sealable for automated wrapping
machines. Cellophane is typically 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) thick, is available in widths to 132
cm (52 in.), and can be made to be heat sealable from 82 to 177°C (180 to 350°F).

Whitman's candy company initiated use of cellophane for candy wrapping in the United
States in 1912 for their Whitman's Sampler. They remained the largest user of imported
cellophane from France until nearly 1924, when DuPont built the first cellophane
manufacturing plant in the US. In 1935 British Cellophane Ltd was established, a joint
venture between La Cellophane SA and Courtaulds, which opened a major factory
producing cellophane in Columbus, OH in 1937. Cellophane is also used in gift baskets
and flower bouquets.

Cellulose film has since been manufactured continuously since the mid-1930s and is still
used today. As well as packaging a variety of food items, there are also industrial
applications, such as a base for self-adhesive tapes like Sellotape and Scotch Tape, a
semi-permeable membrane in certain types of battery, and as a release agent in the
manufacture of fibreglass and rubber products. Typically, however, the use of the word
"cellophane" has been genericized, and is often used informally to refer to a wide variety
of plastic film products, even those not made of cellulose.

Cellophane sales are now dwindling heavily, through use of alternative packaging
options, and the fact that Viscose is becoming less common because of the polluting
effects of carbon disulfide and other by-products of the process.

Cellophane is widely used in food packaging due :

1) It has good tensile and impact strength.

2) It has high moisture barrier properties.
3) It is extremely flexible and easily heat-sealed.
4) Colorants and humectants can be added.
5) It has excellent clarity and sparkle,it is easily machinedand makes a strong
package.

Limitations

It shrinks and gets brittle under dry conditions in winter

b) Flexible films

In general, flexible films have the following properties:

* their cost is relatively low
* they have good barrier properties against moisture and gases
* they are heat sealable to prevent leakage of contents

23
* they have wet and dry strength
* they are easy to handle and convenient for the manufacturer, retailer and consumer
* they add little weight to the product
* they fit closely to the shape of the food, thereby wasting little space during storage and
distribution.

1) Stretch film

The film will be aided by material improvements in terms of strength and stretchability.
Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) will present the best resin opportunities
based on the materials high stretchability, puncture resistance and cost advantages.
Metallocene LLDPE films are increasingly being used due to their better
downgauging capabilities and enhanced stretch characteristics. Polyvinyl chloride
stretch film is widely used in food wrap applications and areas where greater clarity
is required; however, further growth will be constrained by its higher cost and
lesser stress retention.another important property is their cling.elevated humidity
enhances the film cling.they can be used in cold store.

2) shrink film

yhe first shrink film was developed from Saran.and was used in frozen poultry.Stretch
Demand for shrink film is expected to increase more than five percent yearly to
$1.9 billion in 2009. Advances will reflect heightened manufacturing and retail
activity and the growth of multipacks in wholesale club stores, supermarkets and
other mass retailers. Shrink film is also used in tandem with corrugated trays as a
case overwrap, which provides increased product visibility as well as cost savings
over corrugated boxes. Further shrink film advances will be constrained by the
advantages offered by less energy and equipment intensive stretch films. films

Shrink Films

These films are used for packing packing vegetables and fruits, food , beverage and
FMCG, etc. These films are perfect for the protection of beverages during frequent
handling and transport. LDPE Shrink Film Rolls can come either in sheets or U-
films, printed or non-printed in thickness ranging from 40 micron to 150 micron.

24
 Transparent cellophane Colorful deep processed cellophane

Features:
1) Substance range of 21gsm-80gsm
2) Made from cotton pulp
3) Widely used for wrapping food, medicament, cigarettes, battery, etc.
4) Unique performances of no toxin, odorless, no static electricity and no
contaminant
5) Good stiffness, transparent and printability using common ink
6) Can be disinfected as food wrapping materials at the temperature of 190℃
without deformation
7) Very good air permeability between the molecule groups of cellophane that
is favorable for keeping goods fresh
8) As cellophane is made of natural raw material, it can be easily degraded
in the environment and is popularly used in the world

4) Glass containers

Made from base materials (limestone, soda, sand and silica), which were in plentiful
supply, all ingredients were simply melted together and molded while hot. Since
that early discovery, the mixing process and the ingredients have changed very
little, but the molding techniques have progressed dramatically.

25
. Different food products in glass bottles

Glass is a uniform material of arguable phase, usually produced when the viscous molten
material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature, without sufficient
time for a regular crystal lattice to form. The most familiar form of glass is the silica-
based material used for household objects such as light bulbs and windows. Glass is a
biologically inactive material that can be formed into smooth and impervious surfaces.
When in tension, glass is brittle and will break into sharp shards. When in compression,
pure glass can withstand a great amount of force. The properties of glass can be modified
or changed with the addition of other compounds or heat treatment. Common glass
contains about 70–72 % by weight of silicon dioxide (SiO2). The major raw material is
sand (or "quartz sand") that contains almost 100 % of crystalline silica in the form of
quartz. Although it is almost pure quartz, it may still contain a small amount (less than
1 %) of iron oxides that would color the glass, so this sand is usually depleted before
production to reduce the iron oxide amount to less than 0.05 %. Large natural single
crystals of quartz are pure silicon dioxide, and upon crushing are used for high quality
specialty glasses. Synthetic amorphous silica, an almost 100 % pure form of quartz, is the
raw material for the most expensive specialty glasses. The most common method for
glass production is using molten tin, which is both flat and relatively light for a metal. As
a result, the molten glass floats on top of the tin, thus giving it the name "float glass".

Glass containers have the following advantages:

* they are impervious to moisture, gases, odours and micro-organisms

* they are inert and do not react with or migrate into food products
* they are suitable for heat processing when hermetically sealed
* they are re-useable and recyclable
* they are resealable
* they are transparent to display the contents
* they are rigid, to allow stacking without container damage.

26
The disadvantages of glass include:

* higher weight which incurs higher transport costs than other types of packaging
* lower resistance than other materials to fractures, scratches and thermal shock
* more variable dimensions than metal or plastic containers
* potentially serious hazards from glass splinters or fragments in foods.

5) Metals

A tin can, also called a tin (especially in British English) or a can, is an air-tight
container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal, and requiring
cutting or tearing of the metal as the means of opening. Cans hold diverse contents, but
the overwhelming majority preserve food by canning.

Most cans have dentical and parallel round tops and bottoms with vertical sides.
However, where the small volume to be contained and/or the shape of the contents
suggests it, the top and bottom may be rounded-corner rectangles or ovals.

The fabrication of most cans results in at least one "rim", a narrow ring whose outside
diameter is slightly larger than that of the rest of the can. The flat surfaces of rimmed
cans are recessed from the edge of any rim (toward the middle of the can) by about the
width of the rim; the inside diameter of a rim, adjacent to this recessed surface, is slightly
smaller than the inside diameter of the rest of the can.

Three-piece can construction results in top and bottom "rim"; in two-piece construction,
one piece is a flat top and the other a cup-shaped piece that combines the (at least
roughly) cylindrical wall and the round base; the transition between the wall and base is
usually somewhat gradual. Such cans have a single rim at the top.

Materials

No cans presently in wide use are composed primarily or wholly of tin; that term rather
reflects the near-exclusive use in cans, until the last half of the 20th century, of tinplate
steel, which combined the physical strength and relatively low price of steel with the
resistance to corrosion of tin.

Use of aluminium in cans began in the 1960s. Aluminum is less costly than tin-plated
steel but offers the same resistance to corrosion in addition to greater malleability,
resulting in ease of manufacture; this gave rise to the two-piece can, where all but the top
of the can is simply stamped out of a single piece of aluminum, rather than laboriously
constructed from two pieces of steel. Often the top is tin-plated steel and the rest of the
can aluminum.

A can usually has a printed paper or plastic label glued to the outside of the curved
surface, indicating its contents. Less commonly, a label is painted directly onto the metal.

27
Different metal containers

28
Metal cans have a number of advantages over other types of container, including the
following:

• they provide total protection of the contents

• they are convenient for ambient storage and presentation
• they are tamperproof.
However, the high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans expensive.
They are
heavier than other materials, except glass, and therefore have higher transport costs.

The war between glass and plastics

The war between glassworks and plastic producers fighting for increasing sales of
packaging materials goes on for years. PP and PET is gaining ground because of lighter
weight compared with glass and being unbreakable. These however are of minor
importance when advantages of glass packagings are cited:

1. Glass is inert. There is no migration of components of the plastics to the food.

There is no danger of intake of plastic components and other chemicals and there
are no alterations of taste caused by these substances.
2. Glass is a perfect barrier to atmospheric oxygen, avoiding rancidness, changes of
colour such as brown colour of Ketchup.

Plastics can also bear poisons from herbicides, insecticides and other pesticides when the
bottle was wrongly used for these substances.
Reusing bottles which had been used as described before endangers the health of the
consumer because of migration of the polycyclic aromatic components.
To detect and discard these bottles a complicated system called "sniffer" is being used
detecting volatile compounds of pesticides which might be present in some bottles
This system covers only a special group of substances. It does not give an ultimative
solution to avoid reusing contaminated packagings.

PET bottles are being used increasingly for soft drinks such as cola and soft drinks,
because off flavour caused by migration of plastic chemicals to food is not noticed by the
consumer because of the dominance of the product flavoring.
Mineral water with carbon dioxide however shows off flavour immediately. That is why
glass bottles are still used for this kind of beverage.
Unfortunately the glass bottle is being changed to PET by Gerolsteiner mineral water
producer in Germany .
.
The argument of lower weight compared with Glass bottles is insignificant because of the
difficult recycling.
Industry wants to force the one way bottles to get rid of recall of packagings.

29
6)Aluminium foil

Aluminium foil (Aluminum foil in North American English) is aluminium prepared in

thin sheets (on the order of 0.02 mm in thickness). As a result of this, the foil is extremely
pliable, and can be bent or wrapped around objects with ease. Aluminium foil is
sometimes known as al-foil or alu-foil. It is also often called tinfoil, although it is not
made from tin, or as silver paper although it is not made from silver.

Aluminium foil typically has a highly reflective side and a more matte side. This is a
result of common manufacturing processes. As aluminium foil is easy to tear, the foil is
sent through machines in pairs. The side where the aluminium foil was in contact with the
other sheet is more matte than the exterior side. This unconformity of finish has led to the
perception that favoring a side has an effect when cooking. While many believe that the
shiny side's reflective properties keep heat in when wrapped on the interior and keep heat
out when facing exterior, the actual difference is imperceptible without instrumentation.

Aluminium foil is used to make long life packs for drinks, dairy products, and many other
sensitive foods. The foil acts as a complete barrier to light (which spoils fats), odours,
loss or gain of moisture, and bacteria. Aluminium foil containers and trays are used to
bake pies and to pack takeaway meals, ready snacks and long life pet foods.

household aluminium foil Bright colurs available

30
Types of plastic packaging

The type of Packaging can interfere in the growth of bacteria.

a)Gas permeable packaging

:
Aerobic bacteria can grow. Fresh meat packed in cellulose film so as used in tray
packaging is threatened by Pseudomonads like Pseudomonas fluorescens and
Pseudomonas fragi as dominant bacteria producing smell and slime.

b)Gas barrier, closed packaging

:
The atmosphere in the packaging can be modified according to the food which is being
packed.
Enzymes, temperature and competitive growth can produce gas like CO2.
For some food gas packaging with modified atmosphere are used.

c) Vacuum packaging

:
Vacuum inhibits the growth of aerobic microbes such as Pseudomonas,Bacillus, moulds.
In these packagings the growth of lactobacillus is dominant. Enterobacteriaceae can grow
under anaerobic conditions.

d) Modified Atmosphere Packaging MAP

:
Nitrogen, CO2and in some cases O2 are used.
Nitrogen has no activity against bacteria. It increases shelf life substuting oxygen.
CO2 acts bacteriostatic on gram negative aerobic bacteria and bactericide because of its
undissociated part of H2CO3 which enables CO2 to trespass the cell membrane and act
bactericide on the cells of the bacteria.
Lactobacillus is not affected by CO2.
CO2 can reduce growth of Listeria on meat.

31
Polymer used as Filling product
PVdC,EVOH,Acrylnitril Oxygen barrier
PET/PVdc-PVC/PE multilayer foil red meat
HDPE, PVdC,PP water vapor barrier
PA/PE-PVC/PE multilayer foil treated meat
HDPE,PP stability,suitable
for microwave oven
PET/PVdC/PE multilayer foil poultry
Nylon high temperatures
resistant
PET/PE/PVdC-PVC/PE multilayer foil fresh fish
CPET mechanical resistance,
high temperatures
resistant, oxygen barrier
PET/PVdC/PE multilayer foil Pizza
APET mechanical resistance,
oxygen barrier
PET/PE/PCdC multilayer foil Cheese
Polyester high temperatures
resistant, flexibility
and resistant to perforation
Metallized PET/PE-metallized PA/PE multilayer foil dried products,coffee
PVC/PET mechanical stability,
some types
Micropore foil-LDPE/OPP/PVCPA/PE multilayer foil fresh vegetables
LDPE, HDPE, EVA sealing layer
EVA highly permeable to

Abbreviation material
ABS Acrylbitril-Butadien-Styrol Copolymer
APET amorphous polyester
CPET crystalline polyethylenterephthalat
ECTFE Ethylen-Chlortriefluorethylen Copolymer
ETFE Ethylen-Tetrafluorethylen-copolymer

32
EVA ethylen-vinylacetat
EVOH ethylenvinylalcohol
FEP Tetrafluorethylen-Hexafluorpropylen
HDPE highdensity polyethylen
LDPE lowdensity polyethylen
OPP streched polypropylen
PA Polyamid (Nylon)
PC Polycarbonat
PET Polyethylenterephthalat
PE Polyethylen
l PFA Perfluor-Alkoxylalkan
PMMA Polymethyl-Methacrylat
PMP Polymethylpentene
PS Polystyrol
POM Polyoxymethylen
PP Polypropylen
PPO modified polyphenylenoxid
PTFE Poly-Tetrafluor-Ethylen
PVC Polyvinylchlorid
PVdC polyvinilidencloride
SAN Styrol-Acrylnitril-Copolymer

Multilayer foils may have PE, PVdC and PET as typical components.

Product Modified atmosphere Remarks

Red meat 80% O2 + 20% CO2 CO 2reduces growth of Pseudomonas
aerobic bacteria which often
spoils red meat.High concentration
of oxygen is needed to keep red colour.

Porc 60% O2 + 40% CO2 CO2 reduces growth of aerobic bacteria

less O2 is needed because of reduced
red
colour of porc compared with beef

33
Poultry 50 - 80%CO2 + 20 - 50% N2 A high headspace with gas is important

Sausages 20% CO2 + 80% N2

Sliced heated meat 20% CO2 + 80% N2

Fish, high-fat 60 - 70% CO2 + 30 - 40% N2 No oxygen should be used

to reduce rancidity

Fish, low-fat 30 - 40% O2 + 30 - 70% CO2 Oxygen is used to keep red

+ 0 - 40% N2 colour of low-fat fish and seafood
It also reduces growth of anaerobic
bacteria such as Clostridium
and its toxins
in case of long shelf life

Sliced fish,cooked 20% CO2 + 80% N2

Hard Cheese 80 - 100% CO2 + 0 - 20% N2
Sliced hard cheese 80 - 90% CO2 + 10 - 20% N2
Soft cheese 20 - 40% CO2 + 60 - 80% N2

Gateau 50 - 70% CO2 + 30 - 50% N2 Storage at +4 - +7°C

Cake and bread 20 - 40% CO2 + 60 - 80% N2

Pizza 30 - 60% CO2 + 40 - 70% N2

Some special remarks concerning CA packaging (Controlled Atmosphere packaging

Spoilage of food can be caused by:

1. The nature of bacteria and their amount.

Bacteria can be aerobic, growing in presence of oxygen such as Pseudomonas,
Acinetobacter and moraxella.Or they are anaerobic, growing in absence of oxygen
such as Clostridium producing toxins and Lactobacillus producing lactic acid.
2. Water activity aw
3. pH

34
 4. Cell breathing
5. Composition of the food
6. Storage temperature.
Low temperatures reduces bacteria growth.
Some bacteria grow even under low temperatures, the psycrophilic like
Pseudomonas
7. Hygiene during production
Bacteria can be present in the raw material,additives and environment, such as our
skin,used utensils and air.
8. Gasatmosphere
oxygen can cause rancidity, oxidizes vitamins, Nitrogen can replace oxygen.
Oxygen is sometimes necessary to keep the red colour of fresh meat.
The choice of the gas to be used during filling is therefore very important and
varies from one food to another.
9. Good Manufacturing Practice

CO2 reacts with water forming carbonic acid which increases acidity of the product
reducing bacteria growth.Nitrogen can replace CO2
In Products such as cottage cheeseand dairy cream CA packaging with nitrogen instead
of oxygen is being used. Hard cheese is packed under up to 100% CO2 to reduce bacterial
activity and stabilizes consistency of the product. Soft cheese is packed under 20 - 40%
CO2 because otherwise the packaging would shrink because the gas gets in solution with
the product.In this case 30% of of CO2 should not be exceeded.

Metal cans have a number of advantages over other types of container, including the
following:

* they provide total protection of the contents

* they are convenient for ambient storage and presentation
* they are tamperproof.

However, the high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans expensive.
They are heavier than other materials, except glass, and therefore have higher transport
costs.

35
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