Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Communicating marine climate change impacts in the Caribbean and Pacific T

regions
Bryony L Townhilla,∗, Jeremy Hillsb, Peter A Murrayc, Keith Nicholsd, Paddy Pringlee,
Paul Buckleya
a
Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk, UK
b
Institute of Marine Resources, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
c
Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) Secretariat, Princess Margaret Drive, P.O. Box 642, Belize City, Belize
d
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre, 2nd Floor, Lawrence Nicholas Building, Ring Road, P.O. Box 563, Belmopan, Belize
e
Climate Analytics, Ritterstraße 3, 10969, Berlin, Germany

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The scientific literature on marine and coastal climate change has proliferated in recent decades. Translating and
Report card communicating this evidence in a timely, and accessible manner, is critical to support adaptation, but little is
Hurricane being done to summarise the latest science for decision makers. For Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which
Cyclone are highly vulnerable to marine and coastal climate change impacts, there is an urgent need to make the latest
Coastal
science readily available to inform national policy, leverage climate funding and highlight their vulnerability for
Climate-ocean nexus
Science impact
international reports and climate negotiations. Climate change report cards are a proven successful way of
Knowledge broker presenting climate change information in an easily accessible and informative manner. Here we compare the
Policy development of marine climate change report cards for Caribbean and Pacific Commonwealth SIDS as a means of
translating the latest science for decision makers. Regional engagement, priority issues and lessons learnt in
these regions are compared, and future opportunities identified.

1. Introduction (MCCIP), and adopted worldwide, they provide an effective means of

It is widely acknowledged that a greater supply of scientific
knowledge does not automatically lead to increased certainty or more
informed decision-making in the face of climate change (Kropp and
Wagner, 2010; Tang and Dessai, 2012). In response, concepts such as
user-relevant science (Tang and Dessai, 2012; Dilling and Lemos,
2011), co-production of knowledge (Meadow et al., 2015) and knowl-
edge brokerage (Cummings et al., 2018) have been developed as es-
sential tools for mobilising information in ways that can facilitate ac-
tion. By engaging both the users and brokers of climate change
information in the process of synthesising and articulating knowledge,
it is likely that products will be more relevant, timely and accessible
and better reflect the practical realities of decision-making (Cvitanovic
et al., 2017).
Climate change report cards have been developed by decision
making organisations (and/or government agencies that support deci-
sion making) to synthesise the latest evidence in a readily accessible
format, at a regional, national or sub-national level (Fung et al., 2015).
Pioneered by the UK Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership
providing quick and easy access to credible scientific evidence, in order
to support evidence-based decision making. Many non-academic in-
stitutions, particularly outside the developed world, may not have free
access to published science, and so rely on secondary sources to receive
their climate change information. This information, especially in the
media, may be deliberately biased, or at least unrepresentative of the
scientific consensus. Commonwealth SIDS make use of marine scientific
data to promote sustainable economic growth and alleviate poverty
(McManus et al., 2019), and so readily available and accurate data is
vital. Freely available report cards covering Caribbean and Pacific SIDS,
based on detailed, peer reviewed papers that act as neutral ‘clearing
houses’ for the current state of the science, and promote adaptation
action, have valuable roles to play.
1.1. Objectives of the paper
Report cards are a proven means of making scientific evidence
readily accessible, providing a community view on marine and coastal
climate change impacts that draw together scientists, knowledge

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bryony.townhill@cefas.co.uk (B.L. Townhill).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110709
Received 3 April 2019; Received in revised form 4 October 2019; Accepted 31 October 2019
Available online 18 November 2019
0025-326X/ Crown Copyright © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.L. Townhill, et al.
brokers and end user communities (Fung et al., 2015; Frost et al.,
2017). Following the publication of Caribbean and Pacific Marine Cli-
mate Change Report Cards (CMEP, 2017a; 2018a), this paper discusses
priority issues, lessons learnt, and future needs for marine climate
change knowledge brokering in these regions. This paper examines the
initial impact that the Pacific and Caribbean report cards have had, and
their wider utility in supporting adaptation, and promoting the urgent
need to mitigate climate change on the global stage.
2. Climate change in Caribbean and Pacific SIDS
A large number of the countries and territories currently classified
as SIDS are located in the Caribbean and Pacific. SIDS are a “distinct
group of developing countries that have specific social, economic and
environmental vulnerabilities” (UN-OHRLLS, 2009). For SIDS, the In-
tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recognises sea level
rise, tropical cyclones, increasing air and sea surface temperatures, and
changing rainfall patterns as key climate-related drivers of risk (Nurse
et al., 2014). There is a degree of confidence in these risks; based on a
robust evidence base, and high agreement amongst the scientific com-
munity. Marine and coastal environments, as well as social, cultural and
economic activities in both regions are highly vulnerable to climate
change (Lincoln, 2017; Howes et al., 2018). In the Caribbean, the po-
tential consequences of more extreme events are considered a major
risk, whereas the loss of land due to sea level rise for low lying Pacific
islands is regarded as a greater threat. Impacts on habitats, such as
corals, mangroves and seagrasses are expected to be widespread
throughout both regions. Likewise, marine species are being affected,
including commercial reef and offshore fisheries with a greater em-
phasis on the latter, particularly tuna, in the Pacific (CMEP, 2017a,
2018a). Both regions have presented a united front on the urgent need
for climate action, most notably at the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiating table, citing the
special circumstances that the SIDS regions face in the fight against
climate change (Ourbak and Magnan, 2018). Marine climate change
report cards are helping to highlight the risks from marine climate
change and the urgent need for action to reduce impacts and build
resilience in these regions.
3. Development of Pacific and Caribbean Marine Climate Change
Report Cards
3.1. Building on existing data and information
Both the Caribbean and Pacific regions have long established data
and information repositories on climate change. The Pacific Climate
Change Portal (https://www.pacificclimatechange.net/) provides “The
one stop location for accessing climate resources, news, events and
more in the Pacific Islands region” and contains a vast repository of
project information, reports, tools, media outputs and a virtual library
including a search function. The Caribbean Community Climate Change
Centre (CCCCC) (https://www.caribbeanclimate.bz/) provides similar
information for the Caribbean region. Both provide a valuable, detailed
resource centre to inform and support climate change adaptation in the
region, and demonstrate the vast range of projects, reports and tools
Table 1
The organisations which formed the working groups for each report card.
Caribbean Working Group
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC)
Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM)
University of the West Indies (UWI)
Coastal Zone Management Authority and Institute (CZMAI)
National Climate Change Office in Belize
Marine Climate Change Centre (Cefas)
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709
that have been developed in these regions. The CCCCC has developed
the Caribbean Climate On-Line Risk and Adaptation Tool (CCORAL)
which is designed as a user-friendly instrument to aid in the identifi-
cation of climate risks and solutions. CCORAL is seen as another sig-
nature achievement in the drive to build resilience to the impacts of
Climate Change and an essential instrument to inculcate a risk-man-
agement ethos in national and regional decision-making.
There is a need to complement these resources by synthesising the
growing scientific evidence base for marine climate change in a highly
accessible format. While portals and online libraries provide a valuable
resource, they do not automatically overcome the challenges of access
and usability, and in fact can overwhelm the user. In the case of the
marine climate change report cards, value is added by considering the
type and levels of information different stakeholders require and syn-
thesising and analysing a wider body of knowledge to distil the most
applicable information.
3.2. Engagement and ownership
For Caribbean and Pacific SIDS, offers of overseas funding to sup-
port social and economic development are commonplace.
Understandably, there can be a degree of scepticism as to what the
receiving body gets out of this, and how in practice this builds capacity
and leads to a legacy in region. The ethos for the production of the
Caribbean and Pacific report cards has been based on the UK playing a
facilitation role, introducing the principles developed through MCCIP,
whilst ensuring that the process, and most importantly outputs, are
owned by regional working groups, and a wider pool of ‘local’ con-
tributing scientists. Whilst overseas aid money, under the
Commonwealth Marine Economies (CME) Programme (https://www.
gov.uk/guidance/commonwealth-marine-economies-programme),
helped support the delivery of the cards, their production relied heavily
on buy-in from regional organisations, and the contributions of scien-
tific experts from within each region.
In both regions, a working group was established of regional orga-
nisations and universities, in order to set the priority topics for the
report cards (Table 1). The working groups then commissioned authors
and reviewers from within each region to complete the topic papers
(CMEP, 2017b; 2018b), which formed the evidence base for the sum-
mary report cards. In addition to reviewing the current state of the
science, some authors undertook further analysis, including new figures
which present existing research or monitoring data in a more under-
standable way for the lay reader. For example, in the Pacific sea tem-
perature paper (Sutton, 2018), figures on recent temperature trends
were plotted showing how the area of sea above certain temperatures
has changed as the Pacific warm pool has expanded (Fig. 1).
Each region wanted to ensure that the respective report card came
across as a regional product, which resonated with local readers. As
such a desire for the Caribbean report card was for the text to have a
‘regional voice’, and a local writer was commissioned to translate the
report card text into a style that would resonate with a local audience
(CMEP, 2017a). This had the effect of making the prose sound more
inclusive (i.e. this is “our” fight, and that “we” need to act, rather than
being told by an overseas organisation what the region should be
doing), as well as sounding more definitive about what could, and
Pacific Working Group
Secretariat for the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
Secretariat for the Pacific Community (SPC)
University of the South Pacific (USP)
UN Environment Programme
Climate Analytics
Marine Climate Change Centre (Cefas)
B.L. Townhill, et al.
Fig. 1. An example figure from the topic papers where scientific data has been
reinterpreted to make it more publicly accessible. Figure shows the areas
bounded by the 29 °C, 19.5 °C and 30 °C contours of the Pacific warm pool since
1981 (at daily resolution and annually-smoothed). Taken from Pacific Marine
Climate Change Report Card Sea Surface Temperature paper: Sutton (2018).
should, be done about climate change. For the Pacific card (CMEP,
2018a), there was more of an emphasis on the card's appearance, so
that it looked like a ‘Pacific document’. The design of the report cards
had to be in keeping with the CME Programme style, but within these
constraints they were adapted for their audiences. Fig. 2 shows the front
covers of each card, with the Pacific island motifs visible in the central
ribbon.
In both regions, the working groups wanted to promote adaptation
action, rather than simply report on the impacts. In the Caribbean, this
was done by mentioning up front some important projects which are
being undertaken, and by including adaptation and strategic planning
as key recommendations. In the Pacific, the emphasis was placed on
building resilience through reducing other human stressors on ecosys-
tems, such as pollution, and this is mentioned throughout the card, and
in the recommendations at the end. The feeling of the Pacific working
group was that there were too many adaptation projects already un-
derway to mention them all in the card. Across the Pacific region
around 59% of climate finance is for adaptation activities reflecting the
predisposition towards building resilience. Most of the remainder
(36%) is for mitigation, with 5% targeting adaptation and mitigation
simultaneously (Atteridge and Canales, 2017).
3.3. Priority themes
In both the Caribbean and Pacific, the regional partners selected
almost identical topics on which to commission peer reviewed topic
papers, across the themes of physical change (ocean acidification, sea
temperature and extreme events and sea level), biodiversity (corals,
mangroves, fish and shellfish) and society (settlements and infra-
structure and fisheries). Tourism was covered as a separate topic review
in the Caribbean, and for the Pacific, cultural heritage and gender, and
impacts under different temperature change thresholds (1.5 °C and 2 °C)
were included. Both the Caribbean report card and backing papers, and
the Pacific report card and backing papers are publicly available online.
Having a separate paper on the different effects that a temperature
change of 1.5 °C would have compared with a rise of 2 °C was deemed
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709
important in the Pacific, reflecting the need to limit warming to 1.5 °C
above pre-industrial levels to avoid crossing critical thresholds for
Pacific communities and ecosystems (IPCC, 2018; Pringle, 2018). In-
cluding this as a topic paper, and also in the conclusions in the Pacific
report card itself, helps to emphasise to policy makers the importance of
keeping climate change below levels where critical thresholds are
reached. At the time of developing the Pacific card, marine litter was
such a topical issue that the interaction of climate change and waste,
particularly regarding landfill sites and sea level rise, and the waste
arising from cyclone damage, was included in the card.
The need to consider cultural heritage and gender in the Pacific
region was considered sufficiently important to commission a review
paper of its own. The review examined the role of traditional knowl-
edge in climate planning and response, the impact of cultural loss from
climate change, and the specific impacts of climate change on gender
and marginalised groups. Failure to incorporate social and cultural di-
mensions into climate action is anticipated to lead to a loss of tradi-
tional knowledge, loss of cultural identity, social inequality, increased
vulnerability and ultimately failure of adaptation actions and resilience
plans (Straza et al., 2018). Indeed, it has been argued that, as long as
the strengths and weaknesses of all sources of knowledge are ac-
knowledged, the merging of science and indigenous knowledge is po-
tentially very valuable (Lebel, 2013).
For some other issues, there was a lack of evidence to commission
full topic review papers, but they were considered sufficiently im-
portant to get a mention in the cards. In the Caribbean, the report card
explicitly included discussion of psychological and social issues in re-
lation to post-traumatic stress during disaster recovery from severe
storms, especially where recovery periods are reduced between cate-
gory 4 or 5 hurricanes (i.e. shorter periods of time between hurricanes).
It is interesting to note that whilst the social and cultural dimensions of
climate change became a specific focus of the Pacific card, the review
paper states that Pacific communities may be less willing to discuss
issues of mental health, despite this being a significant issue for com-
munities following the devastating effects of tropical cyclones. The
psychological stress associated with climate change impacts require
further examination, particularly in areas where loss and damage, both
in an economic and social sense, are likely to be acute.
The need to put an economic value on the cost of inaction was
considered important in the Caribbean region to promote a response
from politicians. Estimated values of the cost of inaction were included
in the Caribbean card, based on a study by Bueno et al. (2008), and
updating these figures is an area for further research. The table con-
taining these values was given a prominent place in the card, on the
third page, with the aim of emphasising to readers the importance of
acting immediately on climate change, and the costs that would be
incurred if nothing was done. A similar assessment was not available for
the Pacific region when the card was being developed, and so instead
the overall narrative was used to emphasise the need for adaptation
action.
3.4. Vulnerability to marine climate change impacts in each region
The detailed, peer-reviewed backing papers for the report cards
identified a range of key issues in each region (CMEP, 2017b, 2018b).
Whilst there are many similarities across both of these tropical mar-
itime regions, the nature and scale of impacts do vary, both within and
across regions.
In the Caribbean, the Commonwealth SIDS lie in close proximity to
each other, albeit with some islands more exposed to the oceanic in-
fluences of the Atlantic Ocean. In the Pacific, Commonwealth SIDS are
more geographically isolated from each, with more potential for a
gradient in risk according to geographical location (e.g. from tropical
cyclones). Table 2 provides a summary of the key impacts reported in
the Pacific and Caribbean Marine Climate Change Report Cards (CMEP,
2017a, 2018a), and any differences between regions.
B.L. Townhill, et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709

Fig. 2. The Caribbean and Pacific report card front covers (CMEP, 2017a; 2018a). The Pacific report card contains a ribbon on the front and watermark throughout
with traditional Pacific island motifs, making it instantly recognisable as a Pacific island document. The Caribbean card focused more on the text having a ‘regional
voice’.

3.5. Priority evidence needs and recommendations
Evidence needs were prioritised in both of the report cards, with
recommendations and responses being presented. Although there were
differences in prioritisation and detail between regions, these fell into
broad topics for both. The text from the cards is presented below in
Table 3.
Among the highest priority for both regions was the need for data
and regional projections. Coastal topographic and bathymetric in-
formation are among the critical inputs needed for assessing the vul-
nerability of coastal areas to the effects of sea level rise, storm surge and
flooding. Yet, coastal topographic and bathymetric data is among the
least available. Part of the problem is that, in the Caribbean, there is
currently no integrated observing network that can capture relevant

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B.L. Townhill, et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709

Fig. 2. (continued)

environmental and hydro-meteorological data to facilitate regional and
national analysis and adaptation planning (Design +Environment &
Mona GIS, 2013). For example, the conduct of coastal vulnerability
assessments and research work on storm surge impacts is hampered by
the absence of near shore bathymetric data and appropriate topo-
graphical maps of sufficient resolution and quality.
The paucity of detailed data compromises the integrity of the pro-
jections from the climate models and the level of confidence that can be
placed in climate projections in these regions. By extension, the chances
that decisions on adaptation options would be flawed are high simply
because the evidence to support the decision is inadequate. Outputs
from climate models allow for the development of realistic climate

5
B.L. Townhill, et al.
Table 2
Key impacts reported in the Pacific and Caribbean Marine Climate Change Report Cards, and differences between regions (CMEP, 2017a, 2017b; 2018a, 2018b).
Physical drivers of change (Sea level; Tropical storms and rainfall;
Ocean acidification; Sea Temperature)
Impacts on biodiversity (Fish and Shellfish; Corals; Mangroves)
Impacts on society (Fisheries; Settlements and infrastructure)
scenarios which are then used to modulate sectoral impact models (e.g.
water, agriculture, health, storm surge) and to conduct vulnerability
and capacity assessments of the respective sector. From these exercises
one can then determine the extent of the impacts caused by the ex-
posure of the vulnerable element to future climate and on this basis
identify adaptation options, and strategic planning actions, another of
the key recommendations. Cost benefit and cost effectiveness analyses
of these options then provides the decision maker with a more objective
basis for deciding on the appropriate course of action.
4. Value of introducing this approach, and its impact
Report cards, and the underpinning technical papers, are a useful
Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709
Observed and Projected Marine Climate Change Impacts for Caribbean and Pacific Commonwealth SIDS
Trends of up to 0.3 °C per decade are reported in both regions since the early 1980s. More distinct
regional trends are apparent in the western tropical Pacific, to the north and south of the Pacific warm
pool, but with a high degree of year to year variability linked to ENSO. Similar rates of future sea
warming are projected for both regions, around 1–3 °C by end of century.
High level of variability in sea level rise is reported in both regions, with ENSO and vertical land
movement important factors in the Caribbean and large scale forcing from trade winds important in the
Pacific. Rates of change over recent decades in some locations in both regions reported as high as
5–6 mm/yr. Sea level rise is contributing to an increase in extreme sea levels in both regions.
In the Caribbean, an increase in the number and strength of tropical storms and hurricanes is reported
since the 1990s, with less clear trends in the Pacific. Changes in rainfall are reported in both regions,
with consequences for both droughts and flooding. Regional trends in rainfall are more apparent in the
Pacific, with increases in the western Pacific monsoon region (from Vanuatu to the Cook Islands) and
drier conditions in other regions to the north and east (Nauru, Kiribati and Tuvalu).
The combined effects of ocean acidification and bleaching from marine heatwaves is considered a major
risk in both regions.
For all aspects of biodiversity, the importance of non-climate drivers (e.g. pollution, eutrophication,
overfishing, sedimentation and coastal and marine developments) leading to habitat degradation and
species loss are strongly emphasised. The resilience of some habitats to climate change, including corals,
will vary within and between regions.
In general, these human pressures are making biodiversity in both regions more vulnerable to climate
change.
Oceanic pelagic species (e.g. tuna) are considered to be less vulnerable to climate change than reef fish
in the Caribbean. A general eastern movement of tunas in the Pacific are regarded as a more significant
threat, at least to some countries that will lose them from their waters.
Corals in both regions are already being impacted by increased temperatures leading to disease
outbreaks and coral bleaching. The damage from tropical storms on coral structures is also noted in both
regions, as is the net effect of reduced calcification on growth rates. For the Pacific region, risks from
severe annual bleaching by mid-century are highlighted, with a potential 90% reduction in live coral
cover by end of century. Similar risks from coral bleaching are projected for the Caribbean, with the
potential for collapse of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System by 2050. At present, coastal development
is having a much bigger impact on mangroves than climate change in both regions. Sea level rise is the
biggest risk, and their loss will diminish the protective role they play against extreme events.
Both regions, with populations and economic activities concentrated in the coastal zone, are highly
vulnerable to marine climate change impacts. As with biodiversity, the importance of human effects on
coastal change are highlighted as critical.
With regards to settlement and infrastructure, the increase in hurricanes noted in the Caribbean since the
turn of the Century, especially category 5 storms, and their associated storm surge events, are
highlighted as the biggest risk. Risks from wind damage are projected to be significantly higher than
from flood damage. The potential for clustering of extreme events, reducing recovery time and
increasing financial burdens are noted, as is the potential for an increase in mental health problems from
these traumatic events. Sea level rise, and an increase in extreme water levels, are cited as the biggest
risk to settlements and infrastructure in the Pacific, with only Papau New Guinea having significant
infrastructure, industry and population centres away from the coast. For Pacific SIDS, coastal atoll states
are especially vulnerable to sea level rise and inundation from extreme water levels.
An increase in both flood and drought events, has potential direct and indirect public health
implications, both physical (e.g. water scarcity, disease) and mental (depression and anxiety).
In both regions, the degradation of coral reefs, exacerbated by climate change, are highlighted as the
greatest threat to coastal fisheries. Impacts of storms and infrastructure on infrastructure and fishing
activities are highlighted as potential future hazards. Highly migratory oceanic species (including tuna
species) could move northwards in the Atlantic, and away from the reach of small-scale vessels in
southerly Caribbean SIDS. The high financial dependency of some Pacific SIDS on tuna access fees and
secondary processing is highlighted. A projected north-easterly movement of tuna stocks under climate
change would damage the economies of SIDS in the Western Pacific, but potential benefit those further
east. In the Caribbean, changes in ocean currents and temperature may have contributed to mass
influxes of Sargassum seaweed since 2001, with impacts on infrastructure and boat access. Spawning of
some species (e.g. dolphin fish) has made it easier to catch juvenile fish, but with a consequent decrease
in numbers maturing to adult size.
research resource in themselves (Fung et al., 2015), that are often cited
in the academic literature or submitted as evidence for national and
international climate change reporting requirements. They may also be
expected to have wider utility for SIDS looking to leverage climate
change funding, providing evidence to support proposals, e.g. the Green
Climate Fund. The cards and the review papers were made available on
a number of different websites to try to increase accessibility, with low
resolution versions available. The report card is designed to be brief and
appealing, to make it more likely to be picked up by a government
official than a scientific paper or project report, and so again is more
likely to be used at high levels of government or by those without a
scientific or technical background. There is also a central double-page
map of the region country level impacts highlighted. In the Pacific
6
B.L. Townhill, et al.
Table 3
The priority actions and key recommendations from the Caribbean and Pacific Marine Climate Change Report Cards (CMEP, 2017a, 2018a).
Caribbean
Further research on climate projections and potential impacts.
Further research on how climate change might affect ocean currents and storm surges, and
by extension, coastal erosion. Regional modelling to assess climate change impacts on
key species in the region. Consider the combined effects of climate change impacts
(direct and indirect) on fish species and ecosystems, together with the synergistic
effects of other chronic human pressures in the region. Further information is needed
on the resilience to climate change of heavily exploited and protected reef fish stocks
to provide better guidance on appropriate management tools and strategies for climate
change adaptation. Species-specific studies of increasing sea surface temperature and
ocean acidification on queen conch and spiny lobster to improve predictions of
climate change impacts on two of the region's most economically valuable fishery
species.
Economic and social assessments.
Produce an estimate of the cost of climate change impacts on the environmental, social
and economic values of marine and coastal habitats across the Caribbean Region such
as coral reefs, mangroves, beaches and seagrass beds. Some studies are beginning to
explore how to use “payment for ecosystem service” and “blue carbon” values as a
means to better understand the natural and socioeconomic values of mangrove
ecosystems, and to encourage protection. Understanding these values can contribute
to better public policy and resource management.
Obtain social and economic data on the fisheries sector to understand the
consequences of climate induced changes for communities and the region.
Climate change adaptation actions
Develop adaptation actions that combine human stressors such as fisheries and
development with environmental protection. Consider feasibility of mainstreaming
coral reef and mangrove restoration, where appropriate and feasible, as an ecosystem-
based adaptation strategy to climate change. Improve the marine protected area
network by prioritising areas and considering long-term vulnerabilities to climate
warming. Base this on spatial and temporal analysis of historical accounts and
projected sea surface temperatures.
Strategic planning
Develop and implement a centralised and targeted biodiversity plan to enforce
biodiversity surveillance to ensure preservation and ownership of these resources.
Further consider changes needed to fisheries plans, policies and legislation at the
national and regional level to address anticipated changes due to climate change.
Legislate for enough space for coastal development setbacks, to reduce vulnerability to
sea level rise and coastal erosion.
Develop and keep updated, an inventory of existing sea defences, to allow climate
change adaptation to be integrated into development plans, tourism plans and for
government insurance policies to take sea level rise into account.
Disaster education and response training are needed for storm preparation and risk
mitigation.
region, the value of identifying country specific risks was deemed so
important that the online Pacific map had to be modified to also include
non-commonwealth SIDS (which was outside of the original scope of
the project, focussed on Commonwealth SIDS).
The report cards form a valuable evidence base which can be used to
inform future policy and planning, at a regional and national level, but
also locally. Within less than a year of being published, both cards have
received international exposure at UNFCCC COPs, as well as endorse-
ment by states regionally. For example, the Caribbean card was used as
evidence to inform the Talanoa Dialogue discussions in the build-up to
COP24, and the Pacific card was presented at COP24. The Caribbean
card was welcomed and endorsed at the 15th meeting of the Fisheries
Forum, which recommended that member states, organisations and
agencies used it in decision making. The 11th meeting of the Caribbean
Ministerial Council approved the report card and also called upon its
use to improve environmental resilience. It was acknowledged in the
FAO Western Atlantic Fisheries Commission Scientific Advisory Report
(FAO, 2017), and some of the topic papers were referenced in the FAO's
report on the ‘Impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture’
(FAO, 2018). The Pacific report card was welcomed in the “Amatuku
Declaration on Climate Change and Oceans”, a declaration made by
Polynesian Leaders in 2018. In doing so, it was used to reinforce the
concern regarding the devastating effects of climate change on the
marine environment and importance of the nexus between oceans and
climate change. At the summit where the declaration was made, special
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Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709
Pacific
Develop future Pacific climate projections that can be used at local scales through
investment in new, improved data collection and analysis and build research
capacity in these areas.
To fully understand the changes taking place, monitoring and evaluation of physical
and ecosystem changes is needed which must feed into, and assess progress against
model projections, and link information to government decision makers.
Support biological, social and economic assessments on the status, and future
projections of, seagrass and mangroves to support appropriate evidence-based
adaptation planning.
Engaging social and cultural groups is a fundamental part of successful climate
action and their inclusion will benefit efforts to build climate change resilience.
Communities should be involved in research and knowledge collection, in decision-
making, and in actions and programme and project outputs. Enduring engagement
of culture and traditional knowledge will help ensure the effectiveness of resilience
strategies.
It is imperative that climate change adaptation begins now. Flexible management
systems, that are adaptive over time, are urgently needed which connect terrestrial
and marine systems, link different sectors of government and industry and provide
long-term planning solutions. These systems must address other stressors as well,
such as habitat destruction and pollution, which exacerbate climate change impacts.
Build resilience to unavoidable climate change impacts on coral reefs, mangroves
and seagrass, by substantially reducing multiple non-climate threats. This should
include culturally sensitive collective endeavours and cooperative action, including
protected areas and creating new space for mangroves.
Assess how fisheries' livelihoods will need to be diversified on some islands.
Communities can adapt by catching fish which are more resilient to climate change,
and conserving and restoring important fish habitats.
Optimise the sustainable economic benefits from tuna through regional
management, in light of shifting location and productivity of tuna resources across
the Pacific.
mention was made of the card, with leaders “welcom[ing] the launch of
the Pacific Marine Climate Change Report Card and offer our commit-
ment to review this report card and explore means on how it can be
effectively used in our countries”. The card provides a strong base for
regional action as the Declaration gathers momentum. It has also been
used at a workshop for Pacific journalists (the Pacific Environment
Journalist Network) and is being used to inspire similar report card
approaches within national governments in the region.
To reach a wider audience, outside of academia and international
politics, press releases were produced to coincide with the launch of
each card. These were widely picked up in both regions, with many
local, national and regional newspapers, regional organisations, non-
governmental bodies and fishing organisations running the story. This
helped to promote the climate change information to the wider public,
in the region and internationally, helping to spread robust and accurate
climate change impacts information.
The successful completion, and subsequent uptake, of these report
cards in two different geographical regions of the world further de-
monstrates the report card process is easily transferred, and its utility to
decision makers and researchers readily acknowledged. In both regions,
the provision of an accessible summary of the key issues, and com-
prehensive review of the science in one place, has helped to fill a per-
ceived information gap, and there is appetite for further report cards in
the future in both regions.
B.L. Townhill, et al.
5. Further development of the report cards
Substantial investment is needed to prepare the Pacific and
Caribbean for climate change, and this will require mainstreaming of
climate action into national and local planning (e.g. Asian Development
Bank, 2013). Informing this process through well-informed and acces-
sible information on climate change impacts and consequences is cru-
cial. This would not only build capacity and strengthen planning pro-
cesses, but help define resourcing needs and enhance dialogue with
development partners. Further promotion of the report cards at the
ministerial and policy-maker level can help ensure that the science
presented is used in prioritising climate resilience in government. The
report cards also provide an opportunity to more explicitly address the
harmonious combination of scientific and traditional knowledge.
To date, evidence of the report card being applied has tended to be
at the political level which can already be considered as a valuable
outcome. However, in order to inform adaptation actions, consideration
will need to be given as to how to use the card with specific sectors. This
may require a template or set of exercises which will connect the key
findings to the specific challenges faced by individual sectors and
communities. There is also scope to make better use of the background
topic papers which underpin the record card, such that users are able to
better ‘zoom in and out’ depending on the level and detail of in-
formation required. These papers contain more detailed information,
which is necessary in developing planning and policy tools, and de-
veloping further research and adaptation areas. The papers also contain
more detailed information on knowledge gaps and research priorities,
which can be used in prioritising funding.
In policy terms, the card can help inform the Voluntary National
Reviews under the High Level Political Forum, especially in relation to
progress and proposed action on SDG 13 and 14. The card can also help
impress the ocean-climate nexus into revised Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) to shape targets and proposed actions, once the
UNFCCC review process commences in 2020. Not surprisingly, SIDS
have more marine focused NDCs than non-SIDS (Gallo et al., 2017), and
the report cards and topic papers can help to bring more detail into
these as they develop.
In the UK, the MCCIP impact report cards are produced approxi-
mately biennially, with specific sector-specific adaptation report cards
produced in the alternate years. Each subsequent impact report card
provides an update of the climate science, because with so much re-
search being conducted on climate change, the evidence base evolves
rapidly. A similar cyclical approach in the Caribbean and Pacific could
be useful so that policy makers are kept up to date with the latest
evidence, ensuring that policy and adaptation focus is informed by the
latest evidence.
There may also be significant value in report cards targeted at
specific sectors of high valency to the Pacific and Caribbean states. For
example, in terms of climate impacts on small-scale inshore fisheries
which are vital to Pacific food and nutritional security. Whilst,
knowledge is building about potential effects on inshore ecosystems
and some target stocks, there is little information available for com-
munities, governments and regional institutions on how to adapt to
these changes (Hanich et al., 2018); this is a role that a sectoral report
card could play. Country specific report cards would also have huge
value, particularly where sea areas are large e.g. Kiribati, or where
there are large differences in population sizes or in marine management
practices, such as the Caribbean. Sector, or country-specific report cards
would also be able to develop more detail on knowledge gaps and
priorities for research, again feeding into future funding for research
and resilience building.
Priority next steps for the Caribbean and Pacific report cards are to
identify further opportunities to promote the cards and the topic pa-
pers, to help them reach a larger audience, and in turn for the evidence
that they contain to be used more widely. While the regional partners
have presented the cards widely at various events and promoted it
8
Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (2020) 110709
within their networks, having a dedicated knowledge broker in each
region who can target the end users and promote evidence-based de-
cision-making would greatly increase the impact of the card (Cvitanovic
et al., 2017). There is still a lot of scope to increase the visibility of the
cards, and to get the messages and recommendations into policy and
planning, including for non-Commonwealth countries. The card and
papers could also be more accessible. While the cards and papers are on
a number of websites, this could be increased and they could be pub-
lished in different local languages. There is scope for the cards, and
particularly the topic papers, to be used in international climate re-
porting, such as IPCC assessments, and the dedicated chapter on Small
Islands. The papers take some very detailed climate change research
and set it in a regional and local context; of direct relevance to the IPCC
reports.
These regional overview cards should be used as a starting point to
develop more focused cards. The topics and foci of follow-on report
cards should be developed in parallel with regional partners to ensure
that the highest priority topics are addressed. The most important
consideration is whether future outputs should target specific issues or
sectors where adaptation action is most urgently needed (e.g. sectoral
report card on fisheries), or whether they should be country-specific.
Further utility could be provided though a review of end-users, or po-
tential end-users which were not reached by the report card. This could
help further refinement in terms of topics, but also structure, or issues
associated with accessibility. Future cards could also take a broader
perspective than just SIDS, as neighbouring countries and islands face
the same climate hazards, and can learn from each other as to how best
to respond.
6. Conclusions
The need for clear, concise messages on marine and coastal climate
change issues is recognised in both regions. These messages are needed
by local marine managers, national governments and regional bodies to
ensure that reliable, up to date, climate science is used in marine
management, local planning, policy making and global advocacy. The
Caribbean and Pacific marine climate change report cards represent a
comprehensive, peer-reviewed body of work, based on scientific ex-
pertise from across the region. They have received good uptake in both
regions, including through the media and at ministerial level and this is
largely because regional bodies have been highly engaged, taking
ownership of the process and the dissemination of outputs. The outputs
are having an impact on the regional and international stage, including
as part of UNFCCC COP, but can still play a wider role in supporting
national and regional planning. They could also be used to provide
quality assured scientific evidence to help leverage climate funding
(such as Green Climate Fund).
Moving on from these cards, the process can be easily replicated
within the regions or elsewhere, and at a modest investment. There is a
need to provide updates in the future, at appropriate time intervals, for
country specific cards, or on certain sectors. Building on the networks
created through these initial cards, there is an opportunity to engage
more widely with the research community in both regions, and use the
information to establish key research priorities. Consideration needs to
be given as to whether future outputs should target specific issues or
sectors where adaptation is most urgently needed (e.g. sectoral report
card on fisheries) to promote direct action.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
B.L. Townhill, et al.
Acknowledgements
Funding: This paper and the Caribbean and Pacific Marine Climate
Change Report Cards have been funded by the Commonwealth Marine
Economies Programme of the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office,
with the support of the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre,
the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism, the University of the West
Indies, the Belize Coastal Zone Management Authority and Institute, the
Belize National Climate Change Office, Secretariat for the Pacific
Regional Environment Programme, UN Environment, The University of
the South Pacific, Climate Analytics and the Pacific Community (SPC).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110709.
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