Terminology

Existe uma falta de consistência com a terminologia usada em relação aos calcretes. Os
termos encontrados na literatura internacional para descrever o mesmo material, embora com
definições variadas, incluem: caliche, surface limestone, calcareous duricrust, entre
outros. O termo "calcrete" será usado ao longo deste trabalho para se referir ao mesmo
material que pode ser referido de outra forma na literatura.

Definition

A calcrete can be regarded as a material formed within the regolith by the in-situ cementation
and/or replacement of a pre-existing soil by carbonate precipitated from the ground or soil
water – the term “soil” being used here in its wide engineering sense for materials which does
not equire blasting for excavation. Other common examples of “pedocrties” are ferricrete and
silcrete, in which the cementing/ replacing minerals are iron oxides and silica, respectively.
General characteristics of calcretes

 Terminology
 Definition
 Composition
 Classification/description
 Profile characteristics
 Origin
 Distribution
 relative importance of calcretes


Engineering properties/ properties of calcretes

 engineering tests
 cement and lime stabilization
 The role of calcium carbonate
 Soluble salts

Use of calcretes

 Botswana

Calcrete deposits exist as virtually the only source of hard or gravelly materials available for
use in pavement layer construction throughout most of the central and western areas of
Botswana. Their occurrence is generally confined to those areas overlain by the Kalahari
sands although they are also found further east overlying older rocks and along drainage
lines, (Mallick, Habgood and Skinner 1981).

Studies were undertaken in Botswana which has led to the development of local
specifications for the use of calcretes in paved road construction. The studies have examined
their use as road bases, untreated shoulder materials and surface dressing aggregates.

The result of the research was applied to the construction of over 1200km of road to be
constructed in the Kalahari region over the next decade. this will enable massive cost savings
to be made.

Whenever calcrete has been used as a base material on the main road network stabilization by
cement and/or lime has been undertaken. The main purpose of the stabilization has been to
reduce the plasticity of the calcrete. In each case the calcrete material has been relatively
coarsely-graded prior to treatment.
  Namibia
 South Africa

 Mozambique

Recent experience on projects implemented by ANE in Inhambane has shown that calcrete
can be used both as base material when blended with local sand and in graded aggregate seals
with a soft bituminous binder. The admixture of sand to calcrete improves the material
properties by reducing plasticity and improving stability, thus reducing the damaging effect
of soluble salts in the calcrete and improving workability to achieve the required density.
Nodular calcrete has also been blended with red sands to provide an effective, armoured
wearing course.
Currently in South Africa calcretes, are used in construction of road because of its
engineering properties.

However the engineering properties of calcretes depend, in a generalized manner, on two

factors:

 The nature of the hos or parent material. i.e. whether it was clay or sand, and
 The stage of development of the material. i.e. the extent to which it has been
cemented or replaced or both by carbonate.

In view of the above, the properties of calcareous soils are dominated by those of the host soil
whereas, at the other extreme, hardpan calcretes behave like limestone. Therefore making
some the properties of Calcretes which are noteworthy, particularly with regard to the
specification for their use in road construction and their performance in cervice include.

The engineering properties of calcrete are extremely varied. They range from slightly
classified uniform sands and soft powdery deposits to hard gravel and rock layers. For
use in pavement layer construction only the best deposits normally satisfy traditional
specifications although the use of the softer types has been successfully demonstrated in
low-volume roads (Overby 1982, Lawrence and Toole 1984).
Experiencia do uso de calcrete em Botswana

1. Introduction

Calcrete deposits exist as virtually the only source of hard or gravelly materials available for
use in pavement layer construction throughout most of the central and western areas of
Botswana. Their occurrence is generally confined to those areas overlain by the Kalahari
sands although they are also found further east overlying older rocks and along drainage
lines, (Mallick, Habgood and Skinner 1981).

A number of major paved roads are planned to be built in the next decade in the Kalahari
region in which calcretes will be used. These projects are identified in Figure 1.

The completion of these routes will lead to an expansion of the paved road network from its
current length of 2000km to approximately 3200km.

It is likely that calcretes will be used as the main pavement material in the construction of all
routes. It may also provide a source of sufacing aggregate.

In the earlier development of the paved road network, calcrete was seldom used. The reason
for this was the abundance of natural gravels and weathered rock deposits exposed in the east
of the country where most of the road and economic development has taken place.

Whenever calcrete has been used as a base material on the main road network stabilization by
cement and/or lime has been undertaken. The main purpose of the stabilization has been to
reduce the plasticity of the calcrete. In each case the calcrete material has been relatively
coarsely-graded prior to treatment.

The occurrence of the harder varieties of calcrete however is not widespread and has led to
the need to develop experience in using marginal and low grade types.

In order to obtain the necessary experience and evidence to justify new design standards, the
Botswana Ministry of Works and Comunication (MOWC) has conducted research info the
use of calcretes with a number of research organizations. This has led to the construction of
four major full-scale road experiments in which calcretes ranging in classification from
calcified sand to hardpan and boulder deposits are being examined as sub-bases, bases and
surface dressing aggregates.

The construction of roads under Rural Roads Project (Overby 1982), in which untreated
powder calcretes and calcified sands were used as roadbases, has also assisted in the
development of local expertise.

The objective of this paper is to bring together past and recent experience in the use of
calcretes in paved roads for the benefit of highway engineers involved in the design and
construction of roads in calcrete areas.
2. The occurrence and distribution of calcretes in Botswana

Calcrete deposits occur throughout the Kalahari regions of Botswana, within the Kalahari
sand. They are associated with topographic features of the sand surface such as pans, inter-
dune hollows, topographical depressions and former drainage lines, but also occur in
association with grey-coloured patches of Kalahari sand and with rocks near the surface. In
the last case they occur as cappings to calcareous or basic igneous rocks, which form a local
source of calcium carbonate.

Calcretes and the geological formations with which many are associated, have been mapped
in Botwanta by the use of remote sensing techniques. Black and White aerial photographs
have been used to map landforms associated with calcrete, and Landsat imagery has been
used to map features showing colour differences. The “Photogeological Map of Botswana”
(Mallick, Habgood and Sinner 1979) was produced in this way, and illustrates the main
surface materials and exposed geology of Botswana. Figure 2 which is based on this map,
shows the presence of calcretes and other materials that are potentially suitable for road
pavement construction. The remarks in Fig 2 are based on field investigations conducted in
the TRRL-MOWC study of the occurrence of calcretes (Lawrence and Toole 1984). As part
of this latter study detailed maps of calcrete occurrence covering an area in the Central
Kalahari, and which are suitable for estimating material resources, were produced. Use was
also made of natural colour aerial photography in mapping grey sand areas.

3. Previous use of calcretes in paved roads

Calcrete has been used in the sub-base layers of sections of the main paved road network, in
the Rural Roads Project roads built in the Kalahari region and in various experimental
pavement sections. The road sections which incorporate calcrete in the road base are listed in
Table 1.

Roads built as part of the main road network have been constructed with crushed or
mechanically stabilized calcrete bases, lime modified calcretes or cement and lime stabilized
calcretes. These roads have given good performance over periods up to ten years.

In the construction of these roads the pavement thickness designs and material standards have
been based on either TRRL guidelines for tropical countries (TRRL 1977) or South African
guidelines (National Institute for Transport and Road Research, 1980a, 1980b).

Roads built as part of the Rural Roads Project have used various thickness design guides. In
the selection of pavement materials, trial specifications based on research conducted by
NITRR (Netterberg 1971) and those developed following the ‘forced-trafficking’ of lengths
of project roads have been used. These are described later in this paper.
jjjhkkjk

Calcrete deposits exist as virtually the only source of hard or gravelly materials available for
use in pavement layer construction throughout most of the central and western areas of
Botswana. Their occurrence is generally confined to those areas overlain by the Kalahari
sands although they are also found further east overlying older rocks and along drainage
lines, (Mallick, Habgood and Skinner 1981).

Os depósitos de calcário existem como virtualmente a única fonte de materiais duros ou

gravilhados disponíveis para uso na construção da camada de pavimento na maior parte das
áreas centrais e ocidentais do Botsuana. Sua ocorrência é geralmente confinada àquelas áreas
cobertas pelas areias de Kalahari, embora também sejam encontradas mais a leste, sobre
rochas mais antigas e ao longo das linhas de drenagem (Mallick, Habgood e Skinner, 1981).

Calcrete deposits occur throughout the Kalahari regions of Botswana, within the Kalahari
sand. They are associated with topographic features of the sand surface such as pans, inter-
dune hollows, topographical depressions and former drainage lines, but also occur in
association with grey-coloured patches of Kalahari sand and with rocks near the surface. In
the last case they occur as cappings to calcareous or basic igneous rocks, which form a local
source of calcium carbonate.

Depósitos de calcário ocorrem nas regiões de Kalahari, no Botsuana, dentro da areia de

Kalahari. Eles estão associados a características topográficas da superfície da areia, como
panelas, cavidades entre dunas, depressões topográficas e antigas linhas de drenagem, mas
também ocorrem em associação com manchas de cor cinza da areia de Kalahari e com rochas
próximas à superfície. No último caso, ocorrem como coberturas de rochas ígneas calcárias
ou básicas, que formam uma fonte local de carbonato de cálcio.

Calcrete has been used in the sub-base layers of sections of the main paved road network, in
the Rural Roads Project roads built in the Kalahari region and in various experimental
pavement sections. The road sections which incorporate calcrete in the road base are listed in
Table 1.

Calcrete tem sido usado nas camadas sub-base das seções da rede principal de estradas
pavimentadas, nas estradas do Projeto de Estradas Rurais construídas na região de Kalahari e
em várias seções experimentais de pavimentos. As seções da estrada que incorporam calcrete
na base da estrada estão listadas na Tabela 1.

Whenever calcrete has been used as a base material on the main road network stabilization by
cement and/or lime has been undertaken. The main purpose of the stabilization has been to
reduce the plasticity of the calcrete. In each case the calcrete material has been relatively
coarsely-graded prior to treatment.

Sempre que o calcrete for utilizado como material de base na rede rodoviária principal, a
estabilização por cimento e / ou cal é realizada. O principal objetivo da estabilização tem sido
reduzir a plasticidade do calcário. Em cada caso, o material calcário foi relativamente
grosseiro antes do tratamento.

Roads built as part of the main road network have been constructed with crushed or
mechanically stabilized calcrete bases, lime modified calcretes or cement and lime stabilized
calcretes. These roads have given good performance over periods up to ten years.

As estradas construídas como parte da rede principal de estradas foram construídas com bases
de calcrete esmagadas ou mecanicamente estabilizadas, calcretes modificados com cal ou
cimento e calcretes estabilizados com cal. Essas estradas apresentaram bom desempenho por
períodos de até dez anos.

In the construction of these roads the pavement thickness designs and material standards have
been based on either TRRL guidelines for tropical countries (TRRL 1977) or South African
guidelines (National Institute for Transport and Road Research, 1980a, 1980b).

Na construção dessas estradas, os projetos de espessura do pavimento e os padrões de

material foram baseados nas diretrizes da TRRL para países tropicais (TRRL 1977) ou nas
diretrizes da África do Sul (Instituto Nacional de Transportes e Pesquisas Rodoviárias, 1980a,
1980b).

Roads built as part of the Rural Roads Project have used various thickness design guides. In
the selection of pavement materials, trial specifications based on research conducted by
NITRR (Netterberg 1971) and those developed following the ‘forced-trafficking’ of lengths
of project roads have been used. These are described later in this paper.

As estradas construídas como parte do Projeto de Estradas Rurais usaram vários guias de
design de espessura. Na seleção de materiais de pavimentação, foram usadas especificações
de ensaios baseadas em pesquisas conduzidas pelo NITRR (Netterberg 1971) e aquelas
desenvolvidas após o 'tráfico forçado' de trechos de estradas do projeto. Estes são descritos
mais adiante neste documento.
Engineering properties of calcretes

The principal properties of calcrete that influence its behavior in a road are the grading of the
material, the strength and proportion of hard particles, and the plasticity of the fines. These
properties can be summed up in four easily-measured values, the grading modulus,
percentage passing the 0.425mm sieve, the aggregate pliers value and the linear
shrinkage.

Grading Modulus (GM):

300−∑ of % material passing2.0 mm+ 0.425 mm+ 0.075 mm sieves

GM =
100

GM lies between 0 and 3.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CALCRETES

Terminology

There is a general lack of consistency with the terminology used in relation to calcretes.
Terms found in the international literature to describe the same material, though with varying
definitions, include: “surface limestone” and “calcareous duricrust” (general), “caliche”
(USA), “kankar” (East Africa, India, Australia), “kurkar” (Israel), “jiglin” (Nigeria), “tosca”
(Argentina and Spain), “encroȗtements calcaires” (North Africa – Tunisia, Algeria,
Morocco). In this report, the term “calcrete” will be use throughout to refer to the same
material that may be referred to otherwise in the literature.

Definition

The term “calcrete” was coined by Lamplugh (1902, 1907) to describe the material formed
when “sand-and-gravel” beds are cemented sporadically into hard masses by solution and
redeposition of lime through the agency of infiltrating waters” (Lamplungh, 1902).
Subsequent usage (Du Toit, 1939, 1954; Netterberg, 1967, 1969, b, c; Goudie, 1972, 1973)
has formally or informally extended the term to include almost any material of almost any
consistency and carbonate content formed within the regolith by the in situ cementation
and/or replacement of a pre-existing soil by carbonate precipitated from the ground or soil
water.

Thus, although calcrete contains a high proportion of calcium carbonate, it is not a

sedimentary rock like limestone which also contains a high proportion of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) but which has a quite different origin. Instead, calcrete is a secondary product
formed within or on top of an existing soil and is a member of the useful group of road
building materials known as pedogenic materials, of which ferricrete and silcrete are
prominent members.

Classification

A relatively simple morphological classification for calcretes based on standard descriptors,

secondary structures and other properties has been developed from research in the Southern
African region by Netterberg (1969) and modified by Goudie (1983). In this classification
system which is presented in Table 2-1, six types of calcrete are recognised that relate to
Southern Africa groupings. Each group not only reflects a significantly different range of
engineering properties and physical appearance, but also represents a particular stage in the
development of a pedogenic calcrete.

In Mozambique, the various types of calcrete have not yet been mapped.
Origin

Stages of development

According to the theory of calcrete development, calcrete grows from a calcareous soil via a
calcified soil, or nodular and honeycomb stage, to a hardpan and finally weathers to a boulder
calcrete.

An idealised section across a river and pan terrace is shown in Figure 2-3 which postulates
the sequence of calcrete development (not always fully represented)

Fundamental factors controlling the formation and distribution of calcretes

Formation:

As may be inferred from the definition of a calcrete, this material is formed in place either by
cementation or replacement – sometimes both – of pre-existing soils, usually by calcium carbonate
and, to a lesser extent, by magnesium carbonate precipitated from the soil or ground water. This
results in the original material being transformed into a new one - calcrete - comprising varying
quantities of CaCO3 whose properties vary from an almost pure, very hard, massive limestone, in
which there is hardly any trace of the host material, to a very loose material consisting largely of the
host material.

Distribution:

There are a number of fundamental factors that control the distribution of calcretes in
Southern Africa. Of major importance is the fact that calcretes are not sedimentary rocks but
soils. Thus, their distribution is therefore not governed solely by geology, but by the five soil
forming factors of climate, topography and drainage, parent or host material, biological
factors and time, geology being merely a subfactor of parent material.

Climate
In southern Africa calcretes usable in road construction mostly occur in areas receiving a
mean annual rainfall of less than about 550mm (Netterberg 1969, 1971). Such areas are
classified as Arid or Semiarid, Mesothermal and Moisture Deficient in all seasons according
to Thornthwaite’s 1948 classification (Schulze 1958) while Weinert’s (1974) N-value is
greater than five. Damage to roads due to frost heave and spring thawing is unknown in
southern Africa.

Topography and drainage

In general topography plays a large part in calcrete formation through its assistance in
creating shallow perched or permanent water tables. In any area calcrete tends to be
associated with water and the banks and terraces of all drainage features are good places to
look for it. In some cases calcrete may only occur on one side of the drainage feature.
Topography may also influence calcrete formation through its influence on the climate.

Parent or host material

While calcretes form by growing in an existing soil, this soil may or may not provide the
carbonate. It may in fact merely act as a host material in which the carbonate is precipitated.
Only when the soil profile is residual or the thickness of the transported cover is reasonably
thin does the solid geology determine whether calcrete will form. In such profiles calcrete
formation is likely over calcareous rocks such as limestone, dolomite, calcareous shales and
mudstones or the more basic rocks like dolerite and basalt which release calcium and
magnesium on weathering. Calcrete is not likely to occur over rocks like sandstone and
granite if the drainage is unfavorable, even in a favorable climate.

A thickness of soil cover within certain limits appears necessary for significant calcrete
formation. If the soil is too thin, little rainwater can be retained and calcrete formation is
limited to that in cracks and fissures in the underlying rock. If it is too thick and the water
table is deep, the soil will absorb all the water and prevent or retard weathering and
dissolution of the underlying rock.

Biological factors

Vegetation plays a very important role in calcrete formation through transpiration. Calcretes
which are not obviously fossil tend to be associated with bush and grass rather than trees. The
only other biological factor thought to play a role in calcrete formation is termites. The
recognition of white termitaries on aerial photographs is the best way of using them.

Time
If all the other pedogenic (soil – forming) factors remain constant, the effect of time is to
increase the stage of development of the calcrete. Thus, the oldest calcretes tend to be the
hardest, the strongest and possess the best grading and lowest PI (Figure 2-3). The highest
river or pan terraces are the oldest and the calcretes on the highest terraces are usually the
best developed and thickest although they may not be those most useful in road construction.

If one of the other pedogenic factors (particularly climate and drainage) change with time, a
fossil calcrete may result and, indeed, many calcretes in Southern Africa are in fact fossil.
There appear to have been definite periods of calcrete formation during geological history
and some idea of the ages of the calcretes in his area in relation to the other strata and the
topography can be considerable value to the prospector.

The ages of calcretes in Southern Africa have been grouped into five categories (netterberg,
1969):

 Pre-Pliocene
 Upper Pliocene (probably 2 – 5 million years old)
 Uppermost Middle Pleistocene (perhaps 100,000 years old)
 Uppermost Upper Pleistocene (probably 10,000 – 20,000 years old)
 Recent (younger than about 1,000 years old)

According to Netterberg (1969), the most widespread calcretes of importance to the road
builder probably fall into the Pliocene and Upper Pleistocene categories.

Since they are not forming at the present time, fossil calcretes need not occur under the
present-day conditions favorable for calcrete formation, and when they do outcrop can be
extremely difficult to locate. Empirically it is, however, found that even fossil calcretes obey
the climatic correlations mentioned previously and do not occur over non-calcareous rocks
like granite. Fossil drainage features are just as useful sources of calcretes as are present-day
drainage features and are often detectable on air photos.

Composition

The most commonly encountered clay minerals in calcretes are palygorskite, montmorillonite
and seopilite. These minerals possess a number of unusual properties, most of which are
likely to be beneficial to a road material (Netterberg, 1969). For example, palygorskite clay
(and probably sepiolite) possesses a far greater shear strength at the same moisture content
than other clays. Calcretes therefore possess a composition which is unusual among road
materials. Because of the high carbonate content, the usual clay minerals present
(palygorskite and sepiolite) and the presence of compound porous particles and amorphous
silica micro-fossil remains, they can be expected to exhibit some unusual properties.
Moisture condition

Calcretes are generally encountered in a dry to slightly moist condition, but much depends on
the season and the depth of the water table.

Color

The colors predominant in calcrete and its fines (if any) are usually various shades of white,
grey, red, brown, and green. Most of calcretes are creamy white, light brown or light grey in
color.

Color is a useful guide to the overall quality and other properties of a calcrete. Reddish and
brownish calcretes generally possess lower plasticity indices and harder aggregate than white
or grey calcretes, while greenish materials are likely to be saline.

Consistency and hardness

Weathering

Structure

Powder, nodular and honeycomb calcretes are usually intact, possessing no mechanical
structures, while all other calcretes and calcareous and calcified soils may possesses
mechanical structures, such as bedding inherited from the host material, as well as other
mechanical structures such as joints. Inherited features tend to diminish with development of
the calcrete; thus, bedding is rare in hardpans and even rare in boulders. Jointing is only
common in outcropping fossil hardpans, boulders and cobbles undergoing mechanical
weathering.

According to Reeves (1976) the following macro-structures have been recorded from
calcretes: pseudobedding, birdseye, breccia, conglomerate, buckle cracks, concretions,
fractured cobbles, glaebules, honeycomb, irregular masses, laminae, nodules, papules,
pedodes, pipes, pisolites, plates, septaria, slickensides, pseudoanticlines, root shields, and
pedotubules.

Soil and rock type

Origin and inclusion

Detailed description

Profile and borehole log symbols

Profile characteristics