‘An analysis of current day ecotourist motivations’

A dissertation submitted by
Anna Perkins
in partial completion of the award of
BA (Hons) Tourism Management

‘I thereby declare that the dissertation submitted is wholly the work of

Anna Perkins

Any other contributors or sources have either been referenced in the prescribed
manner or are listed in the acknowledgments together with the nature and scope
of their contribution’

Faculty of Management

Bournemouth University

2019-2020

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Dissertation Declaration

I agree that, should the University wish to retain it for reference purposes, a copy of my dissertation may be held
by Bournemouth University normally for a period of three academic years. I understand that once the retention
period has expired my dissertation will be destroyed.

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I confirm that this dissertation does not contain information of a commercial or confidential nature or include
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permissions have been obtained. In particular, any information which identifies a particular individual’s religious
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anonymous, unless permission has been granted for its publication from the person to whom it relates.

Ethical and Health & Safety issues

I confirm that the on-line ethics checklist was completed and that any ethical considerations associated with the
proposed research were discussed with my tutor and an appropriate research strategy was developed which
would take them into account. I also confirm that any potential health & safety risks associated with the proposed
research were discussed with my tutor and where necessary, appropriate precautions were documented,
including an appropriate risk assessment.

Copyright

The copyright for this dissertation remains with me.

Requests for Information

I agree that this dissertation may be made available as the result of a request for information under the Freedom
of Information Act.

Signed:

Name: Anna Perkins

Date: 06/05/2020

Programme: BSc (Hons) Tourism Management

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Abstract

This study consists of an examination of the ecotourism sector focusing closely on the motivations and
characteristics of individuals that partake in these experiences. The ecotourism sector has grown faster
than any other tourism sector as people are becoming more aware of the damage they are causing to
their planet (Black and Crabtree., 2007; Black and Crabtree., 2007; Hargreaves, 2019). Thus, it is crucial
to understand this market group and the reasons for why they want to undergo an ethical tourism
experience. Secondary research conducted in the literature review identified that the demographics of
ecotourists vary greatly depending on an individual’s interest towards ethical travel, and key researchers
(Eagles and Cascagnette in 1995; Morais et al., 2018; Sumanapala et al., 2017) have identified that over
time tourist demographics change, varying in age and dominant genders predominantly. Additionally,
academics have identified that a combination of push and pull motives are key motivators when
considering the ecotourism sector (Maleski, 2016; Chan and Baum, 2007; Carvache-Franchoet al, 2019).
However, nature and wildlife experiences are essential motivators for ecotourists, and from previous
research it has become apparent that nature-based motivations are considered much more highly by
tourists compared to cultural motivations. Through distributing and collecting 223 questionnaires from
individuals that have previously been on an ecotourism holiday, the researcher was able to complete the
research aims and objectives surrounding the confirmation of ecotourists characteristics and motivations
with a modern insight. The findings identified an emerging market trend of younger ecotourists aged
between 21 and 30. Their motivations to go on an ecotourism holiday were then examined and presented
in the form of recommendations for ecotourism businesses enabling them to better penetrate their
market. Additionally, the motivations of ecotourists as a population were identified and the findings
found that they correlated with findings discovered from previous researchers, indicating that a
combination of push and pull motives were essential, specifically focusing on self-development
influences, such as ‘to have an authentic experience’, or ‘to gain a new perspective’, as well as natural
and cultural attributes of the destination, such as ‘To feel close to nature’, ‘to experience the environment
whilst causing minimum damage’ and ‘to interact with different cultures’.

Word Count: 9,968

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Rationale ........................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.1 Personal............................................................................................................................. 9
1.2.2 Industry ............................................................................................................................. 9
1.2.3 Academic ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.4 Structure of dissertation ................................................................................................................. 10
Chapter 2: Lit Review ............................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Definition ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 The Growth of Ecotourism .............................................................................................................. 14
2.4 Issues within Ecotourism ................................................................................................................. 15
2.4.1 Greenwashing ................................................................................................................. 15
2.4.2 Flying ............................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.3 Local economies in ecotourism destinations .................................................................. 16
2.4.4 Role in the local community............................................................................................ 16
2.4.5 Exploitation of wildlife .................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Ecotourism as mass tourism ........................................................................................................... 17
2.6 Ecotourist Demographics ................................................................................................................ 18
2.7 Demand for industry ....................................................................................................................... 20
2.7.1 General Tourism Motivation ........................................................................................... 20
2.7.2 Ecotourist Motivates ....................................................................................................... 22
2.8 Summary of Key Themes ................................................................................................................. 23
2.9 Conclusion and Research Gap ......................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 26
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.3 Research approach .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.1 Research Philosophy ....................................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 Primary vs secondary data .............................................................................................. 27
3.3.3 Research Strategies ......................................................................................................... 28
3.4 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................ 30
3.4.1 Questionnaire Design ...................................................................................................... 30
3.4.3 Pilot study........................................................................................................................ 31

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3.5 Ethics ............................................................................................................................................... 32
3.6 Limitations ....................................................................................................................................... 33
3.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 33
Chapter 4: Results and discussion ........................................................................................... 34
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Demographic analysis ..................................................................................................................... 34
4.3 Variable testing of Motivations ....................................................................................................... 37
4.4 Motivation vs Age Ranges ............................................................................................................... 40
4.5 The Media effect ............................................................................................................................. 43
4.6 Findings Summary ........................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 5: Recommendations and Conclusion ....................................................................... 46
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Recommendations table for ecotourism businesses ...................................................................... 46
5.3 Limitations ....................................................................................................................................... 47
5.4 Conclusion and Future Recommendations ..................................................................................... 47

References ............................................................................................................................... 48
Appendices: ............................................................................................................................. 56
Appendix 1: Lee’s Push and Pull Theory Figure (Source Lee 1966).......................................... 57
Appendix 2: Plog’s Psychographic Tourist Profile (Source: Plog 1974) .................................... 57
Appendix 3: Ecotourism Tour Operator Newsletter ................................................................ 57
Appendix 4: Facebook Ecotourism Forum ............................................................................... 58
Appendix 5: Bournemouth University Approved Ethics .......................................................... 59
Appendix 6: Questionnaire Design........................................................................................... 59
Appendix 7: Survey Questions ................................................................................................. 63
Appendix 8: Correlation between Age and Annual Household Income- SPSS data output..... 71
Appendix 9: Correlations between Age and their environmental and cultural motives ......... 72

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Structure of Dissertation 9

Figure 2: Ecotourism in the Tourism Context 10

Figure 3: Ecotourism’s position in Outdoor Tourism 11

Figure 4: Defining Ecotourism 11

Figure 5: Hard and Soft Ecotourism 18

Figure 6: Exploitive, Passive and Active Ecotourists 19

Figure 7: Participant’s Age Range 35

Figure 8: Participant’s Job Role 35

Figure 9: Exclusivity Result Findings 38

Figure 10: Relaxation Results Findings 39

Figure 11: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trip to make new friends 40

Figure 12: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips to tell family about my exclusive
experience 40

Figure 13: Correlation Analysis between Age and I go on ecotourism trips to tell family about my
exclusive experience 41

Figure 14: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips to go back to basics 42

Figure 15: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips because there was a good deal 42

Figure 16: Correlation analysis between Age and wanting to get away from daily routine 43

Figure 17: Media Effect vs Environmental Motives 44

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List of Tables

Table 1: Dissertation Aim 9

Table 2: Dissertation Objectives 9

Table 3: American Ecotourist Characteristics 17

Table 4: General Tourist Motivations 20

Table 5: Motivating Themes 21

Table 6: Summary of key themes from Literature Review 22

Table 7: Dissertation Aim 25

Table 8: Dissertation Objectives 25

Table 9: Positivism vs Interpretivism 26

Table 10: Quantitative vs Qualitative vs Mixed Methods 28

Table 11: Data Collection Limitations 32

Table 12: Demographic Analysis 33

Table 13: Mean and Standard Deviation of Motivations 37

Table 14: Summary of Findings 44

Table 15: Recommendations for ecotourism businesses targeting younger generations 46

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1. Introduction
This chapter aims to introduce the subject area of this research project as it presents the aim and
objectives, as well as the context of this research topic area, and the rationale for completing research in
this area, before setting out the structure of the following research project.

1.1 Background
Ecotourism used interchangeably with nature-based tourism, has become a popular phenomenon, with
its growth exceeding that of any other tourism sector (Black and Crabtree., 2007; The International
Ecotourism Society, 2019; UNTWO, 2012, cited in Meleddu and Pulina, 2016; Hultman et al., 2015;
Liu et al., 2016). The movement towards ethical travel has presented itself alongside technological
advances and an increasing amount of people have the means to spend more (Hawkins and Lamoureux,
2001, Black and Crabtree., 2007, Kim et al., 2012). 2019, in particular, provoked a global movement
towards a more sustainable planet as people of all ages, backgrounds, social classes, and influential
presences came together to fight against climate change (Hargreaves, 2019; Responsible Travel, 2020).
From Prince Harry, to Greta Thunberg, Sir David Attenborough to the striking school children from 200
different nations, there was a significant effort in protecting planet earth (Responsible Travel, 2020;
National Geographic, 2019). Though ethical and responsible travel is more expensive, often less
comfortable, (Hultman et al, 2015) and can greatly limit travel plans, (Cohen and Higham, 2011;
Gossling et al., 2019; Davison et al., 2014) there is a growing portion of travellers who are looking for
an authentic and unique experience. In particular interacting with the local communities in the
destination, as well as having a key focus on benefiting residents and the destination (Centre for
Responsible Travel, 2018; ABTA, 2018; Patterson et al., 2017; Paulauskaite et al., 2017).

After David Attenborough’s ‘Blue Planet II’ was released in 2017, there was a significant rise in
sentiment for protecting the planet and its wildlife (ABTA, 2018; Science Focus, 2019). Since this,
travel companies have started to consider the welfare of animals and as a result, major tour operators
like Virgin Holidays, TUI, STA Travel and Kuoni, have scrapped activities that consist of elephant
riding, elephant shows, attractions like the Tiger Temple in Thailand and events like the Pamplona
Running of the Bulls, as well as collaboration with hotels or other accommodation sectors that feature
captive dolphins and whales (ABTA, 2020; TUI 2020, STA Travel 2020, Kuoni, 2020; Virgin Holidays,
2020). In addition to the increase in animal welfare awareness, 70% of people believe that travel
companies should ensure that holidays help the local people and the economy (ABTA, 2018).

It is evident that within today’s society there is an increased demand for ethical travel which considers
both a destination’s environmental protection as well as support for local communities. It is imperative
to monitor this current trend in order to achieve the aspirations of the traveller and thus meet consumer
demand. Furthermore, monitoring such ecotourist motivations will indicate the movement in trends,

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highlighting influential factors which connotate to this demand. Bearing this in mind the following
research project will thus investigate the current motivational factors for going on an ecotourism holiday.

1.2 Rationale
1.2.1 Personal
The initial inspiration of the research topic ‘motivations of ecotourists’ originated from the author’s
personal interest in the environment, as well as her experience working for an ecotourism tour operator.
During her time with the company, she worked closely on the marketing side of the business, especially
newsletters and advertisements. From this she wanted to discover more on what motivated tourists to go
on ecotourism holidays and how this might help ecotourism companies develop their marketing
platform.

1.2.2 Industry
The tourism industry is continuing to grow at a rapid rate impacting the environment and local
communities of destinations that struggle to cope with the influx of tourists (Goodwin, 2017; Taiminen,
2018). Consequently, ethical travel has taken off big time, with ecotourism growing faster than any other
tourism sector (Black and Crabtree., 2007; The International Ecotourism Society, 2019; UNTWO, 2012;
cited in Meleddu and Pulina, 2016; Hultman et al., 2015). The increased desire to travel ethically has
resulted in increased consumer demand for ecotourism businesses, and therefore understanding the
reasons behind why tourists are motivated to go on an ecotourism holiday will help companies to provide
a product and market it effectively to achieve consumer demand.

1.2.3 Academic
Ecotourism is not a new concept and has been about for many years with plentiful academic literature
on the subject (Hetzer, 1965, cited in Fennell, 2008; Jafari et al., 1990). However, the recent level of
growth and development in this sector is likely to bring about new external factors that influences
consumer demand (Chafe, 2007). Therefore, it is necessary to re-confirm motivations for going on a
holiday, and to identify any new trends or motivations that have developed over time and have
influenced consumer behaviour.

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1.3 Aims and Objectives
Dissertation Aim
Examine the motivations for why tourists to go on ecotourism holidays
Table 1: Dissertation Aim

Dissertation Objectives
1. To review how ecotourism differs from other forms of tourism
2. To re-confirm, with modern insight, the push and pull motives of why tourists want to go on an
ecotourism holiday
3. To identify whether today’s ecotourist characteristics have changed from data collected in past
studies
4. To establish recommendations for ecotourism companies which will help them to appeal to the
motives of ecotourists
Table 2: Dissertation Objectives

1.4 Structure of dissertation

Chapter 1- Introduction
An introduction to the dissertation topic of ecotourism and the aim and objectives of the research

Chapter 2- Literature Review

An investigation of the previous studies of ecotourism and motivating factors

Chapter 3- Methodology
Explanation and justification of primary data collection method

Chapter 4- Findings and Discussion

Review findings through data analysis tools and discussion of the results

Chapter 5- Recommendations and Conclusion

Recommendations for ecotourism businesses, limitations of research and suggestions for future research

Figure 1: Structure of Dissertation

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Chapter 2: Lit Review
2.1 Introduction
Ecotourism has become an increasingly popular sector within the tourism industry, as the trend for local
authentic and unique experiences has grown and the concern over protecting the environment has
heightened (Hakim and Nakagoshi, 2014; Booking.com, 2018). This chapter will introduce the concept
of ecotourism, its characteristics, growth, development and issues, before discussing the demographics
of ecotourists and their behaviour. The aim of this chapter is to review the existing literature,
predominantly focused, on ecotourism and then to establish a research gap which justifies the reason for
completing research in this sector.

2.2 Definition
The origin of ecotourism is still unclear but has been dated back as far as 1965 with Hetzer describing
this area of tourism as “the intricate relationship between tourists and the environments and cultures in
which they interact” (cited in Fennell, 2008; 17). This can be portrayed as an overly broad definition of
ecotourism and, today, could overlap with various other forms of alternative tourism, such as wildlife
tourism, nature-based tourism and adventure tourism (Newsome et al. 2002). The position of
ecotourism, and where it fits within the tourism industry (shown in Figure 2) can be described as a sub-
set of nature-based tourism, which is a sub-set of outdoor tourism which is under the bracket of
alternative tourism (Newsome et al. 2002). However, there is a slight cross over within nature and
wildlife tourism, which can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 2: Ecotourism in the Tourism Context

Source: Adapted from Newsome et al, 2002

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 Figure 3: Ecotourism’s position in outdoor tourism
Source: Reynolds and Braithwaite, 2001 p.32

Since Hetzer’s original definition, there have been several developments, with key researchers (Fennell,
2008; Ziffer, 1989 (cited cited in Page and Dowling, 2002); Goodwin,1996; Newsome, 2002; Wallace
and Pierce, 1996) creating more precise definitions to pinpoint exactly what ecotourism is. However,
each definition varies and there is a general lack of common agreement on aspects such as the level of
responsibility, education, culture, engagement with nature, and the location of which ecotourism takes
place.

Figure 4: Defining Ecotourism

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The main principals (which can be seen in Figure 4) that are carried throughout most definitions include;
an interest in nature, involves some sort of contribution to conservation (via physical labour or financial
means), a reliance on the experience to take part in a park or a protected area, and to benefit the local
people. However, the importance of education is also becoming quite key with Fennel (2008) believing
the notion of learning about nature first-hand, which is mirrored by the Ecotourism Australia (2019)
believing that a person needs to experience the natural areas to “foster environmental and cultural
understanding”. First-hand experiences tend to be a common trend, however, Hultman and Andersson-
Cederholm (2006; cited in Fennell, 2008) disagrees with this, believing that although ecotourism
involves a level of learning, there should be no bodily engagement with nature. Furthermore, the concept
of associating culture into the ecotourism definition is argued, with Fennell believing that culture, no
matter how significant, is not a primary factor of ecotourism, and if it were then it would be called
Cultural Tourism (Fennell, 2008). On the other hand, Ziffer (1989; cited in Page and Dowling, 2002)
considers that ecotourism is primarily inspired by the natural history of the area, and its indigenous
culture. On another note, Goodwin (1996) believes that ecotourism is made up of contributions from the
tourists to convince the local of the value of the area, whereas Ziffer (1989; cited in Page and Dowling,
2002) says that ecotourism is managed by the host country from the start; through establishing and
maintaining sites, marketing them, and forcing regulations. Ballantyne and Packer (2013) along with
Harrison (2011) and Weaver (2011) believe that the scale of ecotourism practices have not been
established, which consequently could lead to an over-tourism phenomenon within ecotourism, such as
in Banff National Park (Pavelke, 2019). Still to this day there is no definite explanation of what
constitutes ecotourism, which is becoming an explicit problem within the sector as environmental
protection and stability of local communities are compromised (Gale and Hill, 2009; Stone and
Nyaupane, 2016; Wilson et al., 2017). Research within ecotourism also tends to lack time series data
(Stronza at al., 2019).

In 2008 Fennell took 85 different definitions of ecotourism as well as his commonly accepted personal
experiences to create the following definition:

(Fennell, 2008: 24)

However, with such a diverse and unprecise understanding of ecotourism, it can be difficult for
destinations to manage whether the venture is ecotourism or not. Moreover, the term ‘ecotourism’ can
be used freely. There is no copyright of the word, meaning that operators and travel businesses can use
the term to label products and activities that might not follow the ecotourism guidelines (Weaver,
2001a). And, unfortunately all this ongoing uncertainty does not benefit the conservation and protection
of the area and its community (Goodwin, 1996).
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2.3 The Growth of Ecotourism
With an increasing volume of people having the financial means to travel alongside the development
within technology, the desire to travel has increased (Hawkins and Lamoureux, 2001). However, the
ecotourism sector is leaps and bounds above any other sector in the tourism industry (Black and
Crabtree., 2007), with The International Ecotourism Society (2019), stating that ecotourism has been
“the fastest growing sector of tourism” in the last 30 years. Ecotourism has become a buzz word due to
the frequency in which the term has been used (Buckley and Ollenburg, 2011; Mbaiwa, 2012; Wong
and Zhou, 2020) coinciding with an enhanced popularity as the sector contributes to at least 7% of global
tourism demand (Centre for Responsible Travel, 2018). This rapid growth is expected to continue for
the next two decades, with global spending on the ecotourism sectors increasing at a higher rate than the
industry as a whole (UNTWO, 2012; cited in Meleddu and Pulina, 2016).

Eagles and Higgins (1998) identified three factors that explain the increased awareness of protecting the
environment. The first is the belief that nature is all connected and for some people there is a ‘calling to
the wild’ where they can reconnect with nature, away from their busy urban lives (Curtin, 2013).
Secondly, there has been increased environmental teaching within schools, which has encouraged the
next generation to broaden their horizons. And finally, there has been a huge growth of environmental
media, with Planet Earth and Blue Planet being two of the most significant players. Media has a
significant influence on a person, with a vast amount of research proving that media has and continues
to play a crucial part in informing the public (Shah et al.,2005; cited in Ostman, 2014). Furthermore,
Ostman (2014) identified that news media promotes pro-environmental behaviour in adolescents
through raising their awareness of environmental issues. This is observed as they adapt their everyday
life to apply pro-environmental attitudes. This has been supported by the recent changes in society, such
as making efficient use of resources, escalation in conserving biodiversity and putting actions in place
to tackle climate change (UNWTO, 2019).

Bricker (2014) discovered that previous travel experiences encourages awareness and consequently
inspires tourists to value the environment, leading to an increased importance in protecting a
destination’s environment, including threatened species, as well as a destination’s cultures. This
consequently has helped to improve the growth in more ethical travel, with Booking.com (2019)
identified that 55% of travellers are determined to travel more sustainably than they were the previous
year. However, there are barriers preventing this, with cost being the most significant barrier
(Booking.com, 2019). However, despite this, previous research has shown that tourists are willing to
spend more on their holidays (Hultman et al., 2015) when they encompassed sustainable approaches
which pursue social and environmental progress (Meleddu and Pulina, 2016). Other barriers include the
lack of information and certification, and a decrease in luxury (Travel Agent Central, 2018).

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Despite these limitations, the ecotourism market is expected to continue to grow as communities around
the world are accepting that this is an essential strategy for overall sustainable development (Abraham,
2016). However, there does need to be a dramatic change in the way that ecotourism is managed to
prevent further damage of natural resources, such as beaches, coral reefs, rainforests, desserts, or natural
lakes that contain a rich wildlife. There have been suggestions from other academics (Samia et al., 2017;
Dangi and Gribb, 2018) about how ecotourism has to be managed but no successful practices have been
put in place yet. New Zealand are currently critically examining their tourism industry, which has come
to a halt due to COVID-19, to identify how it can be better managed and apply post pandemic. New
Zealand Herald interviewed the New Zealand Tourism Minister, Davis, who stated “We have an
opportunity to rethink the entire way we approach tourism to ensure it will make New Zealand a more
sustainable place” (Brandley, 2020). He believes in improving the lives of New Zealand people and to
produce an industry that is financially sustainable (Brandley, 2020).

2.4 Issues within Ecotourism

2.4.1 Greenwashing
87% of travellers are wanting to travel more sustainably and 67% are willing to spend 5% more on
sustainable products (Booking.com, 2018). But, because of this successful trend, other businesses are
promoting that their products and services as sustainable, when in fact they are ‘greenwashing’ the
consumer. Self et al., describes greenwashing as “dishonest tourism operators who embrace ecotourism
as a new selling angle” (2010: 111). Sometimes called Brown Firms, these businesses choose to hide
their bad environmental performance in a positive light by greenwashing the customer (Delmas and
Burbano, 2011). Greenwashing can cause catastrophic problems for the ecotourism industry as it
completely goes against what ecotourism is set out to do and can cause negative effects on consumer
confidence in eco products as individuals find it difficult to identify whether the company is genuine or
not (Delmas and Burbano, 2011).

2.4.2 Flying
Flying has a massive environmental impact on the planet, with 2019 hitting record highs, releasing 915
million tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere, solely from global aviation (ATAG, 2020). Therefore,
ecotourism must be called into question if tourists are arriving to the destination via aviation (Hunter,
2009; Hunter and Shaw, 2007). The link between tourism and the increase in global warming was first
discussed in the conference on Climate Change and Tourism in 2003, in which several proposals were
suggested to help reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere; two of which consisted of the
development within energy efficiency and carbon-offsetting schemes (Becken, 2010). Debates over the
effectiveness of carbon-offsetting have come to the surface, concerning its stableness and the fact that
this is not a permanent solution. (Becken, 2010). Downie (2007) agrees with this and states that offsets
from renewable energy are much more effective.

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2.4.3 Local economies in ecotourism destinations
Economic leakages create issues for all tourism sectors but can be quite critical for ecotourism
businesses which deal with several issues that increase the cost in the first place (Abraham, 2016).
Economic leakages occur when tourists choose to spend their money outside of the local community,
resulting in little local gain and consequently self-financing of national parks through ecotourism
proceeds is not always possible (Tisdell, 1994; Eshun and Tagoe-Darko, 2015; Abraham, 2016; Miller,
2016). These issues tend to be more severe in poorer countries that have an economic instability as a
larger percentage of the income contributed through tourism is lost via economic leakages because they
are unable to produce such a diversity of goods and services compared to developed countries (Lindberg,
2001). Diaz (2001; cited in Miller, 2016) identified that smaller economies lose around 40-50 percentage
of their gross tourism earnings through leakage, whereas advanced, developed countries only tend to
lose between 10-20 percent.

2.4.4 Role in the local community

Ecotourism brings about a more ethical way of travelling within the community as it helps the
development of remote areas by suppling local people with jobs, such as tour guides and lodge operators.
For example, the Lapa Rios Eco-Lodge in Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica only employ residents living within
the Osa Peninsula (Lapa Rios, 2020). However, though there are many advantages of ecotourism, it does
come with its disadvantages, which can become a major problem and make it unprofitable for local
communities, resulting in hostility towards tourists (Emmanuel et al., 2017, Faulkner, 2003). The
competition for land becomes intense as residents’ loose farmland in which they rely on for their
livelihood. As a destination becomes popular, products and service prices start to inflate, making it more
expensive for the local community, and the pressure on existing infrastructure and amenities which is
felt most by the locals (Emmanuel et al., 2017).

2.4.5 Exploitation of wildlife

It is generally assumed that ecotourism brings about more benefits, such as habitat protection, income
that benefits conservation, and net conservation gains for multi species, that counteract the direct
negative impacts of tourism (Altmann, 2016). However, Ranaweerage et al (2015) identified that non-
consumptive wildlife interaction leads to disturbance creating changes in behaviour, such as, altered
vigour and productivity, as well as, changes in distribution and demography, and species interaction and
communication. Some ecotourism industries have growing concerns about the behaviour of ecotourists.
This is especially applicable at Shark Rays Alley in Belize, where industries have seen ecotourists
attempting to ride the sharks or be pulled along by stingrays (Duffy, 2002). However, Orams and Hill
(2010) have identified that adding an education program to their dolphin interaction sessions in
Tangalooma, Eastern Australia, has resulted in a voluntary change in behaviour of the ecotourists.

 16 
2.5 Ecotourism as mass tourism
The development of whether mass tourism can be a type of soft ecotourism has been argued by
academics. Khan (1997) takes the view that mass tourism and ecotourism are two completely different
sectors within the industry, attracting different tourists, conducted with different ethics, and believes
that though ecotourism is crucial for conserving tourism activities, it is not a replacement for mass
tourism. The mass tourism trend started in the early 1950’s aided by the development in transport
technology and individual efforts of Thomas Cook, an English entrepreneur. The thirst for a holiday
came after the war which saw the increase in charter flights and cheap oil prices (Jafari et al., 1990,
Sezgin and Yolal, 2012, Poon, 1993). There is no argument that mass tourism still takes place today and
will continue to do so in the future. Not everyone is after a sustainable holiday with eco activities, but
prefer a holiday where they can pre-book a comfortable hotel room, buy local goods and services without
having to learn a language, eat fairly familiar food and not needing to pay an excessive amount of money
(Butler, 1987).

However, the 1970’s brought about an era of concern as the tourism industry was increasingly seen as
a “Trojan Horse”. Concern for the environment had increased (Kim and Damhorst, 1998; Skrentny,
1993; Poon 1993) and consequently there was a shift away from mass tourism, which made room for
the alternative tourism era. Since then, there has been an increase in research as to how ecotourism and
mass tourism can work together as we move away from the previously used ideological based platforms
of tourism sectors (Fennell, 2008; Jafari et al, 1990).

In 1987, Laarman and Durst (cited in Weaver 2001a) identified different levels of ecotourism that vary
depending on the ecotourist’s dedication towards the experience (this will be explored in greater detail
in the upcoming sections of the literature review). They believe a ‘hard’ ecotourist has a much deeper
level, in contrast to the ‘soft’ ecotourist that has a more casual approach. Investigation into soft
ecotourism identifies that there are similar characteristics to that of mass tourism. Throughout the
duration of a soft ecotourist holiday, tourists take part in activities that are considered mass tourism,
such as shopping and sightseeing, and mass tourists might take part in soft ecotourism activities, such
as a day safari (Weaver, 2001b). There is also a merge when talking about the spatial overlap of these
activities. For example, Kontogeorgopoulos (2004) describes the caves, lagoons and rainforests in
Phuket, southern Thailand, as natural, uninhabited and tranquil areas, however they are surrounded by
heavy human activity and mass tourism environments. Phuket receives the highest visitor density in the
world (5,090 tourists per square mile) (The Phuket News, 2019), and yet there are still ecotourism
activities to take part in. So, are visitors to Phuket, mass tourists or ecotourists? Weaver (2002b) calls
this combination between ecotourism and mass tourism, “mass ecotourism”.

 17 
2.6 Ecotourist Demographics
In the way that ecotourism activities and products vary, so do the ecotourism markets. They are not
homogeneous (Weaver, 2001a). Ecotourism can appeal to a wide range of travellers, of different ages,
social status and interests (The International Ecotourism Society, 2013). Because the ecotourism bracket
is so wide, it is quite difficult to identify a specific ecotourism market. For example, Holden and
Sparrowhawk (2002) conducted research of ecotourist in the Annapurna region of Nepal and identified
that due to the quality of facilities in the area and the requirement to walk between resting points the
tourists tended to be fairly young. Various ecotourism activities will create differences in ecotourist
characteristics, making it difficult to pin-point a single age group. Furthermore, ecotourist characteristics
appear to change over time with Eagles and Cascagnette in 1995 discovering that ecotourists tend to be
older, travelling widely even in their eighties. Whereas, more recently when Morais et al., (2018)
conducted research on visitors to Iona National Park in Angola in 2018, they identified that there was
little difference between the various age groups. This is also mirrored by Sumanapala et al., (2017)
research in Sri Lanka.

Gender has also been discussed, with frequent changes in whether ecotourists are predominantly male
or female. In 1998, Meric and Hunt conducted research on 424 North Caroline travellers and identified
that only 27% of the randomly selected respondents were male, with the remaining 73% being female
travellers. However, the proportion of male to female ecotourists varies greatly, showing a more levelled
results in Khan and Hawkins research (1997; see Table 3).

Collecting statistics on ecotourists can be difficult because it largely depends on the traveller’s self-
definition of their purpose or activity. Initial studies showed that ecotourists were predominantly male,
well educated, wealthy and long staying (Newsome et al., 2002). Khan and Hawkins (1997), conducted
a study of 324 American ecotourists who had taken part in an ecotourism experience over an 18-month
period, and the results are stated below:

Demographics
Average Age 76.8% aged 35-64 32.2% aged 45-54
Gender balance (M/F) 44%/ 56%
Education 56% post-secondary education
Household income 66.3% between $50-100k 24.5% over $100k
Overseas trips 59%
Length of stay 1 week- 20.4% 2 weeks- 52.6% 3 weeks- 18% <3 weeks- 8%
Accommodation Hotels/Motels- 29.7% Cabins- 26.3% Tents- 13.8%
Expenditure $3,714
Table 3: American Ecotourist Characteristics
Source: US Travel Conference- Khan and Hawkins, 1997

 18 
As shown in Table 3; tourism demographics can easily be identified through surveys and analysed.
However, this varies depending on the destination, the ecotourism activity and the time at which the
survey was taken. Sharpley (2006) has concluded that there is too much variability in socio-
demographics and psychological attributes to be able to identify a specific demographic for this group.
Nonetheless, past research has consistently suggested that ecotourists tend to be better educated than
other tourist types (Wight, 1996).

The following typologies and models show how ecotourists and their environmental values can vary.

Figure 5: Hard and Soft Ecotourism

Source: Laarman and Durst, 1987; cited in Weaver, 2001a

Laarman and Durst (1987; cited in Weaver 2001a) identified different levels of ecotourism depending
on the ecotourist’s dedication towards the experience that is measured through the physical effort
involved during the experience, and the level of interest in the natural attraction (shown in Figure 5).
They believe that the classic ‘Hard-Core’ ecotourist has a much deeper level of interest and tend to
engage in specialised ecotourism travel. Whereas soft ecotourists have more of a casual interest and
subsequently engage in ecotourism as a whole.

 19 
 Figure 6: Exploitive, Passive and Active Ecotourists
Source: Orams, 1995, cited in Weaver, 2001a

Figure 6 shows the different levels of involvement in respecting and protecting the environment and
doing ‘the right thing’. This differs depending on the moral ethics of the tourist and their interest in the
area and protecting it, showing that the level of compassion of ecotourists varies and does not require
an active level of contribution. Majority of ecotourism activities sit somewhere in between exploitive
and active, within the passive sector (Weaver, 2001a).

The above typologies prove that ecotourists demographics will vary greatly depending on their interest
in the natural area, the level of challenge they are willing to get involved with, the amount they want to
learn and the degree of action they want to partake in to conserve the area.

2.7 Demand for industry

2.7.1 Tourism Motivation
Tourist motivating factors can be split into two groups; (1) what motivates people to take a holiday, and
(2) what motivates people to take that specific holiday at that specific time (Horner and Swarbrooke,
2007). Motivators within these two factors vary greatly by the constant change in a person’s consumer
behaviour as they evolve, or as described by Sharpley (2006: 16), “climb a travel career ladder”.
Ultimately, a person’s travel needs, and expectations change as they gain experience and confidence
travelling. Additionally, their social relationships, lifestyle and perceptions shift over time due to
external and internal pressures and influences. Table 4 shows the three most known tourism motivation
theories from Maslow (1943), Lee (1966), and Plog (1974).

 20 
Theory Name Theory Description
Maslow’s Hierarchy Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was originally created in 1943 within the field of
of Needs clinical psychology, but has since been applied to other areas, including tourism.
Once the first physiological need is satisfied then the consumer was able to move
onto the next need of safety and would continue to work up the hierarchy as each of
the needs were satisfied. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the most applied
motivational models in tourism literature (Al-Hai Mohammad and Som, 2010).
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
1. Physiological Needs- Hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, air
2. Safety Needs- Freedom from threat or danger
3. Social Needs- Feeling of belonging, affection, and friendship
4. Esteem Needs- Self-respect, achievement, self-confidence, reputation,
recognition, prestige
5. Needs of Self-Actualization- Self-fulfilment, realizing one’s potential
(Source: Pizam et al., 1999)
The Push and Pull Lees (1966) developed Ravenstein’s theory of “The Laws of Migration” (1889;
Theory cited in Lee 1966) to create the Push and Pull theory (shown in Appendix 1).
The push motives focus on the factors associated with the area of origin, focusing
on the internal motives that push people to take a holiday. Whereas the pull motives
focus on the area of destination, which are the external factors that attract the tourists
to take a holiday at a particular time and at a particular destination (Lee, 1966; Al-
Hai Mohammad and Som; 2010; Anishchenko, 2016; Horner and Swarbrooke,
2007; Perera et al., 2012).
Plog’s Plog’s (1974) theory (shown in Appendix 2) helps to classify tourists into
psychographic psychocentric, mid-centric and allocentric consumers. The psychocentric
tourists’ profile consumers are concerned about their own affairs and tend to be less adventurous
travellers that require a standard of service, whereas on the other end of the scale,
allocentric consumers are more independent travellers seeking an adventure or an
experience. Then the mid-centric consumers sit somewhere in the middle of these
two ends of the scale and tend to represent the majority of tourists (Simkova and
Holzner; 2014).
Table 4: General Tourist Motivators

 21 
2.7.2 What motivates tourists to become ecotourists
Travelling responsibly is not a cheap option, and it is not often as luxurious as other forms of tourism
(Hultman et al, 2015; Travel Agent Central, 2018). However, ecotourism is on the rise with a growing
number of people wanting to experience an eco-holiday (The International Ecotourism Society, 2019;
Black and Crabtree. 2007; Buckley and Ollenburg, 2011; Mbaiwa, 2012; Wong and Zhou, 2020; Centre
for Responsible Travel; 2018 UNTWO, 2012, cited in Meleddu and Pulina, 2016; Hultman et al., 2015;
Liu et al., 2016). So why is this?

There has been a great deal of research into the motivations of ecotourists, with various academics
discovering a range of motivational factors (Anishchenko, 2016; Bastic and Gojcic, 2011; Carvache-
Franco et al., 2019; Cheung, 2014; Curtin, 2013; Eagles, 1992; Lee et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2016; Maleski,
2016; Meric and Hunt, 1998; Perera et al., 2012). Eagles (1992) undertook a survey on Canadian
Ecotourists and discovered, that compared to general tourists, ecotourists were motivated by the
‘attractive natural features of the destination’. However, the general Canadian tourist were more
motivated through internal push factors, such as ‘being together as a family’ or ‘visiting friends and
relatives’. Maleski (2016) agreed, discovering that the nature related travel motives, such as; ‘get a better
appreciation of nature’, ‘experience the peace and tranquillity of a natural environment’, ‘feel close to
nature’, ‘be outdoors’, ‘see wildlife in its natural habitat’, ‘and viewing scenery’, were considered higher
by ecotourists compared to general tourists (Kim et al, 2015; Xu and Chan, 2016).

Maleski (2016) identified that the two least important motivations towards ecotourism as ‘meeting new
people’ and ‘experiencing something new’. This contradicts Meric and Hunt’s (1998:58) research who
concluded that ecotourists “want to learn about nature, be physically active, meet people with similar
interests, learn new outdoor skills and see as much as possible given the available time”. It is possible
that since Meric and Hunt’s research in 1998 times have changed and Maleski’s research shows a more
modern approach to ecotourism motivations. Nevertheless, this is an important element of change that
needs to be taken into consideration in current research.

Chan and Baum (2007) conduct research on ecotourists staying at ecolodge in Sukau and identified three
key motivating themes:

a) Destination Attributes: Natural Attractions and Eco-Activities Pull Factors

b) Escape from normal daily life Push Factors

c) Self-fulfilment Push Factors

Table 5: Motivating Themes

Source: Chan and Baum, 2007: 356-357

These three key motivating themes have also been identified in the more recent study in Guayas,
Ecuador, by Carvache-Francho et al (2019). Both studies suggest that though there are nature and eco
attributes that contribute to why tourists want to go on ecotourism holidays, there are also just as
important general and personal attributes that need to be considered.

 22 
 Previous research tells us that there is a significant importance within nature and wildlife experiences,
and consequently, tour operators and other ecotourism businesses have ensured that natural settings and
wildlife opportunities are made clear within their marketing portfolios by portraying images of iconic,
tranquil and scenic destinations that provide an un-spoilt environment in which to experience wildlife
first-hand (Curtin, 2013). However, as Maleski (2016) discussed, and as seen from the research
conducted by Chan and Baum (2007), and Carvache-Franchoet al (2019) it is important for ecotourism
businesses to not limit themselves by simply marketing nature and wildlife experiences because the
general and personal tourist motives apply here also. Thus, including phrases such as ‘family-friendly
break’ and ‘a place to escape and relax’ will increase efficiency (Anishchenko, 2016).

An additional point that has been highlighted from previous research is that the environment and the
destinations natural attributes has more of a pull effect on the ecotourist compared to being able to
benefit and interact with the local people (Maleski, 2016; Curtin, 2013; Chan and Baum, 2007;
Carvache-Francho et al., 2019; Anishchenko, 2016; Eagles, 1992). Ecotourists are evidently attracted
by the nature aspect and there has been little evidence to indicate that the local communities are
considered a great motivating factor. Therefore, the question has to be asked; how do the above motives
for ecotourism differ from nature-based tourism or wildlife tourism?

2.8 Summary of Key Themes

Subheadings Summary
• An increase in education and knowledge has led to an increased awareness movement
in protecting the environment, species and cultures (Eagles and Higgins, 1998).
• Bricker (2014) and Mahika (2011) discovered that previous travel experiences
encourages awareness and consequently inspires tourists to value the environment,
The Growth of leading to an increased importance in protecting a destination’s environment,
Ecotourism
including threatened species, as well as a destination’s cultures.
• There has been a huge growth of environmental media, with Planet Earth being one
of the most significant players. Media has a significant influence on a person, with a
vast amount of research proving that media has and continues to play a crucial part
in informing the public (Shah et al., 2005; cited in Ostman, 2014).
• Greenwashing can cause negative effects on consumer confidence in eco products
(Delmas and Burbano, 2011).

Issues within • Ecotourism must be called into question if tourists are arriving to the destination via
Ecotourism aviation (Hunter, 2009; Hunter and Shaw, 2007).
• Economic leakages are higher in poorer less developed countries as they don’t have
the facilities to produce such a diversity of goods and services and consequences have

 23 
 to import these goods and services (Lindberg, 2001; Diaz, 2001; cited in Miller,
2016).
• Hostility towards tourists in some destinations where residents are not able to benefit
from tourism and have to deal with tourism consequences (e.g. over tourism, new
competition over land, inflation of local products and services) (Emmanuel et al.,
2017, Faulkner, 2003).
• Exploitation of wildlife is still a problem in ecotourism with issues including wildlife
disturbances resulting a changed behaviour and wildlife encounters, such as Sharks
Rays Alley in Belize where tourists attempt to ride the sharks (Ranaweerage et al.,
2015; Duffy, 2002).
• The movement from mass tourism to alternative tourism to mass ecotourism has been

Ecotourism as recorded by Jafari et al., (1990) and has proposed a significant change from
mass tourism ecotourism to mass ecotourism by expanding the market size and carrying capacity
of destinations (Weaver, 2001b; Fennell, 2008). Inevitably having a detrimental
impact on the local communities and environment as tourist numbers grow.
• Ecotourism markets vary greatly depending on the tourists interests and dedications
towards ecotourism, as well as one’s ability to take part in certain activities (Weaver,
Ecotourist 2001a; Laarman and Durst, 1987; cited in Weaver 2001a).
Demographics
• Over time there has been a shift in the demographics of ecotourists, which has
particularly been evident with tourists’ ages (Eagles and Cascagnette in 1995; Morais
et al., 2018; Sumanapala et al., 2017).
• General tourist motivations are divided into two categories; what motivates a tourist
to take a holiday (push factor), and what motivates tourists to go on a holiday to a
specific destination (pull factor). (Horner and Swarbrooke, 2007; Lees, 1966).
• Research conducted on ecotourist motivations have identified the importance of
nature and wildlife experiences when deciding to go on holiday (Eagles, 1992;
Maleski, 2016; Kim et al, 2015; Xu and Chan, 2016; Chan and Baum, 2007;
Demand for Carvache-Francho et al, 2019).
Industry
• However, this does not necessarily mean that the generic, personal motivations, such
as ‘being together as a family’ and ‘to rest and relax’, are forgotten (Maleski, 2016;
Chan and Baum, 2007; Carvache-Franchoet al, 2019).
• From previous research it is clear that ecotourists are attracted by the nature and
wildlife aspects of ecotourism more than the interactions with local communities
(Maleski, 2016; Curtin, 2013; Chan and Baum, 2007; Carvache-Franchoet al., 2019;
Anishchenko, 2016; Eagles, 1992).
Table 6: Summary of Key Themes from Literature Review

 24 
2.9 Conclusion and Research Gap
This chapter has shown that ecotourism is a complicated sector that has and continues to be shaped by
several internal and external factors. However, its market is growing at a higher rate than any other
tourism market, making it a current significant topic within the tourism industry. Though there is
extensive research within ecotourism and the motivations to go on this type of holiday, the research
tends to be quite dated and focuses on collecting research from Americans, Canadians or from South
East Asia. There has also been a significant increase in environmental media recently, and a re-
investigation into the motivations of ecotourists would identify if media has any significant influence
on a tourist’s decision making, and evidently their environmental behaviour. Thus, this study aims to
identify the current internal (push) and external (pull) motivations for going on an ecotourism holiday,
focusing on collecting data from UK participants. The research project will then go on to establish
recommendations for ecotourism companies which will help them to appeal to ecotourists.

 25 
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
After collecting secondary research in the form of a literature review, the researcher was able to complete
objective 1; To review how ecotourism differs from other forms of tourism. The research now goes on
to identify the appropriate research methods to collect primary research and consequently complete
objectives 2 and 3.

Research helps to better understand the range of issues within the study and enables individuals to
generate new knowledge (Durbarry, 2017). The methodology section simply goes through the stages of
theoretical principals and frameworks to produce a systematic investigation. Saunders et al., (2007)
created a model called the research onion that provides the reader with layers of research areas for them
to go through. The aim is to start from the outside and peel back each layer in order to produce a
systematic investigation.

This chapter will discuss the methodological framework applied to this study. It will first consider the
aims and objectives that the researcher wants to achieve in this study, before going on to identify and
explain the various research methods available to help achieve these objectives, and finally deciding
which method is best suited for this type of research.

3.2 Aims and Objectives

Dissertation Aim
Examine the motivations for why tourists to go on ecotourism holidays
Table 7: Dissertation Aim

Dissertation Objectives
1. To review how ecotourism differs from other forms of tourism
2. To re-confirm, with modern insight, the push and pull motives of why tourists want to go on an
ecotourism holiday
3. To identify whether today’s ecotourist characteristics have changed from data collected in past
studies
4. To establish recommendations for ecotourism companies which will help them to appeal to the
motives of ecotourists
Table 8: Dissertation Objectives

 26 
 3.3 Research approach
3.3.1 Research Philosophy
The research philosophy refers to how the investigation takes place and the various logical processes
that can be used to collect data. It is usually separated into ontology and epistemology, with ontology
considering the understanding of existence and how humans interpret the world, split into a realism and
nominalism scale. Epistemology refers to the methodological processes in collecting data, which is split
into the inductive logical process and deductive logical process. An inductive approach focuses on
developing a theory based on data collection and analysis, whereas the deductive logical process focuses
on using an existing model or theory and developing research from that (Durbarry, 2017).

Two main paradigm that need to be considered are positivism and interpretivism. The positivism and
interpretivism underpins the quantitative and qualitative debate, where it is referred to “scientists vs
detective” (Stainton, 2019). The positivism process focuses on the deductive logical reasoning, within
epistemology. Whereas, interpretivism examines the way people see the world as it interprets a person’s
feelings and behaviours when it comes to certain situations.

Table 9 clearly displays the positives and negatives of positivism and interpretivism which helps the
author to identify the preferred philosophy for this research.

Positivism Interpretivism
Positive Negative Positive Negative
₋ Control and precision ₋ Inflexible data ₋ Flexible data ₋ No generalisation
₋ Collects verifiable ₋ Not able to address ₋ Analysis of data will ₋ Often a lot of grey
data social aspects provide a better area as data can be
₋ Black and white data (personal opinions understanding subjective
and beliefs)
Table 9: Positivism vs Interpretivism
Source: Durbarry, 2017; Hayley, 2019

Positivism seems to be a better contender due to its quantitative nature as well as its deductive logical
theory of contributing to previous research, additionally the validity and precision of the data that it
collects.

3.3.2 Primary vs secondary data

Primary data is data collected for the specific research project at hand and can be conducted in a number
of ways, such as; experiments, structured questionnaires, small focus groups, or one to one in-depth
interviews. Primary data enables researchers to gather data to add to the existing store of knowledge that
has been collected by previous researchers. Primary data can be tailored to the research question which
means that the study is coherent, and the data collected will help to resolve a question or problem.
However, it is important to note that it can be costly and time-consuming to collect your own data (Hox
and Boeije, 2005). It is now becoming increasingly common for primary data to be published and reused

 27 
by the general research community. This is then called secondary data (Hox and Boeije, 2005).
Secondary data was collected for this research project in the form of a literature review (Chapter 2). This
is where the researcher was able to complete objective 1; To review how ecotourism differs from other
forms of tourism.

3.3.3 Research Strategies

Qualitative data is classed as an interpretive form of data collection as the participants are able to express
their viewpoint. It allows the researcher to understand the social phenomena through conducting
interviews or focus groups, and using methods such as case studies, ethnographic theories,
phenomenological theories and grounded theories to help the participant to open up and give their
perspective (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Queirós et al., 2017). Furthermore, a lot of researchers believe
that the data collected from interviews and focus groups often speaks for itself and therefore has no need
to be analysed (Durbarry, 2017). However, there have been some criticism over the using qualitative
data collection over quantitative data collection. Some of which include a potential bias from the close
proximity with participants, not representing the wider population through using a small number of
participants, and the issue of validity and reliability of the collection process (Durbarry, 2017).

Quantitative data collection is seen as a scientific method as it uses conceptual models, theories and or
hypotheses to understand observations participants interpretation of the real world (Creswell, 2003, cited
in cited in Durbarry, 2017). This type of research approach is associated with a positive paradigm belief
using a deductive logical reasoning and data collection comprises of variables that are measured with
numbers and then analysed using statistical procedures to identify if the theories still remain the same
or if there has been a change (Creswell, 1994; cited in Durbarry, 2017; Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005;
Queirós et al., 2017). Johnson et al., (2007) believes that quantitative data collection leads to establishing
valid and reliable relationships. However, this type of data collection is criticized for not considering
the participants experience and their behaviours developed from their own interpretation.

Mixed methods is the combination of both quantitative and qualitative in terms of data collection and
analysis (Creswell, 2016). It is used when quantitative and qualitative data collection provide a better
understanding together than using either type of data collection method separately (Creswell, 2016).

Table 10 shows the advantages and limitations of using a qualitative data collection method, quantitative
data collection method and mixed methods data collection.

 28 
Qualitative Data Collection
Advantages: Limitations:
 Provides depth and detailed answers as the  Potential bias from the researcher due to being in
researcher can record feelings, beliefs and close proximity with participant. (Creswell, 2003;
behaviours. cited in Durbarry, 2017).
 Researchers can encourage respondents to  Completed in small numbers, such as a small
expand on their answers. number of interviews or a small group of people (a
 Respondents can give an explanation for their focus group), and therefore this does not respect the
answer (Bryman, 2012). wider population.
 An issue of validity and reliability as interviewers
can ask questions in a different order or in different
ways (Creswell, 2003; cited in Durbarry, 2017,
Bryman, 2012).

Quantitative Data Collection

Advantages: Limitations:
 Cheaper to administer, especially if the  There is no one there to help respondents if they are
sample is geographically widely dispersed. having difficulty answering a question or to probe
 Quicker to administer as the questionnaires the respondent for more details.
can either be sent out via post or online.  Not able to have too many open questions, because
 Questionnaires are more convenient for respondents do not want to write a lot.
participants to complete as they can do it when  Not able to ask too many questions due to
they want . ‘respondent fatigue’.
 Data collected from a sufficient mass will  The questionnaire could be aimed at a certain age
enable the researcher to simplify research group or a certain characteristic but ultimately the
findings. researcher has no way of knowing who answers the
 Quantitative research avoids sway of different questionnaire.
variables.  Greater risk of missing data (Bryman, 2012).

Mixed Methods
Advantages: Limitations:
 Combined strengths of quantitative and  Combined weaknesses of quantitative and
qualitative data collection. qualitative data collection.
 Collection of numerical data adds precision to  The application of mixed methods can be extremely
words and pictures collected through difficult to handle, especially by one single
qualitative data collection methods. researcher.

 29 
 Data collected will enable the researcher to  The researcher will additionally have to learn and
produce more complete and definite findings understand how to collection and use both methods
which will enable them to create a theory and of data collection appropriately.
practice.  Mixed methods is also a more costly data collection
methods as well as being quite time consuming.
 Additionally, the quantitative data collected could
conflict with the qualitative data collected and vis
versa.
Table 10: Quantitative vs Qualitative vs Mixed Methods

Rycroft-Malone (2012) stated that in deciding the data collection method there is no best method, simple
a more efficient method which will be more tailored to the specific research. After analysing the various
data collection methods and considering the time constraints, the volume of data that is needed to be
collected, the efficiency of each method, and the appropriateness of the data collection method for this
specific research project it was decided that quantitative data collection would be the most suitable.
Quantitative data collection will be a more appropriate method for this research project as it will provide
a definitive result due to the larger scale of data collected representing a wider population (Queirós et
al., 2017). Furthermore, it allows the author to validate and test previous information collected on the
motivations of ecotourists, and then to identify any change in behaviour patterns, which is crucial for
achieving objective 2 and 3.

Online-based surveys will be more appropriate for this type of data collection as it is more convenient
for the participants to complete (Queirós et al., 2017) and will consequently lead to a much higher
participation rate. Due to the experience the author gained from working for an ecotourism tour operator
she was able to utilize the company’s clients to participate in the questionnaire. Furthermore, during the
current climate of the COVID-19 paramedic, it was deemed ineffective in collected face-to-face
questionnaires.

3.4 Data Collection

3.4.1 Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire needs to consider the quantitative limitations stated above, such as not including too
many questions and focusing on closed questions rather than open questions. The design needs to be
simple and easy to follow. As stated in Table 10, the researcher is not able to help the respondents if
they are having difficulty answering the question. Therefore, the questions need to be simple enough to
understand so the respondents do not get confused (Bryman, 2012; Queirós et al., 2017).

Research of the motivations of Ecotourism has been done before and therefore, it was fundamental for
the author to use measures from previous research, as well as adding her own after gaining experience
working for an ecotourism tour operator. Appendix 6 displays the questionnaire design table that

 30 
justifies the reasons for including questions in the questionnaire, and the sources of which these
questions were discovered.

3.4.2 Sampling

The aim of this research is to gather data from people that have previously been on an ecotourism
holiday. Therefore, the population of this study are ecotourists, and the elements creating the population
are the characteristics of an ecotourism holiday, of which the participants must have been on. There are
no other considerations to narrow down the population further and consequently a probability sampling
method was decided upon. This sampling method allows the researcher to collect data from a random
selection of the entire population; therefore, selection bias is avoided as all ecotourists have an equal
opportunity to take part in the study. The researcher will then be able to draw conclusions for the whole
population (Altinay and Paraskevas 2008).

The distribution of the questionnaire will mainly be through email and social media as the viral nature
of both increases the sample size of the study. To ensure that only ecotourists take part in this study, the
questionnaire will be predominantly dispatch through the ecotourism tour operator that the author
previously worked at. One example includes a small-medium enterprise (SME) located in Wimborne,
Dorset, generally attracting, but not limited to, an older market due to the increased price of ecotourism.
The company agreed to assist in sharing the questionnaire with current and past clients through their
newsletter, of which has over 3,000 subscribers (See Appendix 3). Additionally, through the contacts
the author created whilst working for the ecotourism tour operator, she was able to reach out to a travel
journalist to spread the questionnaire further among her contacts. As well as researching ecotourism
forums on social media (See Appendix 4) to further distribute the questionnaire.

3.4.3 Pilot study

Once the survey design was completed it was sent to 5 individuals of different ages and from different
backgrounds and experiences of ecotourism. Firstly, the questionnaire was sent to a director working
for an ecotourism company. This allowed the researcher to gain more in depth and accurate knowledge
from the industry regarding popular ecotourism destinations and regular accommodation used during
ecotourism holidays etc. The other test participants were acquired through the researcher’s friends and
family of various ages to identify their viewpoint and understanding of the questionnaire. This helped
to distinguish any aspects of the questionnaire that could be confusing for the participant and therefore
the simplicity of the questionnaire could be improved.

The test participants identified that the ‘status’ section (since changed to ‘exclusivity’) of the motivation
Likert scale needed to be reworded so that participants would answer the question more honestly. For
example, the original measure to the statement “I go on ecotourism trips…” was ‘To post about the
extravagant trips on social media so friends and family can see’. The testers believed that this needed
to be reworded so that it didn’t sound as obnoxious. The researcher considered removing this measure

 31 
all together but thought that the level of status was an important factor that needed to be considered and
therefore she reworded the measure to: ‘Because I enjoy sharing photos of my holidays on social media’.

General grammar and sentence structures were altered slightly after the pilot test so that participants
were able to understand all questions, no matter their level of experience in ecotourism.

The final version of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix 7.

3.4.4 Survey Administration

The questionnaire will be distributed using email and social media because the viral nature of both these
methods will likely cause an increase in the sample size of the study. After contacting an ecotourism
company, they agreed to help disperse the questionnaire through their newsletter, as stated above.
Additionally, the researcher has used her contacts that were established during her time working in the
ecotourism industry to reach a travel journalist who also agreed to use her platform to share the
questionnaire with ecotourists. The questionnaire was released on 17th March 2020 and was active for 3
weeks to collect a sample size big enough for the researcher to be able to analyse the data and make
conclusions.

3.5 Ethics
The design of the data collection method, the way the research is conducted and how the findings are
displayed can all cause ethical issues, and there is a code of ethics that we have to follow to ensure the
authenticity of this study (Veal, 2006). Therefore, the survey gives clarity to the participant about the
researcher’s role in the study, why they are conducting research, the length of time it will take participate
to complete, the voluntary nature of participations and how the survey and all data collected is
completely anonymous and confident (Jennings, 2001). A sufficient amount of information was given
to the participant before they choose to complete the questionnaire which allowed them to understand
the nature of the questionnaire but did not provide full disclosure, which would result in researcher bias
(Jennings, 2001). Additionally, the ethics of the research was checked and approved in line with
Bournemouth University’s Ethics Code of Practice before questionnaires were sent out. (Evidence of
this can be found in Appendix 5).

 32 
 3.6 Limitations
Limitations
1. Inability to Collecting statistics on ecotourists can be difficult because it largely depends on the
control the traveller’s self-definition of their purpose or activity (Newsome et al., 2002). The choice
deployment of to complete online survey, though it is more time and cost efficient, it means that the
online surveys researcher has less control of the distribution of the questionnaire. This is slightly avoided
by asking an ecotourism company to distribute the questionnaire through their clientele,
meaning that all respondents will have been on an ecotourism holiday.
2. Possible bias in The motivation measures were depicted from previous literature as well as the researcher’s
questionnaire personal experiences within the ecotourism industry. This could create a bias approach.
design However, this limitation was overcome with the addition of an ‘other’ category which
allowed participants to add their own responses from their personal experiences.
3. Response rate I had to attain data from an extremely specific population (ecotourists), and this
consequently meant that the response rates were not as high as they could be. This was
overcome by utilizing an ecotourism tour operator’s clientele to maximise the number of
responses.
4. COVID-19 COVID-19 has meant that tourism as a whole has come to a halt with majority of the world
in isolation (Brandley, 2020). This has been highlighted in Appendix 3 from the newsletter
that the ecotourism company sent out promoting the questionnaire. This global pandemic
is causing mass stress (CDC, 2020), resulting in less accurate responses, and people may
be less inclined to fill out the questionnaire.
Table 11: Data Collection Limitations

3.7 Conclusion
This chapter has outlined the researcher’s philosophy in collecting data outlying that a quantitative data
collection method would be more appropriate for this research, using a positivism philosophy and a
deductive logical process. Moreover, it provides explanation for the sample size chosen and the
distribution of the questionnaire, as well as identifying the purpose of completing a pilot survey. The
limitations and ethical aspects were also discussed with steps in which to prevent these problems.

 33 
 Chapter 4: Results and discussion
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 4 presents the primary data collection from 223 participants that have previously been on an
ecotourism trip. The data is then discussed and evaluated in pursuit of achieving Objectives 2 and 3; in
the context of the modern-day characteristics of ecotourists and what motivates them to participate in
ethical travel. The chapter will begin with identifying the modern-day characteristics of ecotourists,
which was collected in the first section of the questionnaire. Secondly the various push and pull
motivations will be discussed, pinpointing the reasons why ecotourists want to go on an ecotourism
holiday. It will then identify how various age groups associate with different motivations, leading the
researcher to produce recommendations for ecotourism businesses so they are able to penetrate their
market more efficiently. And finally, the media effect will be briefly discussed, identifying ways in
which tourists are influenced.

4.2 Demographic analysis

It is vital to discover the demographic characteristics of the research participants to gain further
understanding of who is going on ecotourism trips. Furthermore, this also helps in achieving Objective
3, which aims to identify changes in who goes on an ecotourism trip as a result of the increase in
environmental media and education. The descriptive analysis technique is used to achieve this.
Descriptive analysis translates raw data into statistical data (Hair et al., 2010) and allows the researcher
to learn more about the subject and to identify any similarities as well as dissimilarities from the statistics
data withdrawn using descriptive analysis. Table 12, below, displays the demographic characteristics of
the questionnaire participants.

Variables Frequency Percentage of

(N=223) sample %
Gender Female 141 62.9%
Male 81 36.2%
Prefer not to say 1 0.4%
Age 18-20 31 14%
21-30 51 23%
31-40 16 7%
41-50 33 15%
51-60 40 18%
61-70 40 18%
70 plus 12 5%
Secondary School Secondary School 13 6%
 34 
 A-Levels 21 9%
Undergraduate 64 29%
Graduate 117 52%
Other 9 4%
Income £0-£9,999 25 11%
Incorporates missing 7 values £10,000-£19,999 13 5%
£20,000-£29,999 16 7%
£30,000-£39,999 47 20%
£40,000-£49,999 37 16%
£50,000-£59,999 45 19%
More than £60,000 51 22%
Job Role Student 56 25%
Incorporates missing 4 values Unemployed 3 1%
Manual Labour 12 6%
Managerial 38 17%
Professional 73 33%
Retired 28 13%
Self Employed 3 1%
Other 8 4%
Table 12: Demographic Analysis

As you can see from Table 12, the questionnaire identified that the female participants dominate the
male participants by over 30%. This is a significant outcome, highlighting that ecotourists are
predominantly females, thus, in agreement with researchers Meric and Hunt (1998). Moving onto age
range, there is a significant proportion of the participants aged between 51 to 60 and 61 to 70, however,
there is actually a greater percentage of participants aged between 21 to 30. It is clear that there has been
a shift in the age of ecotourists, now no longer limited to the older generations, but also incorporating
the younger generations. This suggests a potential trend in younger generation travel. With ABTA
(2018) confirming the trend in younger people looking for more authentic and unique travel, it may also
be true that they are looking to protect the destination while having this experience. However, shown in
Figure 7, there is not a great deal of difference between the various age groups, which mirrors the
research conducted by Morais et al., (2018) and Sumanapala et al., (2017), whose findings were
discussed in Chapter 2.

 35 
 Figure 7: Participants Age Range

The results correspond to previous research in that participants are well educated with 52% having
gained a graduate degree, and an additional 29% completing an undergraduate. This is coherent with the
participant’s job role (shown if Figure 8), which shows that the largest proportion of participants (33%)
are professionals. However, this is closely followed by 25% of participants that are currently students,
which is contrasting with what was discovered in the secondary research, and potentially identifying a
new ecotourist market in which ecotourist businesses can target their products. This is a significant
finding, and reasons behind why these ecotourists are attracted to go on an ecotourism holiday will be
identified and discussed later on in the chapter.

Figure 8: Participants Job Role

Finally, the questionnaire suggests that ecotourists tend to have an annual household income of
anywhere between £30,000 to over £60,000. Ecotourism is still quite a pricey experience, and this has

 36 
not changed, however, the type of ecotourists have changed, with an increase in the amount of younger
people being able to afford such a unique and authentic experience. The Independent reported that Chris
Townsend the director of Uniworld mirrors this statement saying that “Property ownership is out of
reach for many young people at this stage in their lives, so we are seeing more investment in travel and
life experiences.” (Buckley, J., 2017)
The researcher has been able to identify that though modern day ecotourists have remarkably similar
characteristics which correlates to past data collected on ecotourists (such as well-educated and having
a high annual income), the age of ecotourists is becoming more varied. The younger generation, in
particularly the people aged between 21-30 years, are emerging as a new market segment. Thus,
objective 3; ‘To identify whether today’s ecotourist characteristics have changed from data collected in
past studies’ is completed.

4.3 Variable testing of Motivations

The questionnaire included a Likert-scale to attempt to identify what makes tourists want to go on an
ecotourism holiday. The Likert scale that the researcher created measured the level of agreement, from
Strongly Disagree, to Strongly Agree. This was coded from 1 to 5, with 1 being having a strong
disagreement, and 5 having a strong agreement. 3 identifies the middle option which is neither agree nor
disagree, and consequently, when talking about the mean value, anything higher than 3 conveys that the
participants have a higher level of agreement, and any mean value closer to 1 conveys that the
participants have a lower level of agreement.

The three highest motivation variables for participants are ‘to enjoy new experiences’, ‘to see wildlife
without hindering their day to day life’ and ‘to interact with different cultures’ (which can be found in
Table 13). These are a mixture of push and pull motives identifying that the destinations attributions
(pull motives), both natural and cultural, are definitely a significant motive for ecotourists, but an
individual’s personal interests also contribute to their motivation to go on an ecotourism holiday. This
corresponds to what previous researchers (Chan and Baum, 2007, Maleski, 2016 and Carvache-Franco
et al., 2019) discovered, which is discussed in Chapter 2.

The standard deviation is also shown in Table 13. Standard deviation identifies the variation of responses
collected in the questionnaire. A high standard deviation value suggests that the responses vary greatly
between participants, whereas a low standard deviation value means that participant responses are in
agreement and there is no excessive fluctuation in participant’s answers (Hinton et al., 2014).

Not only is the standard deviation relatively low for the self-development section, but the mean value is
also relatively high, indicating that the majority of the participants believe that the self-development
motives play an important part as to why they went on an ecotourism holiday. This is also true for the
nature motives and cultural motives, who both have fairly low standard deviation and high mean values.

 37 
Variable (Self-Development) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips to challenge my abilities 3.57 1.05
I go on ecotourism trips to enjoy new experiences 4.54 0.57
I go on ecotourism trips to have a more authentic experience 4.40 0.68
I go on ecotourism trips to gain a new perspective 4.26 0.79
I go on ecotourism trips to learn more about the destination 4.40 0.69
Variable (Relaxation) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips to get away from the daily routine 4.17 0.79
I go on ecotourism trips to mentally relax 4.00 0.92
I go on ecotourism trips to physically relax 3.35 1.14
I go on ecotourism trips for a sense of freedom 4.34 0.72
Variable (Functional Attributes) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips because a tour operator can arrange an itinerary for me 3.57 1.14
I go on ecotourism trips because there was a good deal 3.39 1.08
I go on ecotourism trips because all my transfers are included 3.26 1.17
Variable (Social) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips to spend time with family and or friends 3.73 1.10
I go on ecotourism trips to make new friends 3.64 1.03
I go on ecotourism trips to get to know the local people 4.04 0.84
I go on ecotourism trips to meet people with similar interests 3.80 0.93
Variable (Exclusivity) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips because I enjoy sharing photos of my holidays on social 3.01 1.40
media
I go on ecotourism trips to enjoy taking part in an exclusive trip 3.72 0.96
I go on ecotourism trips to be able to tell family about my exclusive experience 3.44 1.14
I go on ecotourism trips to impress others 2.29 1.29
Variable (Nature) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips to feel close to nature 4.39 0.70
I go on ecotourism trips to explore the unknown 4.46 0.63
I go on ecotourism trips to go back to basics (away from the digital world) 3.95 1.09
I go on ecotourism trips to experience the environment whilst causing minimum 4.44 0.68
damage
I go on ecotourism trips to see wildlife without hindering their day to day life 4.56 0.57
Variable (Culture) Mean Std. Deviation
I go on ecotourism trips to interact with different cultures 4.50 0.73
I go on ecotourism trips to ensure local communities are benefiting 4.25 0.66
I go on ecotourism trips to help benefit the local economy 4.27 0.76

 38 
I go on ecotourism trips to try new food 4.04 0.95
I go on ecotourism trips to learn about historical sites 4.11 0.86
Table 13: Mean and Standard Deviation of Motivations

The lowest and only motivation variable with a mean smaller than 3 (2.29) is ‘to impress others’ under
the exclusivity motives. It is easy to see from Figure 9 that the exclusivity motives generally have a low
mean value, except for ‘to enjoy taking part in an exclusive trip’, of which 50.2% of participants agreed.
The variety of answers show that the participants were not in agreement with each other. This is also
reflected in the standard deviation results, shown in Table 9 indicating an excessive fluctuation in
participant’s answers.

Exclusivity
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
To share photos of Enjoy an exclusive Tell family about To impress others
exclusive trip on trip exclusive trip
social media

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 9: Exclusivity result findings

Another relatively high standard deviation is ‘to relax physically’, which can be seen in Figure 10 as it
has a variety of results. The author believes, that because of the nature of ecotourism, individuals do not
necessarily want to physically relax on holiday, rather they would prefer to experience as much as
possible whilst they are at the destination.

 39result
Figure 10: Relaxation  findings
Question 13 asked the participants if there were any other reasons why they went on an ecotourism
holiday, and the main trends that came from these responses were ‘to travel without damaging the
environment’ ‘to help others’ ‘to have an experience and to do something different’ and ‘to escape and
explore’.

From this the researcher has been able to identify that the key modern day ecotourist motivations are a
combination of self-development, which is a push factor, and the natural and cultural attributes of a
destination, the pull factors. It is clear that both these motivation factors are essential to ecotourists
motivating them to go on ecotourism holidays. Thus, objective 2; ‘To re-confirm, with modern insight,
the push and pull motives of why tourists want to go on an ecotourism holiday’ is completed.

4.4 Motivation vs Age Ranges

The demographic analysis showed that the age group 21-30 years are an emerging market group within
the ecotourism sector. Therefore, it is important to identify if different age groups have different
motivations so that ecotourism businesses are able to appeal to all market groups.

Crosstabulations are used to identify if there is a connection between two different variables (Hinton et
al., 2014). In the case of Figure 11, the variables are the participations age, and how much they agree to
the statement: ‘I go on ecotourism trips to make new friends’.

Figure 11: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips to make new friends
Figure 11 shows that the age group 21-30 tend to be quite sociable and go on holiday to meet new people
and make new friends. Therefore, if an ecotourism business is targeting this age group then they should
sell their trips as being a chance to meet different people by creating group trips for solo travellers.
However, the older generations are a bit more hesitant. This is not as much of an important factor for
them when they go on ecotourism holidays. Therefore, an ecotourism business would not necessarily
focus on pushing this aspect of their ecotourism product.

 40 
 Figure 12: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips to be able to tell
family about my exclusive experience

Exclusivity motives have varied responses, as stated above in the variable testing of motivations.
Therefore, it was important to identify if there was a correlation between whether a person’s age has an
impact on this type of motive. Figure 12 shows that the age group 21-30 years strongly agree with the
statement ‘I go on ecotourism trips to be able to tell family about the exclusive experience’. However,
the general responses from the older generation (51-70) show that they are less in agreement. This is
supported by the correlation analysis (Figure 13)

Figure 13: Correlation Analysis between Age and I go on ecotourism trips

to tell family about their exclusive experience

Correlation analysis is a statistical tool that is used to distinguish if there is a relationship between two
different variables and their association with each other (Hinton, 2014). If there is a correlation between
the two variables, then they will be close together on the graph showing that when one variable moves

 41 
it will be accompanied with the movement of the other variable. From Figure 13 we can see that the age
group 21-30 is closest to the factor ‘strongly agree’, whereas the age groups from 41 to 71+ are close to
the factors ‘neither agree nor disagree’ and ‘disagree’. Then we have the age group 18-20 in the middle
of variables ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’, and 31-40 is independent from all factors. From this we can
identify that ages 18-30 want to be able to share their experience with other people, whereas people aged
41+ do not think this is an important ecotourism factor. The author believes that younger people want
to share their experiences because they have not had as much experience travelling compared to older
people. Therefore, for ecotourism businesses targeting a younger market, it would be appropriate for
them to produce momentums for younger people to purchase to show to their family and friends. For
example, producing videos of individuals taking part in activities like paragliding, or selling condiments
that people can take home to show and use, such as bringing back spices from India, or vanilla pods
from Madagascar.

Figure 14: Crosstabulation of Age and I go on ecotourism trips to go back basics

From Figure 14 we can clearly see that ages 21-30 strongly agree with the statement ‘I go on tourism
trips to go back to basics (away from the digital world)’ whereas responses from other age groups are
more varied. It might be the case that the younger population have more contact and interaction with the
‘digital world’ during their day to day life compared to other age groups and therefore they are more
likely want a break from it. Additionally, it is presumed that ‘to go back to basics’ is not as luxurious,
and therefore older generations might be against this because they are after a more comfortable
experience.

Additionally, the age of the individuals is an important factor in the next figure (Figure 15). The variable
‘because there was a good deal’ is likely to attract people with a smaller budget, which in this case is
the younger generations. 30% of 21-30-year olds have a household income between £0-£9,999 and all
age groups older than this earn much more, with majority of 51-60 year olds earning £60,000+, and the
 42 
majority of people aged 41+ having an annual income of at least £40,000 (Statistics are shown in SPSS
data output in Appendix 8) . Therefore, it is no surprise that younger generation want to utilize a deal if
one is available.

Finally, Figure 16 shows that there is a correlation between younger people wanting to get away from
their daily routine, whereas people aged 61+ are less concerned with this. This could be because older
people are more settled in their daily routine, and according to Age UK (2020), the average retirement
age ranges from 62 to 65 years. Therefore, younger people are more likely to want to get away from
their daily work routine, whereas people ages 61+ are less likely to have a work routine to get away
form.

Figure 16: Correlation Analysis between Age and wanting to get away from their daily routine

4.5 The Media effect

As stated in Chapter 2, there has been a huge growth in environmental media and Ostman (2014)
identified that this media growth has promoted pro-environmental behaviour through raising awareness.
Figure 17 attempts to identify the relationships between participants that agreed and strongly agreed
with the nature motives and the types of media that influenced the participant’s travel decisions. It is
clear that nature documentaries and news (TV) have a significant impact on an individual’s travel
decisions, with nature documentaries influencing 52.9% of participants that said they go on ecotourism
holidays to see wildlife without hindering their day to day life. However, radio and newspapers tend to
have less of an impact, demonstrating that with the incline of tv and other forms of engaging media
(social media) are having more of an effect on the population, whereas other forms of media such as
newspapers and radio have less engagement.
 43 
 Figure 17: Media Effect vs Environmental Motives

4.6 Findings Summary

Findings
Ecotourist The collected data on ecotourist characteristics revealed that there are
characteristics
similarities compared to previous research conducted on ecotourists,
disclosing that ecotourists are still well-educated and have a high annual
income. However, the age of ecotourists have become much more varied
and a new market trend is emerging as an increasing amount of the
younger generations (21-30-year olds) going on ecotourism holidays.
This completes objective 3: “To identify whether today’s ecotourist
characteristics have changed from data collected in past studies”.
Ecotourist After analysing data collected on what motivates ecotourists to go on
motivations
ecotourism holidays, the research was able to identify that the main
modern day ecotourist motivations consist of a combination of push and
pull factors specifically, self-development (push factor), and the
destinations natural and cultural attributions (pull factors). Though there
is slightly more of a pull towards natural attributes than cultural attributes,
ecotourists still consider them as a key motivation. Both of these
motivating factors are essential in encouraging tourists to travel on an
ecotourism holiday. Thus, objective 2; “To re-confirm, with modern
insight, the push and pull motives of why tourists want to go on an
ecotourism holiday” is completed.

 44 
How age effects a Since identifying that there is a potential new market trend of younger
tourist’s motivation
ecotourists it was important to identify whether different age groups have
different motivations. From the data collected, the researcher was able to
identify that younger ecotourists want to escape their day to day lives and
have a sense of freedom when on their holiday. This is reciprocated by the
fact that they want to get away from the digital world, of which their daily
lives are revolved around. Due to the age and annual earnings of these
younger tourists they are looking for a good deal and are eager to tell their
family about their experiences. In contrast, people aged 51-70 have much
higher annual earnings, therefore, are willing to pay for an exclusive
ecotourism holiday. Additionally, with the average retirement age in the
UK sitting around 62-65 years they have not got as much as a busy daily
routine compared to younger tourists and consequently this is not a major
motivating factor. However, Appendix 9 shows that the older generation
are motivated as much as younger people when it comes to the pull
motives of natural and cultural attributes of a destination.
The media effect After discussing the media effect in Chapter 2 the researcher collected
data on whether tourists were influenced by the media, and if so what type
of media. The results revealed that televisions and other engaging media
(such as social media) is influencing the population more than newspapers
and radio that have less engagement.
Table 14: Summary of Findings

 45 
Chapter 5: Recommendations and Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
After investigating all the secondary research in Chapter 2 and conducting all the primary research and
producing the results in Chapter 4, objectives 1, 2 and 3 were completed. Chapter 5 will complete
objective 4, before concluding by identifying limitations and creating suggestions for future research.

5.2 Recommendations table for ecotourism businesses

From the results collected in Chapter 4 the researcher was able to identify what motivates younger
ecotourists, a new emerging market trend into the sector. These motivations are essential for ecotourism
businesses to understand so that they are able to produce and advertise products and services that will
attract this new market. Below the researcher has created a table of recommendations for ecotourism
businesses to consider if they are wanting to expand their market range.

Ecotourism businesses targeting younger generations

Social Aspect Make sure to let their audience know that this is a chance for them to meet
new people, whether it is in group trips or interacting with the local people.
Producing momentums, such as videos and selling condiments for them to
take home will mean that tourists are able to go home and show their
Momentums families and friends exactly what they got up to. This is an important factor
for the younger generation who have not travelled as widely as the older
generation. Examples could include Vanilla pods from Madagascar or
spices from India.
Promote products and services as a chance to escape the norm, to do
Escapism
something different and to get away from the digital world that the younger
generation are normally stuck in.
With an increasing amount of younger people spending money on holidays
instead of saving for mortgages, ecotourism businesses targeting younger
Deals generations are in the perfect position to attract business. However, younger
people do not have the budget that older generations have and therefore
promoting deals and discounts will increase the likelihood of them
purchasing a product or service.
Table 15: Recommendations for ecotourism businesses targeting younger generations

After completing recommendations for ecotourism businesses, the researcher has now completed
objective 4: ‘To establish recommendations for ecotourism companies which will help them to appeal
to the motives of ecotourists’.

 46 
5.3 Limitations
Earlier discussions displayed in chapter 3 identified limitations at the data collection stage, stating that
there was an inability to control the deployment of online surveys, a possible bias in questionnaire
design, uncertainty of the amount of responses the researcher was able to collect and the recent arrival
of the COVID-19 paramedic meaning that tourism has come to a halt.

A limitation that could be considered is the fact that the questionnaire was distributed via email and
social media and therefore people from the older generation may not have as much access or technical
‘know how’ to be able to answer the questionnaire. Therefore, postal questionnaires might be worth
considering to ensure that all age groups have an equal opportunity to take part in the research.

5.4 Conclusion and Future Recommendations

This study has provided evidence of a new emerging market group of younger ecotourists who have a
different set of motives compared to that of the older generation. It is critical for ecotourism businesses
to be aware of their markets so that they can promote their products in a more efficient way. Therefore,
recommendations were created to help ecotourism businesses who are looking to expand their marketing
techniques to attract younger ecotourists. After conducting research of participant’s demographics, it
was clear to the researcher that the consistent changes within ecotourist characteristics are vital to
monitor so that new and emerging trends can be identified, such as the emergence of young ecotourists.
Additionally, with an increase in these younger ecotourists, it would be recommended to monitor their
influences and motivations so that ecotourism businesses are able to utilize this information and develop
their business further.

 47 
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Appendices:

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Appendix 1: Lee’s Push and Pull Theory Figure (Source Lee 1966)

Appendix 2: Plog’s Psychographic Tourist Profile (Source: Plog 1974)

Appendix 3: Ecotourism Tour Operator Newsletter

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Appendix 4: Facebook Ecotourism Forum

 58 
 Appendix 5: Bournemouth University Approved Ethics

Question Justification
Appendix 6: Questionnaire Design
Socio- The socio-demographic data, questions regarding age gender, education, job position and
demographic income, are collected to identify whether there is a relationship between a person’s socio-
Characteristics
demographic characteristics and their motives for an ecotourism holiday, consequently
Questions 1-5
adding merit to the study.

The multiple-choice selection of Question 4 on ‘Annual Household Income’ was

determined through the pilot test where the director of an ecotourism company advised on
the levels of income for of the typical ecotourist.

Question Justification (and sources)

The Motivation The motivation questions have been segregated into sections to help the author identify the
Question
push and pull motives of the participant and ultimately identify whether there is a stronger
push motive or pull motive. This has been seen in other studies conducting research in
motivation and the sections ‘Culture’ and ‘Self-Development’ were collected from Mahika
(2011) and Chan and Baum (2017) respectively. The ‘Exclusivity’ section was originally
influenced from Mahika’s (2011) ‘Status’ sector which identifies push factors as to why the
tourists would want to go on an ecotourism holiday over any other type of holiday. The
other possible push factors will be identified in self-development, relaxation, functional
attributes and social. The possible pull factors will be identified in the nature and culture
sections which focus on the destination’s attributes. The relaxation, functional attributes,
social, nature and culture sections were created by the author.

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Question Measure Source of measure
Self-Development I go on ecotourism trips to challenge my Extracted from a similar study: Ryan and
Motivations abilities. Glenden (1998) who identified general
Question 6 tourism motives
I go on ecotourism trips to enjoy new This measure I created myself through
experiences experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips to have a more This measure I created myself through
personal authentic experience experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips to gain a new Extracted from a similar study: Xu and
perspective Chan (2015) who identified nature-based
tourist motivations
I go on ecotourism trips to learn more about This measure I created myself through
the destination experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator.

Relaxation I go on ecotourism trips to get a change from Extracted from a similar study: Simkova
Motivations daily routine and Holzner (2014) who identified general
Question 7 tourism motives
I go on ecotourism trips to mentally relax Extracted from a similar study: Ryan and
Glenden (1998) who identified general
tourism motives
I go on ecotourism trips to physically relax Extracted from a similar study: Ryan and
Glenden (1998) who identified general
tourism motives
I go on ecotourism trips for a sense of This measure I created myself through
freedom experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator

Functional I go on ecotourism trips because a tour This measure I created myself through
Attributes operator arranged an itinerary for me. experience working at an ecotourism tour
Motivations operator
Question 8 I go on ecotourism trips because there was a This measure I created myself through
good deal experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips because all my This measure I created myself through
transfers are included experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator

Social Motivations I go on ecotourism trips to spend time with Extracted from a similar study: Eagles
Question 9 family and or friends (1992) who identified motives from
Canadian ecotourists

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 I go on ecotourism trips to make friends Extracted from a similar study: Kim et al.,
(2015) who identified motives in nature-
based tourists
I go on ecotourism trips to get to know the This measure I created myself through
local people experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips to meet people with Extracted from similar studies:
similar interests Anishchenko (2016) and Eagles (1992)
who identified motives in ecotourists, and
Cheung et al., (2014) who identified
motives in nature-based tourists.

Exclusivity I go on ecotourism trips because I enjoy This measure I created myself through
Motivations sharing photos of my exclusive holidays on experience working at an ecotourism tour
Question 10 social media operator
I go on ecotourism trips to enjoy taking part
This measure I created myself through
in an exclusive trip experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips to be able to tell Adapted from a similar measure ‘Talking
family about your exclusive experiences about the trip after I return home’ by
Cheung et al., 2014
I go on ecotourism trips to impress others Extracted from a similar study: Holden and
Sparrowhawk (2002) who identified
motives in ecotourists in Nepal

Nature I go on ecotourism trips to feel close to Extracted from similar studies: Carvache-
Motivations nature Franco et al., (2019) who identified motives
Question 11 in ecotourists in Ecuador, and Curtin (2013)
who identified motives in eco and wildlife
tourism
I go on ecotourism trips to explore the Extracted from a similar study: Carvache-
unknown Franco et al., (2019) who identified motives
in ecotourists in Ecuador.
I go on ecotourism trips to go back to basics Adapted from similar measure ‘Simpler
(away from the digital world) lifestyle’ by Eagles (1992)
I go on ecotourism trips to experience the This measure I created myself through
environment whilst causing minimum experience working at an ecotourism tour
damage operator
I go on ecotourism trips to see wildlife This measure I created myself through
without hindering their day to day life experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
Culture I go on ecotourism trips to interact with Adapted from similar measure ‘To meet
Motivations different cultures local people’ by Kozak (2002)
Question 12 I go on ecotourism trips to ensure local This measure I created myself through
communities are benefiting experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
I go on ecotourism trips to help benefit the This measure I created myself through
local economy experience working at an ecotourism tour
operator
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 I go on ecotourism trips to try new foodExtracted from similar studies: Cheung et
al., (2014) who identified motives in nature-
based tourists and Eagles (1992) who
identified ecotourist motives in Canada
I go on ecotourism trips to learn about Adapted from a similar measure ‘To learn
historical sites about culture’ by Correia et al., (2013)

Other Motivations This section is added to prevent any bias results, and therefore collects the measures that
Question 13 the author has not thought of.

Media This section sets out to establish whether there is a relation between the increased environmental
Questions 14-16 media attention and the increase in ecotourism. The literature review discusses the growth of
ecotourism and how the environment is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern
world. Question 14 (‘What made you want to travel more ethically?’) focuses on the
motivational factors as to why the participant wants to travel more ethically. All measures for
Question 14 have been created through the authors personal experience with working in the
industry.

Question 15 ‘Has media coverage about the environment influenced decisions you make on your
choice of holiday?’ and Question 16 ‘If yes to Question 15 then what type of media have you
been aware of?’ were also created by the author.

 62 
Question Justification (and sources)
Ecotourism This section explores the various ecotourism holidays that the participants have taken part in
Holiday and will help to categorise them into hard and soft ecotourists, as discussed in the literature
Characteristics
review. Questions 17 to 21 cover the bodily characteristics of the holiday (Extracted from a
Questions 17-25
similar study: Anishchenko, 2016)

Question 22 ‘When was your most recent ecotourism holiday?’ will investigate whether a
person’s motivations change over time depending on how long ago their trip was, and the
influences at the time.

Questions 23 ‘Did you research the destination before visiting?’ and Question 24 ‘Did you get
involved with a financial or voluntary contribution?’ will examine the ecotourists behaviour
before and during the trip to help categorise them as soft ecotourists or hard ecotourists.

Question 25 ‘Would you go on an ecotourism holiday again? If so why?’.

Appendix 7: Survey Questions

Ecotourism Questionnaire

As a final year Tourism Management student at Bournemouth University, UK, I am carrying out
research evolving around ecotourism which is vital for the completion of my dissertation. Completing
this questionnaire is entirely voluntary and all data collected is completely anonymous and kept
confidential. I would really appreciate you taking the time to fill out my questionnaire. It should take up
to 5 to 10 minutes to complete. All data will be destroyed on completion of the degree.

By completing the questionnaire, you are giving your consent to participate in the study. Should you
wish to ask any questions, then please contact me on s4903325@bournemouth.ac.uk

Thank you for your help!

You are participating in this questionnaire because you have been on ecotourism holiday, which is
defined as:

Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of the
local people and involves some sort of education.

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Section 1: Background Information

 64 
 Section 2: General Motivations:
Please do not select more than one answer per row *required

Please do not select more than one answer per row *required

Please do not select more than one answer per row *required

Please do not select more than one answer per row *required

 65 
 66 
 67 
Section 3: Media

14. What made you want to travel more ethically? *required

15. Has media coverage about the environment influenced decisions you make on your choice of
holiday? *required

16. If yes to Question 15 then what type of media have you been aware of? *required

 68 
Section 4: Characteristics of previous Ecotourism Holiday

 69 
 70 
Appendix 8: Correlation between Age and Annual Household Income- SPSS data output

 71 
Appendix 9: Correlations between Age groups and their environmental and cultural motives

 72 