I,•

~CTS ' Folk Housing in Middle Virginia

By HENRY GLASSIE

Photographs and Drawings by the Author

THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE PRESS

Books by Henry Glassie
Folksongs and Their Makers (1970) . With Edwa rd D. !ves and
A Cuide for Collectors of Oral Traditions and Folk Cultural
Material in Pennsylvania (1968). With MacEdward Leach . John F. Szwe d.

Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eas tern United Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structura l Analysis of His-
States (1969). toric Artifacts (1975) .
Forms Upan the Frontier : FolklifeandFolkArtsin the United
States ( 1969) . With Austin and Alta F ife.

PuBLICATION OF THIS BOOKwas assisted by the American Counc il of

Copyrig ht © 1975 by The Univer sity ofTennessee Press, Knoxville . Ali
rights reserved. Manufactured in th c Uni ted States of Amer ica. Cloth: Learned Societ ies und er a grant from th e Andrew W. Mellon
first printing , 1975; second pr intin g, 1979; thir d printin g, 1983; fourth Foundation.
printing , 1987. Paper: first printin g, 1979; second printing , 1983; th ird
pr inting, 1987.

LIBRAHY OF' CONCRESS CATALOCINC IN PUBLJCAT ION DA T A

Glassie, H enry H
Fol k h ousing in middle Virgin ia
Bibli o_graphy: p.
Includes index.
1. Architecture, Dom es tic---Virginia . 2. Folk
art- Virginia. I. Titl e .
NA7235. V5G55 975·5 75-11653
ISBN 0-87049-173-3 (cloth)
ISBN 0-87049-268-3 (paper)

The lon ely cold in ancient cathed ral s chilled John Rus-
kin. He was fatigued by endless trips across Europe, dis-
tracted by illnesses of body and mind. The cathedral
drafts set him shivering, but he kept sketc hing . His
fingers must have sti:ffened in pain and then numbed; his
back must have ached, but his notebooks thickened with
measurements and lines, with traceries, crockets, finials ,
and startling Gothic fantasies. When he wrote or spoke,
J ohn Ruskin began with the architectural details that he
had drawn with precision. But his discourse sailed from
stones to speculation on the culture of the craftsman; his
mind soared from chise l marks to th e morality of the ma-
son' s society.
A century has gone by. The int ellectua l rage ofRuskin
and his contemporaries Hes unr ead, entombed in old
volumes that bring cheap prices in second-hand book-
shop s. Unaware of their e:fforts, we must work to reinvent
their goals. It took me a long time sketching before I
could battle past wood and stone to be gin considering the
human beings who left material things as their only
Preface
legacy. This book, a record of my effort, is not exactly a
study of old buildings, or even old builders . It is a study of
the arch itectur e of past thought-an atte mpt to recon- ]
struct the logic of people long dead by looking seriously
at their houses.
Architecture studi ed for itself can fulfill a personal
curiosity and provide a test of personal capacity. Ar-
ch itecture studied as an expression of personality and
cu ltur e may provide us with the best means available for
comprehending an authentic history. If a person' s in-
terest is in the timeless principies govern ing human be-
havior, the study of architecture is an unnecessarily com -
plicated way for him to locate tho se principles. It would
be better to watch human beings in action than to spend
time trying to catch reflections of behavior in mute ar-
tifacts. If the scholar' s inter est turns to people he cannot
observe, however, and if his interest is in the ways that
people' s minds have operated over long str etc hes of
time, then artifacts can provide him with the best means /
to confront his interest. Man y of today' s cleverest and
vii
 Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
most creative thinkers have abandoned the field of his-
tory in a quest for human principies. It follows that when
they lost interest in the past, they lost interest as well in
the analysis of artifacts. By forgetting the past, thes e
thinkers have been able to develop thrilling synchronic
theories, and they hav e mad e it easier for unscrupulous
7Lmen to co-opt the vast pow er of hi story, harnessing it to
. their own ends.
Lik e archaeology, art history, and cultural geography,
the discipline of folklore is a natural center for the histori-
cal study of artifacts. Folklor e has not totally lost its in-
terest in the past, though that interest, lam en tably, has
been more in the history of things than in the history of
people. Folklorists in America now generally count
"material culture" as part of their subject matter, and
folklorists in greater numbers-young er folklorists es pe-
cially -a re concentrating on the study of artifacts. As yet,
however, their goals have been weakl y defirted. Under-
standably, folklor e' s progressives are littl e interested in
artifacts; the past does not worry them. It is likely that
\ their nonhistorical program will continue to mark folk-
\ lore ' s high road into the future, but the way of the social
sciences will not and should not become folklore' s only
path. Folklore' s tradition of humanistic litera1y scholar-
ship is probably due for a reviva!. Philosophy-phe-
nomenology and existentialism, in particular-may
become a future source for folkloristic ideas, just as an-
thropology and linguistics hav e been in th e past. And
more folklorists will probably take a look at historical
possibilities. I wrote this book partially to help my disci-
pline consider thes e historical possibilities.
Folklore is in a strange state, assessing its new-found
viii
maturity in text books, anthologies, summaries, recodi-
fications of old thought, and tentative pronouncements /
for the future. Much is being said, but little is being
studied. Prescriptive essays do less good in the further-
ing of a discipline than do actual studies, and "theoreti-
cal" essays, trimmed with assorted exam ples , are too easy :l
to write. For those reasons, though my purpose is to show
how artifacts can be analyzed to get at history, I have
attempted a tight littl e study rather than the outline of a
method. I respond, emotionally and aesthetically, to folk
architecture, and I was fascinated by the historical results
of my anal y sis. Still, this study is a test andan explicatio l}
Q[__a method. I have mea nt to be rigorous, and to stat e
openly the assumptions upon which it is founded, for it
depends u pon influenc es from severa! discip lines , as will
be apparent from the footnot es (I have not be en stingy
with th e m) and the classifi ed bibliography.
The reader will probably find sorne parts of the study
more useful or familiar than others, depending upon his
own disciplinary traditions. The historian, for instance ,
might wish to glance from chapter II to chapter VIII be-
fare working through th e whole book. The person in-
terested in structuralism, which is the book' s theor e tica 1l
mainstay, might wish initiall y to skip the chapters the
historian reads and read those he skips. The person who
has no interest in architectural history might want to pass
by chapters IV and V and then refer to points within th e m
when it beco mes necessary for his understanding of the
subsequent chapters. The architectural historian and th e
cultural geographer might relate most comfortably to
chapters V and VI. Howev er, this work is not exactly
"interdisciplinary"; rath er, it is the kind of open! S}'.n-

thetic attempt that is possible within the modern discip-
lü.!_eof folkfore :-Iw ish-to léarn as muchas possible from
the objects I select to analyze.
The study is occasionally complicated, but the prob-
lem it addresses is complicated. A much simplified
statement would require the omission of crucial aspects
of the method and would be an insult both to the reader
and to th e human beings I am attempting to explain.
J ohn Ruskin' s architectural studies be came the basis
far an effectiv e radical romanticism. Ruskin' s friend Wil-
liam Morris, blu e suit crumpled and hair aflame, could
stand befa re a gathering of genteel socialists, manual
laborers, or artists, and proclaim a future based on the
analysis of th e falk craftsman' s art. Unlike th e Victorian
'\
romantics, I have no social program; ·but, like them, I
know that hum bl e old artifacts hav e important messages
far us if we can figure out how to read th em. I am sad-
dened that man y of the b est minds of our time feel no
respon sibility toward history, and that even the historian
fee ls no res ponsibility toward most artifacts. Everyone
knows thatthe bulldoz er beg ets ugliness on the land, but
fewer seem to be aware that it des troys history. When th e ]
land is blasted and paved over it will b e easy for anyone
to remake the old American in his own image.
I thought about doing thi s book far six years, and I
thought intens ely about it far the faur years following the
completion of Pattern in th e Material Folk Culture of the
Eastern United States. That book and this on e treat simi-
lar material, and the older book contains sorne informa-
tion that is us eful within the argum ents I have framed
here. The theoretical bases of the two books , how eve r,
Preface
are entirely different. I finally wrote this book in the
spring of 1972. When I had finished the first draft, I owed
a number of debts .
I would like to thank those people in Middle Virginia
who were especially helpful to me when I was at work in
the field: Otis Banks, Lee Bradshaw, Mr. and Mrs. E. E.
Brooking, B. B. Harris, Athylone Julia Lloyd, N. O.
Rigsby, Ida Smith, and Mr. and Mrs. James Watson.
Man y of my intell ectual de bts will become apparent in
the faotnotes, but I have learned more in conversations
than I have from reading. My greatest debt will always be
to Professor Fred Kniffen, to whom this work is dedi-
cated. I also take pleasure in mentioning th e names of
these men who have helped me define my concem for
? the artITact: Ronald Brunskill, Jim Deetz, Estyn Evans,
Jam es Mar ston Fitch, Bunny Fontana, Alan Gailey, and
Warren Roberts. Chips of this book were tried out at
academic meetings of folklore, archaeology, and histori-
cal societies. Nice com ments were made to me in those
contexts by peo ple who have probabl y forgotten that they
were enco uraging: Dick Dorson, Roger Abrahams, El-
liott Oring, Joe Illick, John Walzer, and Anthony N. B.
Garvan. It is possible that ali of the men named in this
paragraph will want to deny any connection with this
book, but comments made by ali of them were helpful to
me while I was at work.
By February of 1973, when I was revis ing th e manu-
script, my debts had increased. The John Simon Gug-
genheim Memorial Foundation provided me with a
very generous grant from June through December of
1972. Though the project I completed as a Guggenheim
fellow was not the one reported here, the grant did allow
ix
Folk Housin g in Middl e Virginia
me to do fieldwork in Britain, and thi s book was im-
proved at ma ny points by my first-hand experiences on
th e oth er side of th e Atlantic.
Drafts of thi s work were buo yed by my frie nds, the
faculty , staff, and students of Indian a' s Folklore Institute.
Th ey provided me with as pl easan t an atmo sphe re as can
be found in these disagr eea ble tim es . Phil and Pat Pee k
brought me my own ivri from Isoko country, and from it I
borrowed the e nergy to keep at it on sorne particul arly
tiring nights.
My family has always ·patiently indulged my fanati-
cisms. My grandmother, my mother, my father (th e na-
tion' s mo st in sightful , un sun g critic of nineteenth -
century American painting) , my sister and he r friend
Jim- all help ed me in div erse ways. My wife's parents,
Mr. and Mrs. Irvin g J. Friedman , helped us with hou sing
X
whil e the folk hou sing of Middl e Virginia was being
studied. Then th ere are Polly , Harry , and Lydia, without
whose interrup tion s my scholar ship wo uld seem lik e
work in stead of th e fun it is. Bett y-Jo and th e kids lived
with me in the field . Betty -Jo nur sed me ba ck from an
incr ed ible case of poi son ivy that I contr acted because
one especi ally import ant old hous e was covered with that
God-for saken weed and my choi ce was to not meas ure
the house orto become totally cove red with obnoxiously
itchy sores. I chose th e latt er. Betty -Jo and John Vlach
drank a lot of coffee while proofr ea ding. She typed and
retype d the manuscript and th oug ht I was a little hard on
the old Virginia herit age th at we share . Actually I was
surprised by the resu lts of my anal y sis: the old Virginians
we re hard on th emse lves .
 Contents

Preface page vii VI The Mechanics of Structural Innovation 66

I A Silent Land 3
11 A More Human H isto:ry 8
111 A Prologue to Analysis 13
IV The Architectural Competence
V Counting Houses 41
VII Reason in Architecture 114
VIII A Little Histo:ry 176
Notes 194
19 Selected Bibliography 215
lndex 228

xi
 Figures
1. Signs on the land. page 4 17. Diagram of the transformation of the XX base structur e
2. Middle Virginia. 5 into types 7, 8, 9, 10. 52-53
3. Population of Louisa and Goochland. 6 18. Distribution of types 7, 8, 9, 10. 54
4. The survey area within its region. 15 19. Type 13, House C. 55
5. The survey area and locations of architectural exam- 20. Two-thirds type 14, Hous e D. 56
ples. 16 21. Diagram of the transformation of the XYaXbase structure
6. Conjectural diagram of ground plan design. 23 into types 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. 58-59
7. Scale of shapes. 25 22. Distribution of types u, 12, 13. 60
8. Summaiy of typological differences. 34 23. Distribution of types 14, 15. 61
9. Relation of subtypes. 37 24. Distribution of types 16, 17. 62
10. Type 1, House A. 43 25. Distribution of nontraditional houses. 63
ll. Diagram of the transformation of the X and Z base struc- 26. Typological tabulation. 64
tures into types 1, 2, 3. 44-45 27. Type 2 house with XYaXfen estration, House E. 69
12. Distribution of types 1, 2, 3. 46 28. Two-thirds type 14 hous e with ungrammati cal fenestra-
13. Diagram of the transf01mation of the XY2base structure tion, House F. 70
into type 4. 47 29. Unique house, House G. 72
14. Distribution of types 4, 5, 6. 48 30. English hall-and-parlor hou se. 74
15. Diagram of the transformation of the XY1base structure 31. Type 5, House H . 76-77
into types 5, 6. 49 32. Type 6, House J. 78-79
16. Type 10, House B. 50 33. Typ e 4, House K. 80-81

xiii
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
34. Type 2, House L. 82-84 60. British longhou se. 142
35. Type 3, House M. 84-85 fo. Suggestions of ear ly farm planning, Hous e Y. 143
36. · Type 17, House N. 86-87 62. Nineteenth century farrn planning, House Z. 144
37. Type 17, House P. 88 63. Aligned outbuilding s. 144 ·
38. Two-thirds type 16, House Q. 90 64. Boxed stairway. 146
39. The central-hall I hou se, west of the Blue Ridge. 92-93 65. Tidewater chirnney. 147
40. English House s. 94 66. English framing. 149
41. Type 14, House R. 96-97 67. Framing deta ils. 150
42. Type 14, House S. 98 -9 9 68. Plate framing. 150
43. Two-thirds type 14, House T. 100 69. The loft. 151
44. Two-thirds type 14, House U. 102-103 70. Framing th e plate of a Iog hous e. 152
45. Type 3, House V. 104-105 71. Hinges. 153
46. Type 3 hou ses. 106 72. Beaded siding. 154
47. The Georgian house. 107 73. Molded opening. 155
48. Type 15, House W. 108 74. Interior woodwork. 157
49. The last of old Viriginia architecture, House X. 109 75. Type 14, House AA. 159
50. Evolution of the architectural competence. 110 76. The architecture of design. 161
51. An English frame. 123 77. Type 15 house with end addition, House BB. 164
52. The Tidewater frame. 124 78. The nonsyrnmetrical house of Eng land and Ireland. 165
53. Sections through vertical framing mem bers . 126 79. Saddlebag house, House CC. 167
54. The Tidewater frame. 127 80. Type 11, House DD. 169
55. Log comer-timbering. 128 81. The West European tripartite bam. 172-73
56. Board interior. 131 82 . Church, FF. 174
57. Wooden latches. 132 83. English cottages. 183
58. Preliminary diagram of a segrnent of the Middle Virginia 84. Diagram of the Middle Virginia hou sing revolution. 186
architectural logic. 135 85. West Country I house . 191
59. Distribution of institutional architecture. 139 86. Plan of a northwestem English house. 192

xiv
11
e ll 1
11 /'111111
'l'I,
1li111o
e•vc•nl
l o 1icl
111111111

gil 11d

A More Human History 110 ¡~11

1'l l.~ 1111
d111d f,

l '01 lt 1
History is a difficult pursuit. 1 It is, in fact, passing difficult, without _atotalizing 1efinition of architecture may focus l. 11111
possibly impossibl e, and for that reason th e vanguard of on isolated detail-an objecttoo small. As a consequence, 1111I IN1
social science has been in full retreat from history for he often finds himself having to explain architectural l11t11Nf
most of our ce ntury . Left in the path of that movement is a change as a series of unconnected revolutions instead of llo w
critique of history compounded of three interrelated the gradual development that he would find to be the Nl11dy
charges. case if he examined architectural whol es . Actually, pro- NI 11lc11
The first charge is that of unexplained process. It is in- ceeding to diachrony without acknowledging synchrony So 1
tellectually unsound to develop a narrative of change is impossible. 4 How can you study change befor e you 1·illlc¡
through time without first accounting for the system that know what is changing? l111lld
is undergoing and enabling change. Think e rs at odds The second is the charge of elitism. The synchronic ac- lp,1111
on other matters-Claude Lévi-Strauss 2 and Jean -Paul count of any past era cannot be assembled, because avail- IC 'NI )IJ
Sartre, 3 for example-concur that any method of inquiry able records concem only a tiny minority of th e people 'l' h
must include a synchronic statement as a prelude to and phenomena that existed at any time. A method based 1111( ' 11
diachronic interpretation. Tim e must be stopped and on the document is prejudiced: fated to neglect the 1 11111 1
stat es of affairs examin ed before time can be rein- majority of people, for they were nonliterate, 5 and, within 11111110
troduced, else the scholar will be una ble to determine his the boundaries of literacy , to ne glect the majority of 1,lp, 1il f
object of study clearly. He may include too much or, mor e people, for they did not write. 6 E ven toda y, in societies of l1•l'lc•1
likely, too little in his research , and when the object of his nearly un iversa l literacy, it is arare soul who bequeaths IINhc11
study mutates he will be caugh t without an exp lanat ion to future historians a written account ofhis thought. The OII N 1
for the cha ng e. The architectural historian who operat es past becomes an anecdotal congeries. How can it be un-
8

derstood on the basis of the recent West alone? How can
you study a society if you attend only to the expressions of
a small and deviant class within the whole?
The last charge against conventional historiography is 1
that of unscientific procedure. The records of people and J
events are the reports not of trained professionals striving
to adhere to the troublesome ideal of objectivity, but of
amateur information gatherers who often had axes to
grind. 7 Appalled by the ethnocentrism of scientific eth-
nography, we still accept the random judgments of the
casual travelers of olden times, even though their stan-
dards were not necessarily high; a reading of travel ac-
counts reveals that their authors sometimes piagiarized
from one another. We know that contemporary jour-
nalism is biased and inaccurate, and that the results of the
latest census are questionable. What of past documents?
How can the product of research approach truth when
study proceeds from vaguely derived, uncontrolled
statements?
Sorne have solved the dilemma presented in this
critique by forgetting the past and turning their efforts to
building laws out of the knowable present. Others have
ignored not the severe responsibility of history, but the
responsibility oflogical methodology.
The latter regularly defend th e ir actions as endeavors
unencumbered by fashionable theorizing. But the histo-
rian must be a theori st, 8 if only unreflectively. Infor-
mation is weighed according to tacitly held norms of
significance: sorne bits of it are selected, most are re-
jected, and the useful data is then plugged into an estab-
lished model-an act ali the more scholastically pernici-
ous because sorne who move in this manner seem to
A More Human History
believe that they are getting from facts to pure truth with-
out hypothesis. Unless theories are clearly formulated
and brought cleanly to the smface, there is no way to de-
fend against them. The scholar who believes that he V
works without theory, works with bad th eory.
The model regularly em ployed by the historian is one
cobbled out of a nai:ve functionalism ("nai:ve" because it
is unformulated and lacks a causative mechanism), an op-
timistic sort of periodization (clearly a survival of ancient
Greek theorizing 9 ), and the concept, both unattractive
and untrue, that "followers" automatically follow "lead-
ers." Operating with such a model, the historian may
create nota record of what happened in the past, but a
serial arra y of literary scrap~ that give the reader the
sensation of progress. Histqry, as_we are redundantly
reminded by the orators of the oppressed (and by theo-
retical inconsistencies), is . too mu_ch the _genealogy of
contemporary in_stitutional -~ower ~nd too little the story
of people. Judg ed and found und emocratic, history is
fórcea into regular revisions andan embarrassing abun-
danc e of special studies programs.
The seriousness of the case has been recognized by
historians and the labor of expanding the record is un-
derway. The awareness is not new. There were the awful ,
but valiant attempts by turn-of-the-century social hist o-
rians. We are fortunate to have the modern works of spa-
tially oriented students of history, such as W. G. Hoskins
and E. Estyn Evans, and to have the passionate and intel-
lectual oeuvre of Marc Bloch 1º-his quest for "a more
human history ." In recent American historiography there
is hope in oral history, 11 historical geography, 12 historical
archaeology, 13 and in that psychological or sociological or
9
 Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
anthropological or demographic new history excitingly ever, is less that it may be wrong, like written history, Hl11dv rn1
set out by students of early New England. 14 All of these than that, like written history, it tends to concentrate on a ,'11111
lt ' I ' 1 ¡j

( efforts are ~t~ ttacks on the probl ems raised by the few striking personages and events at the expense of wl1111,
,,,,,,
charge of elitism in the critique of history; they are commonplace reality. While conducting extensive inter- l.~1111, •d 11,

studies ofhuman beings. Of equal importance is the fact viewing on the oral history of the troubled Irish border, I fo , 1111 1 ,

that probl ems of method and theory are being tendered was offered fine, detailed information on bloody battles 11!1dll111',f.,
a look. The methods of this new scholarship can be that took place as long ago as th e sixteenth century. When l lt,I, 1¡,, 1
employed to answer simultaneously the objections of I asked about the agricultural technology u pon which life ,-i11gg1•1ll'l 1
angry speakers and philosophical methodologists, but depends, I could get back only to the nineteenth century. 11111 1•illlq1

not if they are used to lead only to compensatory repairs. Oral history, like conventional written history, teaches Sfl ' IH •f 11 '•\

They must lead through disciplinary introspection to a more about the narrator and his society than it does about w lll, dl111 1
complete overhaul. The goal of history must not be the the socie ties of the pa st. For the distant past the analyst li11·1111tl 1,111
chronicle of the outré, the obvious , and the violent; it \ will normally have to rely on artifacts. Sorne artifacts are p1'0,li-1·!101
must be a record of what happened . And there is no way overtly informational (books, for example, or lett ers), ll11·w 1l!lr
to avoid th e fact that the record will have to be built on while others are not. The information on the artifact' s sur- ¡;.w 111 011¡
sophisticated gen e ralizing theories. 15 Without them the face ma y be perfectly accurate, although the likelihood of h111, p1 op,
task is beyond doing, and history remains either an un- its accuracy obviously depends on what its maker knew 1•1111·, 1111! 1
coordinated amassing of data ora linear linking of those and what he intended . If the document deals with the 11ti ~I II l,1,

maladjusted personalities who stand out from the crowd. author' s society, it is more apt to be accurate than if it 1111iliw 11d 1

One step is tak e n toward solving history' s problem-it deals with people he knows less well. The docum en t that i11 tl1t• WI
is a contemporary problem with two main symptoms, one is unintentionally informative , such as th e probate inven- lh ro11g l1 11
social and one theoretical-when close thought is di- tory, is less lik ely to be purposiv ely falsified than one y i1•lds 111 n
rected toward th e nature of the objects subjected to meant to sway th e read e r' s thought. 17 The surface of th e li·n ·d l>,vti
analysis. The answer for current events is ethnography: document, of course, cannot be accepted without qu es - 111ord1 •1
the analyst must construct his own objects out of obser- tion. Peop le make mi stakes. The historian ha s developed l1·1l l>1·h i111
vation. For the recen t past, the best recourse is to int er- means for trying the reliability of an overtly informational lo oh 111i11
viewing. When a point is reached where observation is artifact, thereby making it of sorne use, but stronger than 11llh o 11~ l1 1
no longer possible , and the recollections that int erviews th ese contextual tests are analytic proc e dure s th at force lik(• <·1111

capture b eco me vague, then the analyst must turn to less the scholar to search below apparent content to a level S('lilS II d ll

direct sources. H e may have access to a body of oral tradi- where falsification cannot occur. 18 Rigorously ana lyzed , 'l'IH' difll1·
tional history containing remarkably rich data on events the artifact is always genuine because it is an expression viHlll (' I ' !1111
long past. 16 The problem with traditional history, how- of its maker's mind. This move obligates the analyst to c inl 1111!1111

10

study only direct expressions, to use the artifact as a
source of information about the maker rather than about
whatever topic the analyst is addressing. If an expression
is used to reveal its maker, then it can be used as material
for the construction of schemes, rather than as mere
stuffing for previously set schemes.
Using a piece of writing solely to analyze its author
suggests answers to the first and third of the charges in
the critique: written documents may be analyzed to con-
struct a synchronic statement, and the analyst is dealing
with direct and expert (though not easily understood) in-
formation when he is dealing with a person' s own written
projections. The middle charge remains unanswered:
the written record is still the record of the few. What the
few thought of sorne of the many might be discovered,
but, properly, that is information about the thought ofthe
elite, not about the thought of their subjects. The majority
might be studied as phantoms in unintentionally infor-
mational documents oras distorted shadows of phantoms
in the writings of the elite; or they might be studied
through their own expressions. 19 Only this last choice
yields at once potential answers to the full critique prof-
fered by those who have abandoned the past.
In order to understand that vast majority of people who
left behind no literate legacy, it is necessary to learn how
to obtain information from the artifacts they did make,
although these artifacts-potsherds, old houses, and the
like-carry no information on their surfaces. This pre-
sents a difficulty because a subtle code must be cracked.
The difficulty is fortunate, however, for there is little
chance that the analyst will be spirited away by a superfi-
cial untruth.
A More Human History
Interpreters of mute artifacts, like interpreters of writ-
ings, are apt to indulge in half-cocked theorizing; the ar-
chaeologist, for instance, may assign an unexplainable
artwork to a position within a sacred system. But there is
the hope that the serious analyst of artifacts will not be
tempted to believe that he understands what he does not.
Theoretically, the historian would have to subject each
word of his chosen text to semiotic analysis because the
meanings of words are not rigid; 2º they slip and shift dur-
ing even short periods of time. He does not do that, for it
is not obviously necessary; it is only methodologically
necessary. But when an artifact lacks simple semantics,
the scholar does what he must do: he analyzes itas if he
did not already understand it. This is the problem of
ethnographic interpretation. E ven speakers of the same
language and members of the same stream of tradition
must be treated as carriers of an alíen culture when re-
moved from the analyst by time or space. The . historian
must study the inhabitants of, say, eighteenth-century
Philadelphia in a way comparable to that used by an an-
thropologist to study the people of a Micronesian atoll.
Of equal significance is the problem of psychological
interpretation. The written record is a rationalization; it
not only may be wrong, it is definitely shallow and in-
complete. 21 Occurrences cannot be explained by appeal
to consciousness alone, because the historie pattern is at
least as much the product ofthe unconscious as it is of the
conscious. Any serious attempt to comprehend history
depends, then, partially upon theories of cognition.
lt is not that literary commentary is valueless, but
rather that its use is corroborative. Old writing cannot be
used to construct the epistemologically essential syn-
11
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
chronic record that will account for most people (writing
is a rarity, the making of artifacts is universal); but once
the synchronic account has been developed, the written
record can retum to utility as a qualifying supplement.
A philosophically and socially valid history must come
out of painstaking analysis of direct cultural expressions
that the analyst can study at first hand. Man y of these ex-
pressions will be docuinents; but when no documents
are available, we must study other sorts of artifacts rather
than consigning the great bulk of humanity to historical
oblivion.
Two diseases have crippled and nearly killed the silent
artifact as a source for history. Most historians, it seems,
continue to view the artifact as only an illustrative adjunct
to th e literary narrative. Perhaps when the elite is
studied, this is not an unintelligent course of research.
A knowledge ofThomas Jefferson might be based on his
writings and only supplemented by a study of Monti-
cello , but for most people, such as the folks who were
chopping farms out of the woods a few miles to the east
while Jefferson was writing at bis desk, the procedure
must be reversed. Their own statements, though made in
wood or mud rather than ink , must take precedence over
someone else' s possibly prejudiced, probably wrong,
and certainly superficial comm _ents about them . The his-
torian ' s benign neglect of silent artifacts and their people
is a reasonable, if shallowly reasoned, response to the-
12
way that artifacts have most often been studied-
obsessively, that is, as ends in themselves. Sorne ar-
chaeologists stop work when their findings are listed in
site reports, and sorne connoissuers not only persist in
treating the artifact as a unique wonder rather than as a
material manifestation of culture, they even eliminate
from scrutiny the things that do not measure up to their
own taste. Maybe sorne of these things are "bad," but
most of them are "good" things that the connoisseur has
failed to understand. 22 The decision to eliminate sorne
artworks from study makes as much sense as would the
choice by a historian toread only books with pretty bind-
ings or to study only old documents calligraphed in a
lovely hand. Any artifact that can be provided with asso- It is 11c
ciation in space and time, either by being accompanied pop I,'
by a document or better-as with gravestones or build- forwl1
ings-by being set into the land , is a valuable source of a Í S CX llC
great quantity of information. 23 Ana<!
When we have learned to read the silent artifact, his- Th c lc•
tory will not be an easier pursuit. But if artifacts, such as body c
the old houses standing along dusty roads in Midd le Vir- Ch o111
ginia, can be read, then history will become a philosophi- In 11
cally more plausible pursuit. The remainder of this book be hav
sets out a careful description and analytica l interpretation bec n .
of Midd le Virginia' s houses , digressing where n eces sary pl es.
to explícate the method, in arder to see how the mute are clis
artifact can be made to spe ak. ne w(•r
doonu
te stod .
whih •
Lév i-S
of thi s
had sp

lt is no test of the scholar or his craft to inventa theory and
pop bits of information into it. That is the sort of activity
for which historians criticize other social scientists, and it
is exactly that for which they, in turn, criticize historians.
An ad hoc selection of data can pro vide no test of a theory.
The test, rather, is to see whether the theory fits a natural
body of material. A grammar, we are reminded by Noam
Chomsky, must fit a natural languag e .1
In my own discipline, folklore, the newer structural or
behavioral theories, like the earlier theories, have ali
been supported by artificially assembled sets of exam -
ples. New theories replace old ones not because the old
are disproved, but merely because they lose favor. The
newer theor ies, being new, gain adherents, but they are
doomed to brieflives because they are never adequately
tested. Modern sava nts will often chatter aboút theory,
while avoiding the "craft-like" 2 work that sets Claude
Lévi-Strauss aloof from his hasty imitators. Recognition
of this fact led to a personal dissatisfaction with years I
had spent in scattered architectural photographing and
111
A Prologue to Analysis
measuring in the United States. Without assembling a
natural corpus, it would be possible to assert anything
and prove nothing. 3 It took a cold, wearing year of sys-
tematic research on barns in upstate New York4 forme to
realize that recording procedures must be painfu lly exact
if the ene rgies consumed in the field are to be considered
we ll spent. I stopped; resolved to do it right, and entered
the field .
In ordinary experience, the tendency of the person is to
accumulate information randomly, incompletely, and
then to order that information into conscious patterns that
are specific, yet complicated and unwieldy. Normal per-
ceptions are selectively small; normal concepts are large
and weak. lt is by constantly reexperiencing the same or
similar things that a person' s perceptions become
adequate and his concepts become efficient, althou gh
generally these concepts remain unconscious and unar-
ticulated. The problem of the scholar with a limited
amount of time in an alien setting is to work rigorously
against his natural proclivities. He must edit as little as
13
 Essay on its
(Berkeley: U
2. Claud,
trans. Shew
J onathan Caí
3. Jean-I
Barnes (Ne~
4. See F
guage," in I~
(New York:
5. Claud
Notes Un iv. of Ch i
Rise of Antl
Culture (Ne·
6. Lyn n
I: A Silent Land 7. Cen susfor 1820 (Washington: Ga les and Seaton, 1821), Frontiers of
23. Jr. (New Yorl
1. Raus McDill Hanson , Virginia Place Names (Verona, 8. DeBow , Stati stica l View of th e United States, 324-2 5. WehaveLos ·
Va.: McC lure Press, 1969), 127. 9. Compendium of the Tenth Census (]une 1, 1880), I, Scribner' s, 11
2. Heads of Families At the First Census of the United 824-25; II (Washin gton: Government Printing Office , 1888), and the His 1
Stat es, Taken in the Year 1790: Record s of th e State Enumer- 1023. 142, 148-5 0
ation s: 1782 to 1795: Virginia (Washington: Govemment 10. Richard C. Wight, The Story of Goochland (Richmond , 7. J. M.
Printing Office , 1908), 9. Va.: Richmond Press, 1935) , 50, 51. Thought, tr~
3. J. B. D. DeBow , Statistical View of the United States 11. Jean Gottman, Virginia at Mid-Century (New York: Claude Lév
. . . a Compendium of the Seve nth Census [1850] (Washing- Holt , 1955), 150, 152, 175- 76 . Jacobson an
ton: Beve rley Tucker , 1854), 320, 322. 12. Rosew ell Pag e, Han over County: It s Histo ry and Doubleda y,
4. Compendium of the Tenth Census (]une 1, 1880), I Legends (n.p.: author, 1926), 39. 8. See (
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1885), 376; 13. Robert Bollin g Lancaster, A Sketch of the Early His- Introductio1
Tw elfth Censu s of the United States, Taken in th e Year 1900, tory of Hano ver County , Virginia (Ashland: Hano ve r Chap- Hartman (18
William R. Merriam, Director: Population , I (Washington: ter o( th e Association for th e Preservation of Virginia An- Bloch, The f
U.S. Census Office, 1901), 561. tiquities, 1957), 13. Random Ha
5. The Eighteenth Decennia l Census of the United Sciences anc
Stat es: Census of Population: 1960, I:48 (Washington: Gov- Anchor (Lm
emment Printing Office, 1963), 48 ff. 11: A More Human History 9. See v
6. See Tench Coxe. Tabular Statements of the Seve ral Views on tf
Branches of American Manufactur es . .. of the Year 1810 1. Fu stel de Coulange s considered history to b e th e most (I thaca, N. Y
(Philadelphia: A. Comman, 1813), 88-114. difficult of trades. In Marc Bloch, Frenc h Rural Society: An 10. See I

1 94

Essay on its Basic Characteristics, trans. Janet Sondheimer
(Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1970), xxiii.
2. Claude Lévi -Strauss, The Scope of Anthropology,
trans. Sherry Ortner Paul and Robert A. Paul (London:
Jonathan Cape, 1967), 21, 25.
3. Jean-Paul Sartre, Search far a Method, tran s. Hazel E.
Bames (New York: Random House, 1963), 51-52, 80.
4. See Ferdinand de Saussure, "On the Nature of Lan-
guage," in Introduction to Structuralism, ed. Michael Lane
(New York: Basic Books, 1970), 47-56.
5. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago:
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1966), 256-62; Marvin Harris, The
Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of
Culture (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1971), 64.
6. Lynn White, J r., "History: The Changing Past," in
Frontiers of Knowledge in the Study of Man, ed. Lynn White,
Jr. (New York: Haiper, 1956), 71-72; Peter Laslett, The World
We hav e Lost: England Befare th e IndustrialAge (New York:
Scribner' s, 1965), 195;_Richard M. Dorson,American Folklore
and the Historian (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1971),
142, 148-50 .
7. T. M. Bochen.ski, The Methods of Contemporary
Thought, trans. Peter Caws (New York: Harper, 1968), 120;
Claude Lévi-Strau ss, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire
Ja cobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (Carden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1967), 18.
8. See G. W. F . Hegel, Reason in History: A General
Introduction to the Philosophy of History, trans. Robert S.
Hartman (1837; rpt. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953), 13; Marc
Bloch, The Historian' s Craft, trans. Peter Putnam (New York:
Random House, 1953), 144; Lucien Goldmann, The Human
Sciences and Philosophy, trans. Hayden V. White and Robert
Anchor (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), 30.
9. See W. K. C. Guthrie, In the Beginning: Sorne Greek
Views on the Origins of Lij e and the Ear ly State of Man
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Come ll Univ. Press, 1965), chs . 4 and 5.
10. See Lucien Febvre, "Marc Bloch," in Architects and
Notes to pages 8-10
Craftsmen in History: Festschrift Für Abbott Payson Usher,
ed. Joseph T. Lambie (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, Paul Siebeck,
1956), 75-84.
11. William Lynwood Montell, The Saga of Cae Ridge: A
Study in Oral History (Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press,
1970); see especially the preface.
12. See Peter O. Wacker, The Musconetcong Valley of New
Jersey (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1968);
James T. Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geo-
graphical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania (Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1972).
13. See Bemard L. Fontana, J. Cameron Greenleaf, et al.,
"J ohnny Ward' s Ranch: A Study in Historie Archaeology ," The
Kiva, 28:1-2 (Oct.-Dec., 1962), 1-n5; Edwin Dethlefson
and James Deetz, "Death' s Heads, Cherubs, and Willow
Trees: Experimental Archaeology in Colonial Cemeteries,"
American Antiquity, 31:4 (April 1966), 502-10.
14. See John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Lije
in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1970);
Kenneth A. Lockridge, A New England Town: The First
Hundred Years (New York: Norton, 1970); Philip J. Greven,
Jr., Four Generations: Population, Land, and Family in Colo-
nial Andover, Massachusetts (Ithaca, N.Y.: Comell Univ .
Press, 1970); Sumner Chilton Powell, Puritan Village: The
Formation of a New England Town (Carden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1965).
15. Michael Polanyi, The Study of Man (Chicago: Univ. of 1
Chicago Press, 1959), 84-85. 1
16. See Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical
Methodology, trans . H. M. Wright (Chicago: Aldine, 1965);
Richard M. Dorson, "The Debate over the Trustworthiness of
Oral Traditional History," in Folklore: Selected Essays
(Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1972); Richard M. Dor -
son, "Folklore and Traditional History," Journal of the Folk-
lore lnstitute, VIII:2/3 (Au~.-Dec. 1971), 79-184.
17. Bloch , The Historian s Craft, 60-61.
18 . See Hugh Dalziel Duncan, Symbols in Society (New
1 95
Notes to pages 11-18
York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1972), 50-51. 3. See George A. Miller, The Psychology of Communica- point, th(•
19. See Lynn White, Jr., Medieval Technology and Social tion: Seven Essays (Baltimore: Penguin, 1969), 66. tion to
Change (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1964) , v, 13, 39. 4. Henry Glassie, "The Variation of Conce1;ts in Tradi- Press, J 9
20. Bochenski, Methods of Contemporary Thought, 123; tion: Bam Building in Otsego County, New York, in Man and 16. S<·
Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley: Univ. of Cultural Heritage, ed. H. J. Walker and W. G. Haag, Geosci- 82.
California Press, 1969), 111- 12. ence and Man, 5 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 17. s('
21. See Jean Piaget, Insights and Illusions of Philosophy, in press ).
trans. Wolfe Mays (New York: World, 1971), 130-62, espe - 5. See Robert K. Me1ton, On Th eoretical Sociology: Five
Essays, Old and New (New York: Free Press, 1967), 147-49. IV: Thc
cially 135, 153, 158-59; Abraham Maslow, The Psychology of
Science: A Reconnaisance (Chicago: Regnery, 1966), 19. 6. Robert Brown,Explanation in Social Science (Chicago:
Aldine, 1963), 171. 1. Se
22. See André Malraux, Museum Without Walls: The
Voices of Silence (Carden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967), 7. See Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revo- Dover , 1
80-81; Daniel Biebuyck, "Introduction," in Tradition and lutions, Intemational Encyclopedia of U nified Science, II :2 Buildin g.
Creativity in Tribal Art, ed . Daniel Biebuyck (Berkeley: (Ch icago: Univ. of Chicago Pr ess, 1970), ch. IV. 1968), 4-
Univ. of California Press, 1969), 16-17; Robert Scholes and 8. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Psychol o
Robert Kellogg, The Nature of Narrative (New York: Oxford XXVI (1936), 1 79-93. Press, 19
9. For sorne sugg est ion s on technique, see th e last section 2. M
Univ. Press, 1968), 274-77.
23. See W. G. Hoskins, Local History in England (London: in the bibliography. bricola g('
Longmans, 1965), 2, 106-38; Bemard L. Fontana, "Bottles,
Buckets and Horsesh oes: The Unrespectable in American
10. Fred Kniffon, "Folk Hou sing: Key to Diffusion," An-
nals of the Association of American Geographers, 55:4 (Dec.
º'
3. c 1
compet
Archaeology," Keystone Folk lore Quarterly, XIII:3 (Fall 1965), 550. leamed i1
1968), 171-84; Alan Gowans, On Parallels in Universal His- 11. See Kathleen Booth Williams, Marriages of Louisa position 1
tory Discoverable in Arts and Artifacts: An Outline State- County: 1766-1815 (n .p. [probably Alexandria]: aut hor, M.I.T. Pr
ment, Univ. of Victoria Monograph Series, History in the Arts, 1959). probl em .
6 (Victoria, B.C.: Univ. of Victoria, 1972), 9-26, 95. An admir- 12. A couple of months before I began this book I wrote an Structur<
able new statem ent of the need for artifactual study in hi sto ri- article, "Structure and Function, Folklore and th e Artifact," Books, 1r
cal understanding is E. Est)'n Evans, The Personality of Ire- Semiotica, Vll:4 (1973), 313-51, con tainin g amplifications of 4. Cli
land: Habitat, Heritage and History (New York: Cambridge sorne of th e theor etical points involv ed h ere, as well as sorne 5. Se
Univ. Press, 1973), ch. I in particular. (somewhat premature) statem en ts of the method used in parts Fo lkt alc,'
of this book. "The lnl<
13. Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind (New York: Har- turalAna
court, Brace, and World, 1968), 4, 61-62. Konga s
ID: Prologue to Analysis 14. Frank Lloyd Wright attributed the qualities he saw in lore and
"folk-buildin]?.s" to a natural, human "grammar ofarchitectural Press, 19
1. Noam Choms ky, Syntactic Structures, Janua Lin- forros." See The Sovereignty of th e Individual" in Frank tales: A (
Lloyd Wright: Writings and Buildings, ed. Edgar Kaufmann Il:2 (Scp
gu arum, 4 (The Hague: Mouton, 1957), 13, 50-51.
2. Claude Lévi-Strauss, "Interview," trans. Peter B. Kus- and Ben Raebum (Cleveland: World, 1969), 85, 89, 93. 6. Se
15. Of the many references that cou ld b e offered at thi s ti on," V.
se ll, Diacritics, I: 1 (Fall 1971), 44.
196
 Notes to pages 18- 21
ommunica- poin t, the most relevant and important is James Deetz, Invita- lore Society, Bibliographical and Special Series, 9; Indiana
i6. tion to Archaeology (Carden City, N.Y.: Natural History Univ. Research Center in Anthropology, Fo lklore, and Lin-
ts in Tradi- Press, 1967), 83-96. guistics, 10 (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1968), xii.
inMan and 16. See Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, 29-31, 68, 7. See Bochenski, Methods of Contemporary Thought,
tag, Geosci- 82. 40 - 42.
Uni v. Pr ess, 17. See Language and Mind, 64, 66, 77. · 8 . Jean Piaget, Structuralism, 8-13.
9. See Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Carden
iology: Five City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967), 16-17.
37), 147-4 9. IV: The Architectural Competence 10. See Roland Barthes,Elements of Semiology, trans. An-
ce (Chicag o: nette Lavers and Colín Smith (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970),
1. See Franz Boas, Primitive Art (1927; rpt. New York: 12.
mtific Rev o- Dover, 1965), 11. See also Clovis Heimsath, Pioneer Texas 11. Roman Jakobson and MoITis Halle , Fundamentals of
icience, Il:2 Buildings: A Geometry Lesson (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, Language, Janua Linguarum, 1 (The Hague: Mouton, 1956),
1968), 4-19; Rudolf Arnheim, Art and Visual Perception: A 14, 37-38, 60-61.
;eographer s, Psychology of the Creative Eye (Berkeley: Univ. of California 12. See Jerry A. Fodor, "How to Learn to Talk: Sorne Sim-
Press, 1971), 53. ple Ways ," in The Genesis of Language: A Psycholinguistic
e last secti o1, 2. My intention is to refer to Lévi-Strauss' concept of Approach, ed. Frank Smith and George A. Mill e r (Cam-
bricolage; see The Savage Mind , 14-22. bridge: M.I .T. Press , 1968), 114.
ffusion," An • 3. Opinions vary wildly as to how much of a person' s 13. See Robert A. Hall, Jr. , "Why a Structural Semantics is
·s, 55:4 (De e. competence is innate in the human mind, how much is Impossible," Language Sciences, 21 (Aug . 1972), 1-6.
learned in behavioral context. See Chomsky' s antibehaviorist 14. This procedure, general in modero social scientific
is of Loui sa position in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge: analysis, was clearlyformulated by Descartes in hisDiscourse
ria]: auth or, M.I.T. Press, 1965), 47-59, for an interest ing discussion of the on Method in the second discourse.
problem. I am most satisfied by J ean Piaget' s formulation in 15. As set out, th e competence program is not the most
,ok I wrot e a11 Structuralism, trans. Chaninah Maschler (New York: Basic perfect or parsimonious outline pos si ble. It was planned to b e
the Artifa ct," Books, 1970), 12-13, 60-96, 141- 42 . a clear statement of a cultural competence and to be of op-
¡>lifications ol 4. Chomsky, Language and Mind, 16. timum use for my historical purposes. The statement meets
well as sonw 5. See C laude Brémond, "Morphology of the French only the requirement of observational adequacy as held in
l used in p arlH Folktale," Semiotica, II:3 (1970), 247-76; A. Juli en Greimas, linguistics. Even if this account makes no contribution to the
"The Interpretation of Myth: Theory and Practice," in Struc- theory of human mentality that linguists are working toward (I
ew York: lln• tural Analysis of Oral Tradition, ed. Pierre Maranda and Elli do not claim that it <loes), I feel sure that the ultimate adequate
Kongas Maranda, Univ. of Pennsylvania Publications in Folk- explanation of thinking will need to come out of the compari-
ties h e saw 111 lore and Folklife, 3 (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania son of generative models for nonlinguistic as well as linguistic
f archi tect111·11I Press, 1971), 81-121; Robert A. Georges, "Structure in Folk- phenomena. See Chomsky,Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,
.1al" in Fra 11/, tales: A Generative-Transformational Approach ," The Conch, 41-47 .
:rar
:, Kaufi11u1111 II:2 (Sept. 1970), 4-17. 16. Quoted in Faulkner in the University: Class Confer-
5, 89, 93. 6. See Alan Dundes, "Introduction to the Second Edi- ences at the University of Virginia, 1957-1958, ed . Frederick
::iffered at tl, 1~ tion," V. Propp , Morphology of the Folktal e, American Folk- L. Gwynn and Joseph L. Blotner (New York: Vintag e Books,
1 97
Notes to pages 22-40
1965), 103. Faulkner extends the same metaphor in ant icipa- here were borrowed , but it would b e dishonest not to point V: C
tion of the theory of bricolage in Cash's monologue in his out that their employment was influenced by Christ ian
penultimate chapter of As I Lay Dying (1930). N orberg-Schulz' s profound volume, Intentions in Architec- l.
17. LeCorbusier, The Modular: A Harmonious Measure to ture (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1968), 131- 40. Int ror/
The Human Scale Universally Applicable to Architecture and 27 . Ronald R. Butters, "Competence, Pe1formance, and Dor e('
Mechanics, tran s. Peter de Francia and Anna Bostock (Cam- Variable Rules," Language Sciences, 20 (April 1972), 29-32. 2.
bridge: M.I.T. Press, 1968), ch . 7. 28. See Deetz, Invitation to Archaeology, 45-52. Folkl o
18. J. Mar sha ll Jenkins, "Ground-Rules of Welsh Houses: 29. The full structural description of each house typ e can 3.
A Primary Analysis," Folk Lif e, 5 (1967), 65-91. be found in Figs. u, 13, 15, 17, 21. thecl o,
19. See Arthur J.Law ton, "The Pre-Metric Footand its Use 30. Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, 31. Ne edh
in Pennsylvania Gerrnan Architecture," Pennsylvania Folk- 31. First delivered at the Amer ican Folklore Society meet- 4. '
life, XIX:1 (Autumn 1969), 37-45. ing in 1970, Jacobs' paper has been published as "Areal tion , tr
20. I worked this problem out using scale models rather Spread of Indian Oral Genre Features in the Northwest Jonath :
than formulas, sothese measures are conceptually, ratherthan States," ]ournal of the Folklore Institute, IX:1 (June 1972), 5. l
mathematically , exact. This rationalization leaves its product 10-17. Scope <
in keeping with the practice of carpenters (I ha ve worked as a 32. Deetz, Invitation to Archaeology, 83-95. 13(fr o11
carpenter); at the same time, it prevents us from being led into 33. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 18. versati ,
th eoret ical chaos by the reality of the behavioral uniqueness 34. Norberg-Schulz, Intentions in Architecture, 211. Weight,
of every perfo1mance . Again, an analogy with langua ge cou ld 35. Robert A. Georges and Alan Dund es, "Toward a Stru c- 6. 1
help: the same word, eve n spoken by the same person with tural Definitition of the Riddle," Journal of American Folk- 7. S
the same semant ic int ent , may be pronounced in slig htl y lore, 76:300 (April-Jun e 1963), 113. The A11
different ways. 36. Greimas, "In terpretation of Myth," 83, 92. 8. J'
21. See Hunter Dupree, "The Pace of Mea surement from 37. Noam Chomsky, Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in 9. s
Rome to America," Smithsonian]ournal of History, 3 (1968), the History of Rationalist Thought (New York: Harper, 1966 ), ence, " ·i,
19-40. 17; Syntactic Structures, 15; Language and Mind, 61. Hi s Claucle
22. See A. Hunter Dupree, "The English Systems for la ter position is set out in Aspects of th e Theory of Syntax, 77 , (Th e I-1:
Measuring Fie ld s," Agricultura[ H istory, XLV :2 (April 1971 ), 135-47. 10. L
124. 38. See Dell Hymes, "birections in (Ethno-) Linguisti e 11. S<
23. A syntagm is a sequen tial structure, an abstraction that Theo1y," in Transcultural Studies in Cognition, ed. A. Kim- on Bod,
retains the ord er of sensate reality. See Barthes, Elements of ball Romney and Roy Goodw in D' Andrade, American An - Penn syi
Semiology, 63 thropologist, 66:3, part 2 (1964), 22 -23 ; Dell Hymes, "Soci o- 12. C I
24. See William A. Baker, Colonial Vesse ls: Sorne Sev en- lin gu isti cs and the Ethnography of Speak in g," in Social An • Stru ctur
teenth-Century Sailing Craft (Barre, Vt.: Barr e Publishing thropology and Language, ed. Edwin Ardener, ASA Mon o- Have Lo,
Co., 1962), 21-22. graph, 10 (London: Tavistock, 1971), 55-59 . 13. Kq
25. See Alexandre Koyré, From the Closed World to the 39. A nic e discussion of how a thing exists simult aneou sly 14. Fn
Infinite Universe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, as objectand sign, and how things can óe accord in gly studi cd, Watem1n1
1968), 101. may be found in Roland Barth es, Mythologies, trans. Ann e ll< 1
(Chap el 1
26. It would be incorrect to say that the terrns being used Lav ers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 1u-31. 15. E rr
198

oint V: Counting Houses
tian
'tec- 1. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked: An
Introduction to a Science of Mythology: I, trans. John and
and Doreen Weightman (New York: Harper, 1970), 15.
2. This idea is expanded in "Structure and Function,
-32.
Folklore and the Artifact," 314-15, 322-24.
3 . See Chomsky's Cartesian Linguistics, for example, or
: can
the closing chapterof Lévi-Strauss' Totemism, trans. Rodney
Needham (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963).
4. See Octavio Paz, Claude Lévi-Strauss: An Introduc-
neet-
tion, b·ans. J. S. Bemstein and Maxine Bernstein (London:
\.real
,west Jonathan Cape, 1970), 98-99.
5. Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, 232-37, 256-63; The
972) ,
Scope of Anthropology, 25, 46-50; Structural Anthropology,
13 (from whence comes the quote); and G. Cha rbon nier, Con-
versations wi th Claude Lévi-Strauss, trans. J ohn and Doreen
Weightman (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), 32-42.
~truc- 6. Lévi-Strauss, Scope of Anthropology, 21.
Folk- 7. See Bob Scho lte, "Lévi-Strauss' Pene lopean Effort:
The Analysis of Myths," Semiotica, l:1 (1969), 111.
8. Piaget, Structuralism, 111-28.
ter in 9. See, Hugo Nutin i, "Lév i-Strauss' Conception of Sci-
ence," in Echanges et Communications: Melanges Offerts ii
1966) ,
1. Hi s Claude Lévi-Strauss, ed. J ean Pou ill on and Pierr e Maranda, I
(The Hague: Mouton, '1970), 545-48.
'.lX,77,
10. Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, 1-9.
11. See Ray L. Birdwhi stell, Kinesics and Context: Essays
~uistic
. Kim- on Body Motion Communication (Philadelphia: Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, 1970), 157.
m An -
Socio - 12. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 16; Lévi-Strauss,
Structural Anthropology, 326. See also Las lett, The World We
:al An-
Mono - Have Lost, 235.
13. Kniflen, "Fo lk Housing: Key to Diffusion," 553-57.
14. Francis Benjamín J ohn ston and Thomas Tileston
Leously
tudi ed , Waterman, The Early Architecture of North Carolina
(Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1947), 28.
,nn ettc
15. Em e st Pickering , The Hom es of Am erica (New York:
Notes to pages 41-68
Bramhall House, 1951), 204-10; Richard N. Cam pen , Ar -
chitecture of the Western Reserve: 1800-1900 (Cleve land :
Press of Case Western Reserve Univ., 1971), 221.
16. Talbot Hamlin, Greek Revival Architecture in America
(1944; rpt. New York: Dover, 1964), 258.
17. Peirce F . Lewis, "The Geography of Old Houses,"
Earth and Mineral Sciences, 39:5 (Feb. 1970), 35.
18. Thomas Tileston Waterman and J ohn A. Barrows,
Domestic Colonial Architecture of Tidewater Virginia (New
York: Scribner's, 1932), xiv.
19. Hugh Morrison, Early American Architecture from the
First Colonial Settlements to the Na tional Period (New York:
Oxford Yniv. Press, 1952), 473.
20 . See Frank Lawrence Ows ley, Plain Folk of the Old
South (1949; rpt. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965); Blanche
Henry C lark , The Tennessee Yeoman, 1840-1860 (Nashville:
Vanderbilt Univ. Press, 1942); Her be1t Weaver, Mississippi
Farmers: 1850 - 1860 (Nashvill e : Vanderb ilt Univ. Press ,
1945).
VI: The Mechanics of Structural Innovation
1. See Robert L. Carn e iro, "The Culture Proc e ss," in Es-
says in the Scienc e of Culture in Honor of Lesli e A. White,
ed. Ge1trude E. Dole and Robert L. Cameiro (Ne w York:
Thomas Y. Crowell, 1960), 145-47.
2 . Alb ert B. Lord, The Sing er of Tales (New York:
Atheneum, 1965), 22-29 .
3. Bruce A. Rosenberg, The Art of th e Am erican Folk
Preacher (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1970), 24-26.
4. Paul Klee, On Modem Art (London: Faber, 1966),
45-51.
5. Henry Glass ie, "Eighteenth-Century Cultura l Proc e ss
in Delawar e Valley Fo lk Building," Winterthur Portfolio, 7
(1972), 45-46.
6. When I refer to specific rul es, my int ention is to e nable
th e reader to return to chapter IV where the rule is explicitly
1 99
Notes to pages 68-75
stated. Then one may turn to the diagrams in Figs. 11, 13, 15, Nail Chronology asan Aid to Dating Old Buildings, AASLH
(196
17, and 21, where one can see how often the rule was applied Technical Leaflet, 48 (Nashville: American Assoc. for State
25 ,
as well as the base structures and t),'pes with which it was and Local History, 1968); Bernard L. Fontana, "The Tale of a and (
used. There, too, one can find the otner rules with which it Nail: On the Ethnological Interpretation of Historie Arti-
26.
was structured in actual performance. facts," The Florida Anthropologist, XVIII:3, part 2 (Sept. 201 ; J
7. See H. G. Barnett, Innovation: The Basis of Cultural 1965), 85-96. lan d, ·
Change (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), 188, 193-94. 16. Coxe, Tabular Statement of the Several Branches of brid g
8. George Kubler, The Shape of Time: Remarks on th e American Manufactures, 94-95. 27.
History of Things (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pre ss, 1962) , 17. Bloch, The Historian's Craft, 183-84. th e 11/

39-53. 18. See Ivor No el Hume, Historical Archaeology (New

graph
9. See C. H. Waddington, "Theories of Evolution," in A York: Knopf , 1969), 128. Penn ,
Century of Darwin, ed. S. A. Barnett (Cambridge: Harvard 19. See Warren E. Roberts, "The Waggoner Log Hous e
Near Paragon, Indiana," in Forms Upon th e Frontier: Folklife 150-.
Univ. Press, 1958), 1-18. 7-8 ;
10. See Anthony N. B. Garvan , Architecture and Town and Folk Arts in the United States, ed. Austin and Alta Fife ticut
Planning in Colonial Connecticut (New Hav e n: Yale Univ. and Henry Glassie, Monograph Series, XVI:2 (Logan: Utah rpt. N
Press, 1951), 104, 119; Walter MuirWhitehall, Wend ell D. and State Univ. Pre ss, 1969), 30. man ,
Jan e N. Garrett, The Arts in Early America (Chapel Hill: 20. Alfred Von Martín, The Sociology of the Renaissance York:
Univ. of North Carolina Press for Institut e of Early American (New York: Harper, 1963), 1. gini a
History and Culture at Williamsburg, Va., 1965), 63 . 21. R. W. Brunskill, An Illustrated Handbook of Vernacu- bur g:
11. J. Frederick Kelly , Early Domestic Architecture of lar Architecture (New York: Universe Books, 1970), 100-1;
39-4 0
Connecticut (1924; rpt. New York: Dover, 1963), 6-20. M. W. Barley, The English Farmhouse and Cottage (London: 28.
12. Th e worst offender among these is Richard Pillsbury Routledge and Kegan Pau l, 1961), 63, 70-71 , 95-97, 104, 123, Rural
and Andrew Kardos ,A Field Cuide to the FolkArchitecture of 133, 201. Evan s
th e Northeastern United Stat es, Geography Publications at 22. Brunskill, Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Ar- 209-2
Dartmouth, 8 (Hanover, N.H.: Dept. of Geography, Dart- chitecture , 102-3; Raymond B. Wood-Jones, Traditional Folkli
mouth, n.d. , c.1970). Domestic Architecture in the Banbury Region (Manchester:
bin ec
13. See Sartre, Search for a Method, 170; Lévi-Strauss, Manchester Univ. Press, 1963), 31-42, 55-72, 84-112; Chris-
58--75;
Totemism, 103; J ohn R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the topher Stell, "Pennine Houses: An Introduction ," Folk Lij e, 3 Don eg
Philosophy of Language (Cambridg e : Cambridge Univ. (1965), 12, 14, 17; Sir Cyril Fox and Lord Raglan, Monmouth- 98-1 2
Press, 1969), 16-19. shire Hous es, II (Cardiff: National Museum of Wales, 1953), tages ,"
14. See Piaget, Structuralism , 20, 139-41; Bam ett , Inno- 18-32; III (1954), 53-55. lan, M1
vation, 9-10, 19-20, 49, 54, 81,147,202,209; Norberg-Schulz, 23. See Nigel Harv ey, A History of Farm Buildin gs in lan ,M1
Intentions in Architecture, 70- 71, 78-79; Karl R. Popper, The England and Wales (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, The Ei
Poverty of Historicism (New York: Harper, 1964), 9-11, 147. 1970), 34-35. (Lonclo
15. Henry C. Mercer, The Dating of Old Houses (New 24. See Iorwerth C. Peate, The Welsh Hous e: A Study in Cotta g
Hope , Pa.: Bucks County Historical Society, undated modern Folk Culture (London: The Honourable Society of Cym-
from 1
reprint of a paper read in 1923 and ¡:mblished in the Bucks mrodorion, 1940), 59-97; S. R. Jones and J. T. Smith, "The 1929),'
County Historical Society Papers , V), 3-10; Lee H. Nelson , Houses of Breconshire," Brych einiog, IX (1963), 5-3 4; X
1947),
200

~SLH (1964), 115-46; XI (1965), 50-89; XII (1966/67), 23-56.
· Stat e 25. See W. G. Hoskins, Old Devon (Newton Abbot: David
.le of a and Charles, 1966), 21-22, 24 .
; Arti- 26. Barl ey, English Fannhouse and Cottage, 116-17 , 178,
(Sept . 201; P. Eden, "Smaller Post-medieval Houses in Eastern Eng-
land," in East Anglian Studies, ed. Lionel M. Munby (Cam-
:hes of bridge: W. Heffer and Sons, 1968), 89.
27. Henry Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of
the Eastern United States, Univ. of Pennsylvania Mono-
, (New graphs in Folklore and Folklife, I (Philadelphia: Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, 1969), 64, 66-68, 78, 80-81, 124-25,
Hou se 150-53; Kelly, Early Domestic Architecture of Connecticut,
rolklif e 7-8; Norman M. Isham and Albert F. Brown, Early Connec-
lta Fi fe ticut House s: An Historical and Ar chitectural Study (1900;
n: Utah rpt. New York: Dover, 1965), 18-70; Henry Chandlee For-
man, Tidewater Maryland Architecture and Gardens (New
rissan ce York: Bonanza, 1956), 55- 59; Henry Chandlee Forman, Vir-
ginia Architecture in the Seventeenth Century (Williams-
'ernacu- burg: Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebrat ion Corp., 1957),
, 100-1 ; 39-40.
¡_,ondon: 28. Áke Cam,Pbell, "Irish Fields and Houses: A Study of
L04 , 123, Rural Culture,' Béaloideas, V:I (1935), 57-74; E. Estyn
Evans, "Donegal Survivals," Antiquity, XIII:50 (June , 1939),
ular A1·- 209-20; E. Estyn Evans, "The Uls,ter Farmhouse," Ulster
idition al Folklife, I (1955), 27-31; Caoimhín O Danachair, "T he Com-
1chest er : bined Byre-and-Dwelling in Ireland," Folk Life, II (1964),
2; Chri s• 58-75; F. H. A. Aalen, "The Hou se Types of Gola Island, Co.
lk Lij e, :l Done gal,'' FolkLife , 8 (1970),32-44; Peate, The WelshHouse,
nm outl, 98-128; Sir Cyril Fox , "Sorne South Pembrokeshire Cot-
~s, 1953), tages,'' Antiquity, XVI:64 (Dec. 1942), 307-19; Fox and Rag-
lan, Monmouthshire Houses, II, 43-44, 46-48; Fox and Rag-
ldin gs /11 lan, Monmouthshire Houses, III, 38, 40; Sidn ey Oldall Addy,
Char k N, The Evolution of the English House, Social England Series
(London: Swan Sonnenschein , 1898), 48 ff.; Basil Oliver, The
Stu dy / 11 Cottages of England: A Review ofTheir Types and Features
of Cy111 fr om the 16th to the 18th Centuries (London: Batsford,
lith , " Th«• 1929), 23-24; W. J. Tumer, Exmoor Village (London: Harrap,
, 5-34 ; \ 1947), 26- 29, hous e charts, plates V, 5-8; Brunskill, Illus-
Notes to pages 75-89
trated Handbook ofVernacular Architecture, 101 (h, 1).
29. Henry Glassie, "The Types of th e Southem Mountain
Cabin,'' in The Study of American Folklore, ed. Jan Harold
Brunvand (New York: Norton, 1968), 353, 355- 61.
30 See Howard Wight Marshall, "The 'Thousand Acres'
Log House, Monroe County, Indiana," Pioneer America, III: 1
(Jan. 1971), 48-56; Donald A. Hutslar, "The Log Architecture
of Ohio," Ohio History, 80:3/ 4 (Summer-Autumn 1971), 242,
fig. B.
31. See Rob ert Redfield, Th e Little Community (Ch icago:
Univ. of Ch icago Press, 1960), 43-44, 144- 46; Edit Fél and
Tamás Hofer , Proper Peasants: Traditional Lije in a Hunga-
rian Village, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, 46
(New York: Current Anthropology , Wenner-Gren Founda-
tion for Anthropological Research, 1969), 17, 22-23, 28; Ed-
ward P. Dozier, Hano: A Tewa Indian Community inArizona,
Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1966), 29-31; Barnett, Innovation,
307, 332-33; Alan P. Merriam, The Anthropology of Music
(Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1964), 134-44; Petr
Bogatyrev, The Functions of Folk Costume in Moravián
Slovakia, tran s. Richard G. Crum, Approaches to Semiotics , 5
(The Hague: Mouton, 1971), 46-51, 56-60, 84-88; Monni
Adams, "Designs in Sumba Textiles, Local Meanings and
Foreign Influences," Textile Museum Journal , III:2 (Dec.
1971), 33; Henry Glassie," 'Take That Night Train to Selma':
An Excursion to the Outskirts of Scholarship ," in Folksongs
and Their Makers, ed. Henry Glassie, Edward D. Ives, and
John F. Szwed (Bowling Green Univ. Popular Press, 1970),
30-52; Edward D. Ives,Lawr ence Doyle: The Farmer-Poet of
Prince Edward Island: A Study in Local Songmaking, Univ.
of Maine Studies, 92 (Orono: Univ. of Maine Pre ss, 1971),
243-49.
32. Brunskill, Illu strated Handbook of Vernacular Ar-
chit ecture, 104-5; Lewis Mumford, Sticks and Ston es : A
Study of American Architectur e and Civili zation (1924; rpt.
New York: Dover, 1955), 39-47 .
33. See Jakobson and Hall e, Fundamentals of Langua ge,
201
Notes to pages 89-114
62; Osear Lewis, Lije ín a Mexican Village : Tepoztlán Re- Indiana Historical Society, 1962), plates 4-6, 23, 33, 58, 59, 97, of Comm1111 l1•1
studied (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1963), 446; Marc 98. Ameri cau I\ 11¡
Bloch,Feudal Society, I, trans. L. A. Manyon (Chicago: Univ. 42. See Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Hym es, 66:0, /
of Chicago Press, 1968), 43- 47. Eastern United States, 69 (Fig. 20D). 2. Seo ' 1'11
34. Barley, English Farmhouse and Cottage, 24. 43. See Lewis A. Coffin, Jr ., and Arthur C. Holden, Brick Theo1y of Ad /
35. See Elizabeth Melling and Anne M. Oakley, Kentish Architecture of the Coloníal Períod in Maryland and Virginia Beha vior , ('e 1. l
Sources: V: Some Kentish Houses (Maidstone: Kent County (New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co., 1919), 5-8. The clear 6z.
Council, 1965), 44, 64-66. drawings in John Fitzhugh Millar's The Architects of the 3. Seo Cl111
36. Kelly, Early Domestic Architecture of Connecticut, American Colonies; or, Vitruvius Americanus (Barre, Vt.: ~hitectur e (N1,
8-17; Abbott Lowell Cummings, Architecture in Early New Barre Publishers, 1968) show that the academic eighteenth- Th e Detcn1il11
England, Old Sturbridge Village Booklet Series (Sturbridge, century American architect could not do much, when asked to chaeology , c•c1.
Mass.: Old Sturbridge Villa~e, 1964), 3-17. designa hous e, except repeat the hip-roofed , paired-chimney , 1968), 55.
37. See Jones and Smith, 'The Houses ofBreconshire," IX five-opening Georgian form. He was much less creative than 4- See J1rl
(1963), 34-62; X (1964), 86-87, 100-14, 150-54; XI (1965), the country builder. See the Virginia mansions in Millar' s Form (Camb l'ld
32-33, 41-49, 89-120; XII (1966/67), 56-62. book,pp. 40-53,60-68, 72. 5, See l!J 1i11
38. See Paul S. Du laney, The Architecture of Historie 44. See Carl Julien and Chlothilde R. Ma1tin, Sea Islands logical E vicl<•iic•
Richmond (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1968), to SandHills (Columbia: Univ. ofSouth CarolinaPre ss, 1954), Man's Imp rf 11r
45-51,54,58 - 71,74, 105-7, 109-10, 112-13, 132,136, 139- 45. Archaeol ogy , <•i
40, 142, 145-47, 149,153. 45. Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of th e 223.
39. Glassie, "Eighteenth-Century Cultural Proc e ss in Eastern United States, 89, 94- 98, 101. 6. See A1w l ,
Delaware Valley Fo1k Building," 35-38. 46. Richard V. Francaviglia, "Mormon Central-H all Habitat: Esso,¡.,·
40. Peter O. Wacker, "New Jersey's Cultural Landscape Houses in the American West," Annals of the Association of Buchanan , E,;11\
Before 1800," Proceedings of the SecondAnnual Symposium Amerícan Geographers, fü:1 (March 1971), 65-71. Routl edge and 1,
of the New Jersey Historical Commission, 1970 (Newark: 47. Barnett, Innovation, 3, 16, 181-82, 186-87, 236- 37, 7. A. R. Hncl¡•
New Jersey Historical Commission, 1971), 51-53. 250-51, 416, 433. Social Scienc<. "
41. Kniffen, "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion," 555; Glas- 48. See Rob ert D. King, Historical Linguistics ancl 1 935), 394- 40~:
sie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the East ern Generati ve Grammar (Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-H all, 8. See M t ·rloi
United States, 66-69, 75, 78, 96, 99, 101, 107, 129, 156; Fran- 1969) , 39, 84-86. 9. !bid. , 7,c¡.
ces J . Niederer, The Town of Fincastle, Virginia (Charlottes- 49. Lewis Mumford, From the Ground Up (New York : lo. In folktalc• ,
ville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1966), 37-39; Rexford New- Harcourt, 1956), 72, 78. g;enerate, basie sl,1
comb, Old Kentucky Architecture (New York: William Hel- 50. See Glassie, "Eighteenth-Century Cultural Proce ss in tmction to "sy 11111
bum, 1940), plates 5, 6; David Sutherland, "Folk Housing in Delaware Valley Folk Building," 35- 40, 43-48. composition.
the Woodburn Quadrang; le," Pioneer America, IV:2 (July l 1. Le Corb uslc
1972), 18--24; History of Homes and Gardens of Tennessee, 12· See Geolli·c,
ed. Roberta Seawell Brandau (Nashville: Parthenon Pres s for VII: Reason in Architecture Study in the flf sr,
Carden Study Club of Nashville, 1936), 197; Wilbur D. Peat, Doubleday, 195(,),
Indiana Houses of the Nineteenth Century (Indianapolis: 1. See D ell Hymes, "Introduction: Toward Ethnogr ap hi1111 13· Le Corbu s ic•

202
 Notes to pages u4 - 18

of Communicat ion," in The Ethnography of Communication, Francis E. Hy slop, Jr. (New York: McGraw -Hill , 1964), 205-7;
i :1:1, 58, 59, 97,
American Anthropologist, ed. John J. Gumperz and Dell Norberg-Schulz , Existence, Space and Architecture, 37.
( : 11/lure of the Hymes, 66:6, part 2 (Dec. 1964), 5-7, 10-u, 21-22. 14. Robert Sommer, Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis
2. See Tafcott Parsons, "The Socia l System: A General of Design (Eng lewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969), 5,
lo lden, Brick Theory of Action," in Toward A Uni.fied Theory of Human 15. Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dim ension (Carden City,
I r111.d Virgin ia Behavior , ed. Roy R. Grink er (New York: Basic Books, 1957) , N .Y.: Doubl eday, 1969); also ch . 10 of Hall's The Silent Lan-
: 1 8. Th e clear 62. guage (Greenw ich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1964).
1ll<'cts of the 3. See Chri stian Norbe rg-Schu lz, Existence, Space andAr- 16. Addy,Evolutionof theEnglishHouse , 17, 32-34, 66-69;
s (Barre , Vt.: chitecture (New York: Prae ger, 1971), 27; Bruce G. Trigger, Re ginald Tumor, The Smaller English House: 1500,....1939
1v e ighte enth- "The Detenninants of Settlement Patterns," in Settlement Ar- (London : Batsford, 1952), 12; Henry Chand lee Forman, The
w hc n asked to chaeology, ed. K. C. Chang (Palo Alto: National Press Books, Archit ecture of the Old South: The Medieval Style: 1585-1850
1re d-chimney, 1968), 55. (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pres s, 1948), 15, 121; Garvan , Ar-
vrcative than 4. See Christopher Alexander, Notes on th e Synthesi s of chitecture and Town Planning in Colonial Conn ecticut, 82.
11s in Millar's Form (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1971 ), 19-27. 17. See Wood-Jon es , Traditional Domestic Architecture in
5. See Eóin MacWhite, "On th e Interpretation of Archa eo- the Banbury Region , ch. VIII; Hany Batsford and Charles Fry,
11, Sea lslands logical Evidence in Historical and Sociological Tenns ," in The Engli sh Cottage (London: Batsford, 1950), 16, 87-88.
Man 's lmprint from the Past: Readin gs in the Methods of 18. Marion Macrae, The Ancestral Roof, Dome stic Architec-
11 Pres s, 1954),
Archaeology, ed. Jam es Deetz (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), ture of Upper Canada (Toronto: Clarke, lrwin, 1963), 228; John
:11/ture of the 223. l. Rempel, Building with Wood and Oth er A spects of
6. See Axel Steensberg, "Tools and Man," in Man and his Nineteenth-Century Building in Ont ario (Toronto: Univ. óf
Ce ntral-Ha ll Habitat: Essays Presented to Emyr Estyn Evans, ed. R. H. Toronto Press, 1967), 13.
ssociation of Buchanan, Emrys Jon es, and Des morid McCourt (London: 19. Glassie, "The Types of the South ern Mountain Cabin,"
7 1. Rout ledge and Kegan Paul, 1971), 63-66. 349-54.
0- 87 , 236 -3 7, 7. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown , "On th e Concept of Fu nction in 20. BookerT. Washington , Up From Slavery (1901; rpt. New
Social Science," American Anthropologist, 37 (July - Sept. York: Avon, 1965), 29.
1g11.istícs and 1935), 394-402. 21. W. E. Burghardt DuBois, Th e Souls of Black Folk (1903;
1'1· •ntice -Hall, 8. See Merton, On Th eoretical Sociology, 79-82. rpt. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1967), 91 , 92 , 106-7 .
9. lbid., 75 . 22. For the circular West African house, see: Labell e Prus-

¡> (Ne w York: 10. In folktale scholarship, structures that affect, but do not sin , Architecture in North ern Ghana: A Study of Forms and
gen erate , basic shape are tenn ed "pa radigm atic," in contradis- Functions (Berke ley: Univ. of California Press, 1969) , 21-65;
11m l P rocess in tinction to "syntagmati c" structures-those used in formal Bany Flo yd, Ea stern Nigeria : A Geographical Reví ew (Lon -
H. composition . don: Macmi llan, 1969), 55; Paul and Laura Bohannan, Tiv
11. Le Corbusie r, The Modular, 76 . Economy, Northwestern Univ. African Studi es , 20 (Evanston,
12. See Geoffrey Scott, The Archit ectur e of Humanism: A Ill.: Northwestem Univ . Press, 1968), 14- 15; Kwamina B.
Study in th e History of Taste (1924; rpt. Carden City, N.Y.: Dickson, A Historical Geography of Ghana (Cambridge:
Doub leday, 1956 ), 161-77. Cambridge Un iv. Press, 1971), fo , 282-87.
li'.lhnograp hi es 13. Le Corbusier, When the Cathedrals Were White, trans. 23. J ohn W. M. Whiting and Barbara Ayres, "Inferences from

203
Notes to pages u8-24
the Shape of Dw elling s," in Settlement Archaeology, 117-33. 37. See Harry Swain and Cotton Mather, St. Croíx Border Travefs 11
24. See Grahame Clark, Prehístoric England (London: Country (Prescott, Wis.: Trimbelle Press for the Pierce County and A.(;
Batsford, 1962), 57-59, 67, 70; V. Gordon Childe, The Dawn of Geographical Socíety, 1968), 13, 15-16. 49. // 1
European Cívilízatíon (New York: Knopf, 1958), 333; Wallace 38. See Ava D. Rodgers, The Housing of Oglethorpe 50. T/1
Thomeycroft, "Observations on Hut Circles Nea r the Eastem County, Georgia: 1790-1860 (Tallahassee: Florida State Univ. the Sw1111
Border of Perthshire, North of Blairgowrie," Proceedings of the Press, 1971), xi, 35. 11,ed. A,
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, LXVII:7 (1932-33), 187- 39. Humphry Osmond, "Sorne Psychiatric Aspects of De- 51. //,
208; Arthur Raistrick, The Pennine Dales (London: Eyre and sign," in Who Desígns America?, ed. Laurence B. Holland, 52. 111
Spottiswoode, 1969), 61-63. Princeton Studies in American Civilization, 6 (Carden City, Is Inf el'l'f'
25. See Glassie, Pattem in the Material Folk Culture of the N.Y.: Doubleday, 1966), 314. Rich ard l
Eastem United States, 161-65. 40. Lévi-Strauss, Totemism, 99. His later softened opinion is for th e VI
26. Inspect the plan on p. 53 of Ian Archer, "Nabdam Com- briefly stated in The Savage Mind, 247n. 53. TI,
pounds, Northem Ghana," in Shelter in Africa, ed. Paul Oliver 41. Redfield, The Little Community, 26. ton: We lL
(New York: Praeger, 1971). There you will find alíen rectangu- 42. See David Pye, The Nature of Design (New York: also 160
lar houses, traditional round houses, and squared houses closer Reinhold, 1967), 46- 53; Robert F. G. Spier, From the Hand of 54. 1)11
in size and shape to the old round hous es than to the new Man: Primitive and Preindustrial Technologies (Boston: East of ti,
rectangular ones. Houghton Miffün, 1970), 2. tin, 69(W 1
27. See F. W. B. Charles and Walter Hom, "The Cruck -Built 43. Lynn White, Jr., "The Historical Roots ofOur Ecologic Lewi s 11.
Bam of Leigh Court, Worcestershire, England," Joumal of the Crisis," in Man and the Environment, ed. Wes Jackson Aborigi111
Socíety of Architectural Historians, XXXII:1 (March 1973), (Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1971), 22-30. 119-24.
5-29. The Leigh Court bam is 33 feet wide. 44. Melville J. Herskovits and Frances S. Herskovits, An 55. 1111
28. Raistrick, Pennine Dales, 53-54. Outline of Dahomean Religious Belief, Memoirs of the Ameri- tion, 109.
29. Aileen Fox, South West England (London: Thames and can Anthropological Association 41 (Menasha, Wis.: American 56. St•1
Hudson, 1964), 89. Anthropological Association, 1933), 14-15; G. J. Afolabi Ojo, theE arly
30. C. F. Innocent, The Development of Eng lish Building Yoruba Culture: A Geographical Analysis (London: Univ. of (1939 ; rpl
Constructíon. Cambridge Technical Series. (Cambridge: Ife and Univ. of London, 1966), 169-70. 57. S('t
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1916), 27. 45. P. Arnaury Talbot, Tribes of the Níger Delta: Their Reli- in the Eas
31. See Prussin, Architecture in Northem Ghana, 33, 45. gions and Customs (1932; rpt. New York: Bames and Noble, Geogra7Jf1
32. Notes on the Synthesís of Form. 1967), 279-80; Floyd, Eastem Nigeria, 55-56, 174-78; Ojo, 58. St11
33. In Herbert A. Simon ' s terms, the folk architect is a Yoruba Culture, 56-59, 74, 140. land Fro ,
"satisficer" rather than an "optimizer"; see Simon's The Sci- 46. W. G. Hoskins, English Landscapes (London: Biitish Henry C.
ences of the Artificial (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1969), 62-66. Broadcasting Corp., 1973), ch. 2; Evans, Personality of Ireland , State s," C:
34. See Erving Goffman, Interaction Ritual: Essays on 36. Histori cof
Face-to-Face Behaviour (Hammondsworth: Penguin, 1967), 47. W. G. Hoskins and H . P. R. Finberg,Devonshire Studies Kelly, "A
80. (London: Jonathan Cape, 1952), 325-30; Eileen McCracken, Old-T ir111,
35. See Edward Sapir, "Do We Need a 'Superorganic'?," "The Woodlands of Ulster in the Early Seventeenth Century," 59. Jcv.1
American Anthropologist, 19 (July-Sept. 1917), 44h47· Ulster Joum al of Archaeology , 10 (1947), 15-25. the Wood1
36. Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, u - 12, 245. 48. The Proceedings of the English Colony in Virginia , in Whit e Pi11
204
 Notes to pag es 124-30
arder Trave ls and Works of Captain John Smith, I, ed . Edwin Arber 1920), 4, 6; Peter O. Wacker and Roger T. Trind ell, "The Lo g
ounty and A. G. Bradle y (Ed inbur gh : John Grant , 1910), 91. Hou se in New Jersey: Origins and Diffusion," Keyston e
49. Ib id., 126; see also 154. Folkl ore Quart erly , XIII:4 (Winter 1968), 255-56.
horp e 50. The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and 60. Lett er from R. W. Brun skill to Hen ry Glassie, March 17,
Univ. the Summer Isles, in Travels andWorks ofCaptain]oh n Smith , 1972.
II , ed. Arber and Bradley, 502. fo. Robert Farris Thomp son, B lack Gods and Kings: Yoruba
)f D e- 51. Ib id., 511. Art at UCLA, Occasional Paper s of the Museum and
)lland, 52. Hugh J ones , The Present State of Virgini a From Wh ence Lab oratorie s of Ethnic Arts and Technology , 2 (Los Angeles:
l City, Is Inf erred a Short View of Maryland and Nort h Carolina, ed. Univ. of California , 1971), ch . 3, p. 2.
Richard L. Morton (Chape l Hill : Univ. of North Carolina Pre ss 62 . Henry Glassie, "The Nature of the New World Artifact:
_nion is for th e Virginia Hi storical Society, 1956), 71; see also 74, 76. Th e Instance of the Dugout Cano e," in Festschrift für Robert
53. Thoma s Jeflerson, Not es on the Stat e of Virginia (Bos- Wildh aber, ed. Walter E scher, Th eo Gantner , and Han s
ton: Wells and Lilly, 1829, adve1tiseme nt dated 1787), 159; see Trümp y (Basel: Schw eizerisch e Ge sellschaft für Volkskund e,
, York: also 160-62 . 1973), 153- 70.
rand of 54. David I. Bushn e ll, Jr. , Native Villages and Village Sites 63. Jame s Hom ell, Water Transport (Cambridg e : Cam-
3oston : East of the Mississippi , Bureau of American Ethn ology Bull e- brid ge Univ. Press , 1946), 189-9 5.
tin , 69 (Washington: Govemment Printin g Office, 1919), 30-3 7; 64. Horatio Brid ge, The ] oumal of an African Crui ser, ed.
,cologic Lew is H. Morgan, Houses and Hou se-Lif e of the Am erican Nath aniel H awthorn e (1845; rpt. Londo n: Dawsons of Pall
lackson Ab origines (1881; rpt. Chicago: Univ. ofChicago Press, 1965), Mall, 1968), 43; see also 54, 76, 123, 133.
119-24 . 65. See Robert Farris Thompson , "African Influ ence on the
vits, A11 55. Inno cen t, Deve lopm ent of English Buil ding Construc- Art of the Unit ed States ," in Black Studies in th e University: A
, Amer i- tion , 109. Sym posium , e d. Armi stead L. Robinson, Crai g C. Fo ster, and
merican 56. See Harold R. Shurtl e ff,The Log Cabin Myth: A Study of Donald H . Ogilvie (New Ha ven: Yale Univ. Press, 1969), 122-
abi Ojo, th e Early Dwe lling s of the En glísh Colonists in North Am erica 70; Judith Wragg Cha se, Afr o-Am erican Art and Craft (New
Univ. of (1939; rpt. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1967). York: Van Nostrand, 1971), 58- 59.
57. See Fred Kniffen and Henry Glassie , "Buildin g in Wood 66. Jefferson, Notes on the State ofVirginia, 147.
;eir Refl in the Eastem Unite d States : A Tim e-Place Perspective ," Th e 67. Andrew Burn aby, Travels thr ough th e Middl e Settl e-
:l Noh l1•, Geograp hical Revi ew, LVI:1 (Jan . 1966), 54-5 7, 63. ment s in North-Am erica in th e Years 1759 and 1760. With
-78; Ojo, 58. Stuart Baitlett, "Garrison Hous es Along the New Eng- Observatio ns Upon the Sta te of the C olonies (1775; rpt. Itha ca,
land Fronti er," Pencil Point s, XIV:6 (Jun e 1933), 253-6 8; N.Y.: Corne ll Univ. Press, 1960), 26.
,: Brit h l 1 Henry C. Mercer, "T he Origin of Log Hous es in the United 68. See F. W. B. Charles, Medieval Cruck-Buildin g and lt s
·1relr11
1d, States," Collection of Papers Read Befa re th e Buck s County Derivatives: A Study of Timb er-Framed Construction Based
Historical Society , V (1924), 574- 76, figs. 2-12; J. Frede rick on Buildings in Worcestershir e, Society for Me dieval Archae-
e St111//1
, Kelly, "A Seve ntee nth-C entu ry Conn ecticut Log H ouse," ology Monograph Series, 2 (London: Society for Medi eval Ar-
Cnwk,•11 Old-Tim e New England, XXI:2 (Oct. 1940), 28- 41. chaeology, 1967), ch. III.
::::
en l111
, 59. Jewe tt A. Grosvenor, "An Archit ectural Monogra~h on 69. H. L. Edlin , Woodland Craft s in Britain (London :
the Wooden Architectur e of the Low er Delawar e Valfey, 'T he Batsford, 1949), 94 ; Margaret Wood, Th e En glish Media eval
rginlo, 111 Whit e Pine Series of Archit ectural Monographs, VI:3 (Jun e House (London: Pho enix House, 1965), 293.
205
Notes to pages 130-36
70. Martín S. Briggs, The English Farmhouse (London: 79. Caoimhín Ó Danachair, "Mater ials and Methods in lrish 87. llo
Batsford , 1953), 81- 82; Batsford and Fry, Th e English Cottage, Traditional Building," Journal of th e Royal Society of An - Virgí1lio,
82-83 . tiquaries of Ireland, L:XXXVII:1 (1957), 68. No1th ( :11
71. See T. J. Woofter, Black Yeomanry (New York: Holt, 80. In Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navi gat ions, Voy- to1y and
1930), 215; James A. Nonema ker, "H istory in Houses: Th e ages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of th e English Nation, VIII 88. S1•
Redma n-T homton House in Atlanta, Georg ia," Antiques, (Glasgow: James MacLe ho s_e,1904), 373. sissippi \
LXXXI:3 (March 1962), 292-95; Rodgers, Housing of Ogle- 81. E. Estyn Evans, Iri sh Heritage: The Landscape, Th e Valleu 11/
thorp e County, 13, 22, 23, 25, 28, 36, 41, 45 , 54, 56, 62; James People and Their Work (Dundalk: W. Tempest, Dundalgan 89. S(,
Agee and Walker Evans, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men Press, 1963), fo; Patr ick Duffy and Pádra ig Mac Gréine, "T he lonial A,,
(1941; rpt. New York: Ballantine Books, 1966), 147, 171. Making of an lrish Mud Wall House," Béaloideas , IV:1 (1933), 1950), 2 1.
72. Richard M. Candee, "A Documentary History of Ply- 91-92; E. Esty n Evans, "A Cardigansh ire Mud -w all ed Farm - 90 . T l1
mouth Colony Architecture, 1620-1700," Old-Time New Eng - house," FolkLife 7 (1969), 92-1 00; Alexan der Fenton, "Clay Marst o 111
land , LIX:4 (Spring 1969), 110; LX:2 (Oct.-Dec. 1969), 49. Building and Clay Thatch in Scot lan d ," Ulster Folklife, 15/ 16 be cit cd ,
73. lnnocent, Development of English Building Construc- (1970), 28-40; Innocent, Developmen t of Eng lish Building 91. .1()11
tion, 234- 37. Construction, 134-38, 145; Bru n skill, Illustrated Handbook 92. s ('(
74 . Henry C. Mercer, "Note s on Wrough t-Iron Door of Vernacular Architecture, 48-49; R. W. Bru nsk ill, "Th e 93. s('<'
Latc hes ," Old-Time New England (Jan. 1923), 139- 40; Ken - Clay Houses of C umb e rland," Transa ctions of the Ancien t in Man ·.,,
neth Duprey, Old Houses on Nantucket (New York: Architec- Monum en ts Society , 10 (1962), 57-80; Cloug h Williams-Ellis 94. lhl ,
tural Book Pub lishing Co., 1959), 23, 55, 101; Ned Goode, "An and John and Elizabeth Eastwick-Fi e ld, Building in Cob, 95. Ro l
Album of C he ster County Farmhous es," Pennsylvania Folk- Pisé, and Stabilized Earth (L ondon : Cou ntr y Life Ltd., 1950), Essay iu /
life, 13:1 (Autumn 1962), 24; Henry Glass ie, "The Doub le-Crib 14-15, 82-102, 136-60; Pru ssin , Archit ecture in Nort hern Pres s, 1!)7
Bam in South Central Pe nn sylvan ia," Pioneer America, l:1 Ghana,28-31,42-44, 57-58, 73-74,86-88, 99- 103 . 96. S(·c·
(Jan . 1969), 15; l:2 (July 1969), 42. 82 . See Ch ri stopher Williams, "Craftsmen of Necess ity," (P1ince to11
75. My thinking about the Tempest as a natu re -cu ltur e Natural History, L:XXXl:9 (Nov. 1972), 48-52 , 57- 59. 97. J ,11 ¡
"myth" for seven teen th- century Eng lishm en was prompted by 83. C laud e Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, tran s. Joh n 98. w. (
Leo Marx's intere sting book, The Machin e in the Carden: Russe ll (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 90, 98-99 . (Baltim on·
Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: 84. See James Marston Fitch and Dan iel P. Branch, "Pr imi- Enclo sun·
Oxford Univ . Press, 1967) . Ca lib an, Ike McCaslin, and Mus- tiv e Architecture and C lim ate," Scientific American 203:6 39-43 , 57,
tapha Mond prov ide a full spectrum of hum an resolutions of (D ec . 1960), 134-44; James Marston Fitch, "New Uses for th e 99. Cl111
th e oppo sition of nature and culture from Englis h and Ameri- Artis tic Patrimony," Journal of the Society of Architectural Stought o11,
can literature. Historian s, :XXX:1 (March 1971), 8-14 . S tudi es , ;¿( i
76. See Demos, A Little Commonwealth, 29. 85 . See Amos Rapo port, House Form and Culture, Founda- folk Lan<h;
77 . See Monis Talpalar , The Sociology of Colonial Virginia tion s of Geography Series (Eng lewood Cliffs, N .J.: Prentice - 34; Norn1111
(New York: Philosophica l Library , 1968), 278-79. Ha ll, 1969), 93 - 95 . and Stou gl
78. Innoc e nt, Development oj English Buildin g Construc- 86. See Foy N. Hibbar d , "Climate of Virgini a," Climate berg, Co,111
tion, 148-51; Barley,En glishFarmhouse and Cottage, 188-91; and Man: Yearbook of Agriculture, House Docum e nt, 27, try (Balti111
Gwyn l. Meirion-Jon es, "The Domestic Buildin gs ofüdiham, 77th Congress, 1st Session (Washington : U.S.D.A ., 1941 ), Folk Woy.1·
Hampshir e," Folk Lije, 9 (1971), 111-12 . 1159-69. Arensb c rg,
206
 Notes to pages 136-41

Isin Irish 87. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of N.Y.: Natural History Press, 1968), 36-38, 48-55; R. H.
:¡ of An- Virginia, ed. Louis B. Wright (1705; rpt. Chapel Hill: Univ. of Buchanan, "Rural Settlement in Ireland," in lrísh Geographi-
N01th Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American His- cal Studies in Honour of E. Estyn Evans, ed. Nicholas
ms, Voy- tory and Culture at Williamsburg, Va., 1947), 289, 9, 296. Stephens and Robín E. Glasscock (Belfast: Department of
ion, VIII 88. See William O. Scrog~s, "Rural Life in the Lower Mis- Geography, Queen's University, 1970), 146-61; Ke vin Dana-
sissippi Valley, About 1803,' Proceedings of the Mississippi her, The Pleasant Land of Ireland (Cork: Mercier, 1970),
Valley Historical Association , VIII (1914-15), 270-71. 14-19; R. Alun Roberts, Welsh Home-Spun: Studies of Rural
:ape, The
undalgan 89. See Thomas Tileston Waterman , The Dwellings of Co- Wales (Newton: Welsh Outlook Press, 1930), 7-17; Alwyn D.
ine, "The lonial America (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, Rees, Life in a Welsh Countryside (Cardiff: Univ. of Wales,
1950), 21. 1950), 18-20; lowerth C . Peate, Tradition and Folk Lije: A
':1 (1933),
led Farm- 90. This was explained in conversation once by James Welsh View (London: Faber , 1972) , 71-73; E. G . Bowen, "The
on, "Clay Marston Fitch, than whom no better authority could possibly Dispersed Habitat of Wales," in Man and His Habitat, ed.
ife, 15/16 be cited. Buchanan , Jones, and McCourt , 186-201.
91. Jones, Present State of Virginia, 71. 100. The General/ Historie of Virginia, New England, and
Building
iandbook 92. See Ojo, Yoruba Culture, 147. the Summer Isles, Travels andWorks ofCaptain]ohn Smith,
kill, "The 93. See Lewis R. Binford, "Archaeology as Anthropology," II, ed. Arber and Bradley, 535.
e Ancient in Man's Imprint from the Past, ed. Deetz, 254. 101. John Demos, "Notes on Life in Plymouth Colony,"
iams-Ellis 94. Ibid., 251-53. The Willíam and Mary Quarterly, XXII:2 (April 1965) , 264-
g in Cob, 95. Robert Plant Armstrong, Th e Affecting Presence: An 68.
Essay in Humanistic Anthropology (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois 102. See Powell, Puritan Víllage, 4-29, 92-101; _ Lock-
,td., 1950),
Northern Press, 1971), 69-79. ridge, A New England Town: The Fírst Hundred Years ,
96. See J ohn W. Reps, Town Plannin g in Frontier America 82-87. Although unsophisticated with regard to Old World
)3.
focessity," (P1inceton: Princ eton Univ. Pre ss, 1969), 111-15. antecedents and theoretically too simple, Glenn T. Trewar-
97. Jefferson , Notes on the State of Virginia, 111. tha' s "Types of Rural Settlement in Colonial America" pro-
-59. vides an overview of settlement pattern. See Readíngs in
rans. John 98. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape
(Baltimore: Penguin, 1971), 45-66, 180-84; W. E. Tate, The Cultural Geography , ed. Philip L. Wagner and Marvin W.
ch, "Primi- Enclosure Movement (New York: Walker and Co ., 1967), Mikesell (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967), 517-38.
39-43, 57, 64, 72. 103. Generall Historie ofVirginia, New England , and the
ican 203:6
Jses forth e 99. Christopher Taylor, Dors et (London: Hodder and Summer Isles, Travels and Works of Captain]ohn Smith, II,
~hitectural Stüughton, 1970), chs. 2- 4; Ho skins and Finberg, Devonshire ed. Arber and Bradley, 584, 587, 614.
Studies, 265-88 , 290 , 310 - 15, 320; D. P. Dymond, "The Suf- 104. Víctor Gmen, The Heart of Our Cities: The Urban
·e, Founda- folk Landscape," in East Anglian Studi es, ed. Munby, 27 -30, Crisis: Diagno sis and Cure (New York: Simon and Schuster,
.: Prentic e- 34; Norm an Scarfe, The Suffolk Landscape (London: Hodder 1964) , ch. 5. Scatterization is a modern probl em, but it is an old
and Stoughton, 1972) , 141-47, 177-87; Ronald E. Franken- American reality that bec ame a probl em only when there
1,"Clímat e berg, Communities in Britain: Social Lije in Town and Coun- carne to be so many Americans.
try (Baltimore: Penguin, 1966), 66-85; E. Estyn Evans, Irish 105. See Kenneth Burk e , A Grammar of Motives (Berke-
ument, 27,
>.A., 1941 ), Folk Ways (New York: Devin-Adair, 1957), 20-34; Conrad ley : Univ. of Ca liforni a Press, 1969) , 55-58; Chomsky, As-
Arensber g, The Iri sh Countryman (1937; rpt . Carden City, pects of th e Theory of Syntax , 37-47, 193- 94.
207
Notes to pages 143-53
106. M. E. Seebohm, The Evolution of the English Farm Meredith Press, 1969), 56-62, 72-75; Alan Gail ey, "Kitche n Conn eefl i·
(Cambridge: Harvard Univ . Press, 1927), 100, 282; Harv ey, Fumiture," Ulster Folklife, 12 (1966), 18-34; F. H. A. Aale n,
Homes 11 /
History oj Farm Building s in England and Wales, 50, 53-59, "Fumishings of Traditional Hou ses in the Wicklow Hill s," 1 937), 1:i:1
71-83; P. Smith, "The Long-House and the Laith e-Hou se : A Ulster Folklife, 13 (1967), 61- 68 ; l. F. Grant, Highland Folk
Log Ho11 .~,,
Study of the House-and-Byre Homestead in Wales and the Ways (London: Routledge and Ke gan Paul, 1961), 168-70; 34- 36.
West Riding," in Culture and Environm ent: Essay s in Hon- James Walton, "T he Built-in Bed Tradition in North York- 125. A11
our of Sir Cyril Fox, ed. l. Ll. Foster and L. Alcock (London: shire," Gwerin 111:3(1961), 114-25; Caoimhín Ó Danachair, History o(
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), 415-37. See also references "The Bed Out~Shot in Ireland," Folk-Liv, XIX-XX (1955-56),
News , Yti.:
in ch. VI, footnote s 23..:..25. 26-29; Des mond McCourt, "The Outshot Hous e-Type and its ton , Chesn¡
107. Wilbur Zelinsky, "The New England Connecting Distribution in County Londonderry ," Ulster Folklif e, 2 Mass.: Co 11
Bam," The Geographical Revi ew, XLVlll:4 (Oct. 1958), (1956), 27-34. 126. C l11
540-53; Russell V. Keune and James Replogle, "Two Maine 117. Sigurd Erixon, "West European Connection s and Cul- 59.
Farmhou ses," Joumal of the Society of Architectural Histo- ture Relations ," Folk-Li v, 2 (1938), 165-66 ; Inn ocent, De- 1 27. St·<·
rians, :XX:1(March 1961), 38-39; Henry Glassie, "T he Wed- ve lopment of English Building Con stru ction, 269; Barl ey, Am erica (N
derspoon Farm ," New York Folklor e Quarterly, XXll:3 (Sept. English Farmhouse and Cottag e , 98, 112, 145,156,201,221 ; 128. An 11
1966), 165-87. Joscelyne Finberg, Exploring Villag es (London: Routl edge 1 29. Sc•t·
108. Glassie, "Eighteenth-C e ntury Cultural Process in and Kegan Paul, 1958), 135. Semiotics 0
Delawar e Valley Folk Buildin~," 49-5 7. 118. See Charles, Medieval Cruck-Building and lts De- Semiotica 1,
109. See Wilbur Zelinsky, 'Where th e South Be gins: the rivatív es, 43-64; Cecil Alee He wett , Th e De ve lopm ent of tion, 5. ' '
Northem Limit of th e Cis-Appalachian South in Term s of Carpentry, 1200-1700 (New ton Abbot : Da vid and Charles ,
130. Se<•1
Settlem ent Landscape," Social Forces , 30:2 (Dec. 1951), 173. 1969), 188-94 . Indu strial I)
110. See Rapoport, House Form and Culture , 77-78. u9. Cecil A. Hew e tt, "Jettying and Floor-Framing in 90.
111. R. T. Masan, "Four Single-Bay Halls ," Sussex Ar- Medie val Essex ," Medi eva l Ar chaeology, X (1966), 106. 131. Oliv<
chaeo logical Coll ection s, 96 (1958), 9-16. 120. Albert H . Sonn , Ear ly Am erican Wrou ght Ir on, 11 Engli sh Vil/
112. J. E. C. Peters, The DevelopmentofFarm Buildings in (New York: Scribner' s, 1928), 10, 12-13; Herb eit Schiffe r, Batsford, l 9 ,
Western Lowland Staffordshir e up to 1880 (Manchester: Early PennsylvaniaHardware (Whitford, Pa.: Whitford Press , Vernacular /\
Manchester Univ. Pre ss, 1969), ch. IV, types 4a, 5e. 1966), 40-43. 132. F ii<-tl
113. Alfred Easton Poor, Colonial Archítecture of Cap e 121. Walter Gropius, The New Ar chite ctur e and the ter in Afri ch,
Cod, Nantucket andMartha's Vin eyard (1932; rpt. NewYork: Bauhau s, trans. P. Morton Shand (Cambridge: M.I.T. Pr es s, 1 33, Seo
Dover, 1970), plate 118; Ernest Allen Connall y, "The Cape 1965), 19-44. 1780: A Guid,
Cod House: An Introductory Stud y," Journal of th e Socíety of 122. Richard S. Latham, "Th e Artifact as Cultural Ciph er ," 1 34 , Seo l
Archít ectural Historians, XIX:2 (May 1960), 47-56. in Who Designs America? , ed. Holland , 266-67. See also th c Folklif e: A 11 ¡
114. Glassi e, "The Variation of Concept s Within Tradition: exce lle nt comments in Allan Janik and Steph en Toulmin , Uni v. of Chi !'i
Bam Building in Otsego County, New York," in pre ss. Wittgen stein' s Vienna (New York: Simon and Schuste r, 1973),
135. See Je,
115. Glassie, "E ight eent h-Century Cultural Process in 252-255. torian Am erli·
Delawar e Valley Folk Building ," 36- 39; Glass ie, "The Dou- 123. Marcus Whiffen, The Eight eenth-Century Hou ses of 1 36. See n,
ble Crib Bam ," Pioneer Ameri ca, l :2 (Jul y 1969), 44-45; ll:2 William sburg (William sburg , Va.: Colon ial William sbur~. Bates on, Ste¡J.,•
(July 1970), 28-30. 1960), 69. 197 2 ), 94- 10G;
116. Eiic Merce r, Fumítur e: 700-1700 (New York: 124. Ibid. , 67-68; Ke lly, Early Dom estic Architectur e <(/ Klee, Pedagogl
208
 Notes to pages 156- 63

:itchen Connecticut, 82-83; Antoinette Forrester Downing, Early York: Praeger, 1965), 30-33. I delight in finding the author of
Aalen , Homes of Rhode lsland (Richmond, Va.: Garrett and Massie, the Tristra-paedia conceptualizing health as the mediation of
Hills," 1937), 123; Henry Glassie, "A Central Chimney Continental the op1;osition of radical heat and radical moisture in Laurence
,d Folk Log House," Pennsylvania Folklife, XVIII: 2 (Winter 1968 - 69), Steme s great The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy
68-70; 34-36 . (1759-67), vol. V, ch. 33.
1 York- 125. Arthur Pierce Middleton, Tobacco Coast: A Maritime 137. Thrill-seeking in sport, in art, in life, is not necessari ly
1achair, History of the Chesapeake Bay in the Colonial Era (Newport an escapist moment, a developmental phase, or an antisocial
55-56) , News, Va.: Mariner's Museum, 1953), 223-24; M rV. Brewing - posture; it can be a cultural possibility . See Herbert J. Gans,
: and its ton, Chesapeake Bay Log Canoes and Bugeyes (Cambridge, The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Lije of ltalian-
'dife, 2 Mass.: Comell Maritime Press, 1963), 19. Americans (New York: Free Press, 1965), ch. 11 in general,
126. Charles, Medieval Cruck -Building and lts Derivatives, 28-31 in particular; R. Lincoln Keiser , The Vice Lords: War-
.nd Cul- 59. riors of the Streets (New York: Holt, 1969). It is not only an
:nt, De- 127. See Richard M. Candee, Housepaints in Colonial urban possibility. Along the lrish border, where I spent much
Barley , America (New York: Chromatic Pub. Co., 1967), 2-3, 11-12. time and wher e young me n make bombs and young women go
01, 221; 128. Armstrong, The Affectin~ Presence, 120. alone to th e city to experience a different life, wh ere old men
utledg e 129. See Meyer Schapiro, ' On Sorne Problems in the drink "to feel different" and old women go to town on market
Semiotics of Visual Ait: Field and Vehicle in Image-Signs," day to pick fights, there is no escaping the reality that culture is
Its De- Semiotica , I:3 (1969) , 223-29; Amheim,Art and Visual Percep- not necessarily predicated on th e search for security and peace.
,nent of tion, 5. 138. See Lévi-Strau ss, Structural Anthropology, 21-22;
Charles , 130. See Herbert Read, Art and Industry: The Principl es of Bemard L. Fontana, William J. Robinson, Charles W. Cormack,
Industrial Design (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr ess , 1961), and Emest E. Leavitt, Jr., Papago Indian Pottery (Seattl e :
ming in 90 . Univ. of Washington Pres s for th{:)American Ethnological So-
106. 131. Oliver, Cottages of England, 44-47; Sydney R. Jon es, ciety, 1962), 133-34; and th e excellent opening and clo sing
Iron, II English Village Homes and Country Buildings (London: comments in Jame s Deetz, The Dynamic s of Stylistic Change
Schi:lfer , Batsford, 1947), 96-97; Brunskill , lllustrat ed Handbook of in Arikara Ceramics, Illinois Studies in Anthropology, 4 (Ur-
rd Pres s, Vemacular Architecture, 64-65. bana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1965).
132. Friedrich Schw erdtf eger, "Housing in Zaria," in Shel- 139. See Lévi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked, 340; Her-
and th e ter in Africa, ed. Oliver , 69. bert Read, lean and Idea: The Function of Art in the Develop-
T. Press , 133. See Marcus Whiffon, American Architecture Since ment of Human Consciousness (New York: Schocken, 1965),
1780: A Cuide to the Styl es (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1969). 48.
Ciph er," 134. See Henry Glassie, "Folk Art," in Folklore and 140. Th e argument in ch. V of J ohn Ru skin' s The Seven
~also th c Folklife: An Introduction, ed. Richard M. Dorson (Chicago: Lamps of Architecture (Sunnyside, Orpington: George Allen,
Toulmi n, Univ. of Chicago Pr ess , 1972), 268-79. 1880) is an architecture-specific example of the nineteenth-
er, 1973), 135. See John Maass, The Gingerbread Age: A View ofVic - century romantic philosophy that líes at the source of much of
torian America (New York: Branhall Hous e, 1957), ch. 3. folkloristic thinking.
{ous es of 136. See Burke, A Grammar of Motive s, 402-44; Gregory 141. Wm. F. Han se n, The Conference Sequence: Pattemed
iamsbur g, Bateson, Steps toan Ecology of Mind (New York: Ballantin e, Narration and Narrative lncon sistency in the Odyssey. Univ.
1972), 94 - 106; Redfield, The Little Community, ch. IX; Paul ofCalifornia Publications: Classical Studies , 8 (Berkeley: Univ.
iecture of Klee,Pedagogical Sketchbook, tran s. Sibyl Moholy-Nagy (New of California Press, 1972), 11, 16, 39, 45-47 , 58-59.
209
Notes to pages 163-77
142. H enry Moore , "On Sculpture and Primitive Art," in on the Social Oganization of Gatherings (New York: Free (Chic11 g1
Modem Artists on Art: Ten Unabridged Essays, ed. Robert L. Pre ss, 1969), 35. Peaso11/,
Herbert (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice -Hall , 1964), 139. See 154. See Ivor Noe l Hume, Here Líes Virginia: An Archae- glewow l
also Arnh eim, Art and Visual Perception, 44 -5 8. ologist 's View ofColonial Lije and History (New York: Knopf, Boch, l 't·
143. Candee, "A Docum entary History of Plymouth Colon y 1963), 99-114. New M1·
Architecture, 1620-1700," Old-Tim e New En gland, LIX :4 155. The opposite situation is excellently de scrib ed by Ruth D arl ing.,
(Spring 196g ), 105, 110 . L. Bunz el, The Pueblo Potter : A Study of Creative Imaginati on Louisi1111
144. See Barley , Engli sh Farmhouse and Cottage, 70-71, in Primitiv e Art (1929; rpt. New York: Dov er, 1972), 23, 27 - 29, Stud ies I
216-17; Eden , "Smaller Post-m edieval Houses in East ern 52-68 , 88. The paintin g on the pottery is asymmetr ical and S.A . S. I '
Eng lan d," 77, 79-83. highl y variabl e; sometimes, then, the potter is unabl e to South c ,·11
145. See H enry Chandlee Form an, Early Manor and Plan- materialize her artic ulat ed ideal, and the mt remain s a vehicl e 8. S1,1
tation Houses of Maryland (Easton, Md.: author, 1934) , 148; for personal expre ssiveness. nial C11/t1
Thomas Tileston Waterm an, The Mansions ofVirginia (Chap el 156. See Glassie, "Folk Art, " 269 , 272-79. Loui s n.
Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Pres s, 1946), 19-21. 157. See Glassie, "Th e Variation of Concepts Within Tradi- tual Q110
146. See Mel Bochner, "Serial Art, Systems, Solipsism," in tion: Bam Buildin g in Otsego County , New York," in pr ess. Marin o, (
MinimalArt: A CriticalAntholo gy , ed. Gregory Battcock (New 158. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Words, tran s. Bemard Frechtman 9. S<·1•
York: Dutton , 1968 ), 93. (Greenw ich, Conn.: Faw cett Publication s, 1968 ). ogy mu / (
147. Waterman and Barrows, Domestic Colonial Archite c- 10. Tlll
ture ofTidewater Virginia , 2- 7. Sociology
148. Innoc en t, Developm ent of English Buildin g Constru c- VIII: A Little History th e work 1,
tion, 151. The hi slo1
149. An lnv entory of Hist orical Monum ents in the County 1. See Rob ert A. Lancaster, Jr. , Hi storie Virginia Hom es abl e criliq
ofCambridge: Volume On e: West Cambridge (Lond on: Royal and Chur ches (Philadelphia: Lippincott , 1915 ), 168- 73. Int erpre to
Commi ssion on Historical Monuments, 1968), xlv- lii; Harry 2. Danie l J. Boorstin , The Am erican s: Th e Colonial Ex- myse lf clrt·
Forrester, The Timber-Framed Houses of Essex (Chelmsford: perienc e (New York: Random House, 1958) , 103. hi storian 11
Th e Tindal Pre ss, 1965) , 14- 16; Cec il A. Hewe tt, "Sorne Eas t 3. John Fi ske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, II (Bos- bore. Surd
Anglian Prototypes for Ear ly Timber Hou ses in Ameri ca," ton: Hou ghton Miffiin, 1899 ), 191. place in tl1
Post-Medieval Archaeology, 3 (1969), 107-8, 111 ; Cecil A. 4. Philip Alexand er Bruce, E conomi c History of Virginia 11. Tho1
Hewett, "Seven tee nth- cent ury Carpenby in E ssex," Post- in the Sevent eenth Century , I (1895 ; rpt. New York: Pet er of Am erito
Medieval Archaeology 5 (1971) , 83 -84. Smith , 1935), 502-32; Thoma s J. Wertenbak er, The Planters 12 . It is ,
150. See Ke lly, Early Domesti c Archit ectur e of Conn ec- ofColonia l Virginia (Prince ton: Pr inc eton Uni v. Pres s, 192 2), hou ses r(·11
ticut, 7-8. 45-83; Ca rl Brid enb augh, Myth s and Realiti es: Soci eties of availab 1c i11
151. Whiffen , Eighteenth-Century Houses ofW illiamsburg , th e Colonial South (Baton Rouge: Loui siana State Uni v. ly: betwce 1
116-17 ; Williarn T. Buchanan, Jr., an d Ed war d F. Heite, "The Press, 1952 ), 5, 7. Loui sa and
Hallowes Site: A Seventeenth-Century Yeoman 's Cottage in 5. Weit enb aker, Plant ers of Colo nial Virginia, 150-55. 40 p er CClll
Virginia," Historical Archaeolo gy , V (197 1), 41. 6. Boorstin , The Am erican s: The Colonia l Experi en cc, teen th and
152 . See Hall , The Hidden Dim ension , 104. 103. is large eno ,,
153. See Erving Goffinan, Behavior in Public Places: Not es 7. See Rob e rt Redfi eld, Peasant Society and Cult11n• 13 , JOJ1('S,
210

: Free (Chica go: Un iv. of Chicago Press, _1960), 18-22; Eric R. Wolf,
Peasants, Foundations of Modem Anthropology Series (En-
rchae- glewood Cliffs, N. T.: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 1-17; Philip K.
Boch, Peasants in the Mod ern World (Albuquerque: Univ . of
Knopf,
New Me xico Press, 1969), 1-5; Milton B. Newton, Jr. , "T he
byR uth Darling s Cr ee k Peasant Settlements of St. He len a Pari sh,
Louisiana," in The Not So Salid South: Anthropologi cal
ination
27-29 ,
Studi es in a Regional Subculture, ed. J. Kenn et h Morland ,
S. A. S. Proc ee dings 4 (Ath ens: Un iv. of Georgia Pres s for the
cal and
able to South em Anthropological Society, 1971), 38-48.
vehicl e 8, See Thom as J. Wertenbaker , The Golden Age of Colo-
nial Culture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Comell Univ. Press , 1959), ch. 6;
Louis B. Wright , The First Gentlem en of Virginia: lntell ec-
tual Qualiti es of th e Early Colonial Rulin g Class (San
n Tradi-
Marino , Cal.: Huntington Library, 1940).
' press. 9. See John L. Cotter , "Colonial Williamsburg," Technol-
~chtrnan
ogy and Culture, 11:3 (Jul y 1970), 417-27.
10. Thi s is exactly the ration ale offered in Talp alar's The
Sociology of Colonial Virginia, 204 . His strange book is not
th e work of a normativ e hi storian , but the id ea is not hi s alon e .
The hi storian He rbert Butterfi e ld publish ed a good an d lik-
abl e critiqu e of his discipline in 1939. As I rea d The Whi g
¡ Home s Interpr etation of Hi story (New York: Norto n, 1965) I found
-73. myself cheeri ng him , exce pt when he wrote (p. 95) that the
mial Ex-
hi stori an mu st study eve ryone in hi s own terms except the
, II (Bos- bore. Surel y people that the hi storian find s boring have a grea t
pla ce in the chronicle.
Virginia 11. Thomas Anbur e y, Travels Thr ough the Int erior Parts
of Am erica , II (Boston: Hou ghton Miffiin, 1923), 215-17.
rk: Peter
12. lt is not po ssibl e to state what percentag e of the original
Planters
house s remain to represent th ese men. Exact stati stics are
SS, 1922),
available in chapte rs I and V, but to put th e case approx imate -
cieti es of ly: between 1790 and 1960 the co mbin e d popul ation of
tte Univ .
Louisa ancl Goochland grew by about one-fifth , and roughly
40 per cent of the standing houses wer e built in the e igh-
150- 55. tee nth and nineteen centuries. It seems that the samp le
:perienc<',
is large enough.
l Cultu,rt' 13. Jon es, Present Stat e of Virginia, 80-81.
Notes to pages 177-79
14. T. S. Eliot, The Waste Land and Other Poems (New
York: Harcourt, 1958), 77-78.
15. Marc Bloch, Land and Work in Mediaeva l Europe,
trans. J. E. Anderson (New York: H arper, 1969), 142.
16. Tames Mar ston Fitch , Am erican Buildin g: Th e Forces
that Shape It (Boston: Hou~hton Miffiin , 1948), 8; Henr y C.
Mercer, An cient Carpenter s Tools (1929; rpt. Do yles town,
Pa.: Bucks County Hi storical Society, 1960), 16-31; Whiffen,
Eight eenth -Century Houses of William sburg, 3-5; Edlin,
Woodland Crafts in Britain,16-17, 140.
17. Jones , Present State of Virginia, 142.
18. Gu ion Griffis Johnson, A Social History of the Sea
Island s (Chapel Hill: Univ. of Nort h Carolina Pres s, 1930),
48; Alexand er F en ton , "Material Culture as an Aid to Lo cal
Hi story Studies in Scotland," Joumal of the Folklor e In sti-
tut e, II:3 (1965), 334.
19. Forman, Virginia Architecture in the Seventeenth
Century , 31-32 , mentions the co mmonl y cited comment by
Captain John Smith and suppos es the cruck-built hou se to
have once b ee n common in Virginia. An ea rly h ouse in Mary -
land has be en discov ered that has it s roof framed by cruc k
trus ses standin g on th e ceiling joist s of the first floor (letter
from J. Richard Rivoire, Jun e 25 , 1973).
20. Thoma s J. Wert enb ake r, Patrician and Plebeian in Vir-
ginia: or th e Origin and Dev elopment of the Social C lasses of
th e Old Domini on (Charlotte sville, Va.: Michi e Co ., 1910),
110-11.
2 1. Demo s, A Littl e Commonwealth, 53-54.
22. Ebenezer Cook, The Sot-Weed Factor: Or, a Voyage to
Maryland. A Satyr (London , 1708), in Early Maryland Poet-
ry , ed. Bemard C. Ste iner, Maryland Historical Society Fund
Publi cation , 36 (Baltimor e : Maryl and Hi storical Society,
1900), 12 [2]. Th e poet became the main figure inJohn Barth's
exce lle nt novel, The Sot-Weed Factor (Ne w York: Bantam,
1969), and the poet' s disenchantment with th e Ch esa p eake
reality became one of Barth ' s th e me s. Barth worked the bit of
poetry quot ed into bis pro se at th e point wh en Eben first
encounte rs the truth of fife in th e colon y (part II, ch. 17); he
211
Notes to pages 179-85
quotes part of it later (part II, ch. 32); and he uses "scotch ofSocial Structure and Model Building: A Critique ofClaude tion (
cloth" recurrently as a sign of moderate es tate, a reminder of Lévi-Strauss and Edmund Leach," American Anthropologist, J. JJ.
the unexpected harshne ss of th e New World situation. 67:3 (June 1965), 707-31; Fredrik Barth, Models of Social Prcss,
23. See Allan l. Ludwig, Graven Images: New England Organization, Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional de scrfl
Stonecarving and its Symbols, 1650-1815 (Middletown, Paper, 23 (Glasgow: Robert MacLehose for Royal An- fencl 11
Conn.: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1966), 43-44; James Deetz and thropological Institute, 1966), v. 1-2, 12-13 , 22-23, 31-32. 39. •
Edwin S. Dethlefsen, "Death's Head, Cherub, Um and Wil- 28. Alan Lomax, Folk Song Style and Culture, A.A.A.S. 40.
low," Natural History, LXXVl:3 (March 1967), 28-37. Publication, 88 (Washington: American Assn. for th e Ad- 17 74:
24. The opposite opinion is expressed in ch. 13 of Alan vancement of Science, 1968). Dickii 1
Merriam's The Anthropology of Music (Evanston, Ill.: 29. Armstrong, The Affecting Presence, 101-73. In c., q
Northwestern Univ. Press, 1964). His idea is quite clearly 30. Erwin Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasti- 41.
stated; while I would prefer to call what he terms an "aesthe- cism (New York: World, 1957). Two works that <leal interest- 42. 1
tic" a "verbalized" or "critica! aesthetic," I could grant his ingly with artistic correlations in the ancient world are Wil- Bi ogra
point. But then, we would need a new word to cover the liam M. lvins, Jr.,Art and Geometry: A Study in Space Intui- 43. ,
unstated aesthetic that is unconsciously held and articulated tions (1946; rpt. New York: Dove r, 1964) and H. P. L'Orange, Patrick
in actions rather than words. lt does not seem to me that a Art Forms and Civic Lije in the Late Roman Empire(Prince- 24; Boo
person needs to verba liz e an aesth etic to have one, any more ton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1972). 13.
than a person needs to be able to diawam sentences in order to 31. See Bloch, Feudal Society, I, 59. 44.
speak. See the Introduction of Boas Primítive Arl; my "Fol k 32. Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism, 2, 207- J 1 ,
Art" paper; and Michael Owen Jones, "The Useful and the 20-21; Heinrich Wolffiin, Renaissance and Baroque, trans. 45. 11
U seless in Folk Art," Joumal of Popular Culture, VI :4 (Spring Kathrin Simon (London: Fontana/Collins, 1971), 76-77. Colonia
1973), 794-818. On the other hand we may refer to Merriam' s 33. J. L. Fischer, "Art Styles as Cultural Cognitive Maps," 46 . Ji
position in order to point out that the word "aesthetic" gets American Anthropoligist, 63:1 (Feb. 1961) , 79-93. Old Vir,
overused in discussions of things like folksongs and tribal 34. DeBow, Statistical View of the United States, 321-22. ers of (,
masks. The word is used to legitimize arts other than those of The problem of the cens us-tak er's definition of a family re- ment , tl1
the Western elites, but it often obscures intentions and func- mains, of course, but that is the trouble with th e use of old 47.
tions. documents. 48. '/'/
25. See A. T. Lucas, "Ireland," in European Folk Art in 35. Bamett, Innovation, 65, 101. ofM rs.11
Europe and the Americas, ed. H. J. Hansen (New York: 36. James J. F. De e tz, "Ceram ics from Plymouth , 1620- in Am e,/
McGraw-Hill, 1967), 77-80. 1835: The Archaeological Evidence ," in Ceramics in Ameri - Putna111·,
26. See J ohn A. Kouwenhoven, The Arts in Modem Ameri- ca: Winterthur Conjerence Report, 1972, ed. lan M. G. 49 . T I
can Civilization (1949; rpt. New York: Norton, 1967) . Quimby (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia for th e hous e w
27. The correlative and cognitive modes of explanation are Henry Francis duPont Winterthur Museum, 1973), 18-19, two-sto1
conceptionally allied with the kinds of models called statisti- 29-33. fac;ade to
cal and mechanical, though their usefulness líes in a different 37. See D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Lit - See Kc ll
direction. For the statistical and mechanical models see: erature (Carden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1953), 13-18, 36- 37. 11, for cxr
Lévi-Strauss, Scope of Anthropology, 27; The Savage Mind, 38. Here are two recent defenses of pragmatic historio g- 50. Jlt ,
232-33; Hugo G. Nut ini , "Sorne Considerations on the Nature raph y: Patrick Gardiner, The Nature of Historical Explana - Com parl .~
212
 Notes to pages 185-93
:laude tion (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1968), parts II and III; in Artifactual Studies , ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washing-
logist, J. H. Hexter, Doing History (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. ton: Anthropological Society of Wash ington, in press).
Social Press, 1971), chs. 2 and 5. These are likable books that ably 51. One could not ask for better data with which to ill us-
,siona l describe the historian's method; they neglect, though, to de- trate these changes than that provided in W. G. Hoskins'
tl An- fend the resu lts of historica l research. superb, The Midland Peasant: The Economic and Social His-
1-32. 39. See Harris, Rise of Anthropological Theory, 220. tory of a Leicestershire Village (London: Macmillan, 1965),
.A.A.S. 40. Journals and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773- the "Excursis on Peasant Houses and Interiors" at the end,
1e Ad- 1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion, ed. Hunter and the illustrations at pp. 149, 187 , 213, 243. The fa9ade
Dickinso n Farish (Williamshurg, Va.: Co lonial Williamsburg, changed from asymmetrical to symmetrica l; one entered di-
Inc., 1943), 35, 148, 150, 226-27. rect ly into the early house, but into a cold transitiona l space in
tolasti- 41. Wertenbaker, Planters of Colonial Virginia, 23. the later one. See the references in ch. VI, footnote 37, for
1terest- 42. Doug las Southall _Freeman, George Washington: A Welsh examples of the same change.
re Wil- Biography, I (New York: Scribner's, 1948), 142, 168-70. 52. It is the change from type S 2 to S 4 excellently set out in
i Intui - 43 . See William Wirt, Sketches of the Lije and Character of R. W. Brunskill, "Traditional Domestic Architecture of the
)range, Patrick Henry (Philade lphia: Thomas Cowperthwait, 1841), Solway Plain," Diss. Univ. of Manc hester (April 1963).
Prince- 24; Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience, 112- 53. See Redfie ld, The Little Community, 108-12, 139 - 48;
13. Peter Las lett, "The Face to Face Society," in Philosophy,
44. Wertenbaker, Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia, Politics and Society, ed . Peter Laslett (Oxford: Basil
:ism, 2, 207 - 11. Blackwell, 1970), 157- 84.
:, trans. 45. Bridenbaugh, Myths and Realities: Societies of the 54 . White, Medieval Technology and Social Change,
-77. Colonial South, 33. 56-57.
Maps," 46. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 87-93; Fiske, 55. Bloch, Land and Work in Mediaeval Europe, 49; Hos-
Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, 11, 191; Wertenbaker, Plant- kins, The Midland Peasant , 193-99, 253-55.
321-22. ers of Colonial Virginia, 131. The figures are not in agree- 56. Von Martín, Sociology of the Renaissance, 62-65;
mily re- ment, though they drift compatibly . Guilio C. Argan, The Renaissance City, trans. Susan Edna
e of old 47. Wertenbaker, Planters of Colonial Virginia, 128-29. Bassnett (New York: Braziller, 1969), 14, 25; Max J. Fried lan-
48. The Aristocratic Journey: Being the Outspoken Letters der, Landscape, Portrait, Still-Life, trans. R. F. C. Hull (New
ofMrs. Basil Hall Written during a Fourteen Months' Sojourn York: Schocken, 1963), 12, 158-63.
l, 1620- in America, 1827-1828, ed. Una Pope-Hennessy (New York: 57. Robert K. Merton, Science, Technology and Society in
tAmeri- Putnam's, 1931), 197. Seventeenth-Century England (1938; rpt. New York: Harper,
l M. G. 49. The change is from the saltbox to the centrnl-chimney 1970), 76-79, 228-38.
for the house with a symmetrical gable plan, whether in a one - or 58. John Ruskin, The Stones of Venice, II (London: Smith,
' 18-19, two-story expression, and from a balanced three -opening Elder, and Co ., 1853), 154-73; John Rusk in, Lectures on Art
fa9ade to a geometrica lly symmetrica l five-opening fa9ade. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1888), 99-126; William
ican Lit- See Kelly, Early Domestic Architecture of Connecticut, ch. Morris, Art and Its Producers, and the Arts and Crafts of
,, 36-37. 11, for examples. Today: Two Addresses Delivered Befare the National Associ-
1istoriog- 50. Henry Glas sie, "Evo lving Structures of Separation: A ation for the Advancement of A rt (London: Lon_gmans, 190 1);
~xplana- Comparison of Architectura l Forms in America and Ireland," Will iam Morris, "The Lesser Arts," "The Worl<er's Share of
213
Notes to page 193
Art," in William Moms: Selected Writings and Designs, ed.
Asa Briggs (Baltimore: Penguin, 1962), 85 -105 , 140-43;
Gropius, New Architecture and the Bauhaus , 58-66; Herbert
Marcuse, "Art as a Forrn of Reality," in On the Future of Art,
ed. Edward F. Fry (New York: Viking, 1970), 126-27.
59. Laslett, The World We Have Lost, 13, 16, 18-19, 156,
233; Demos, A Little Commonwealth, 187-88.
60. Leslie A. White, The Science of Culture: A Study of
Man and Civilization (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux,
1970), ch. 13.

Thi
WOI
a 1111
tun
int,

l. '

FU
T
eral
l! S('
arsl1
po si
Boc-1
ln
Burl
C1
Mc 1
(//1
Sart,
Bt1
214
udy of
iroux ,
This bibliography was subject ively pruned to provid e a list of
works I feel to be most use ful in performing a structural
analysis of historical Anglo-American dome stic folk architec -
ture. The list was arrang ed (Feb ruary 1973 ) to permit e ntran ce
into the "literature" of fields oth er than one's own.
l. Theory
FUNDAMENTAL PROCEDURES
Thi s most per sonal sec tion of th e bibliography, an idiosyn-
cratic se lection of works on method, is pr obabl y of the leas t
use to the reader, but its presence makes the point that scho l-
arship dem ands se riou s and constant exam ination of presup -
positions and fundamental purposes.
Boche11Ski,J. M. Th e Method s of Contemporary Thought,
tran s. Pete r Caws. New York: Harp er, 1968.
Burk e, Kenneth. A Grammar of Motives. Berke ley: Uni v. of
California Press, 1969 .
Me rton, Rob ert K. On Theoretical Sociology: Five Essays, Old
and New. New York: Fr ee Press, 1967.
Sa1tre, Jean-Paul. Search for a Method, tran s. Hazel E.
Barnes. New York: Vintage Books, 196 3.
Selected Bibliography
Winch , Peter. Th e Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to
Philosophy . New York: Humanitie s Pre ss, 1971.
STRUCTURALISM IN GENERAL
The curr ent int eres t in structur ali sm ha s led to th e produc-
tion of seve ra! gene ral works. Lane' s an d Ehrrnann' s books are
valuabl e antholo gie s; Lan e' s paiticularl y in elude s severa !
classic statement s. Gardn er's is a clear, simpl y stat ed intro-
du ction. Piaget' s book , I fee l, is far and away the best genera l
work on struc tur alism .
Ehrrnann, Jacqu es, ed. Structuralism. Card en City, N . Y.:
Doubleday, 1970 .
Gardner, H oward . The Quest for Mind: Piaget, Lévi-Strauss
and the Structuralist Movemen t. New York: Knopf, 1973.
Lane , Michae l, ed. In trod u ction to Structuralism. New York:
Basic Books, 1970 .
Piaget, Jean. Structuralism, tran s. Ch anin ah Maschler. New
York: Basic Books, 1970.
STRUCTURALISM: LINGUISTICS
Noam Chom sky <loes not term his theor ies struc tural. In
American lin guistics, generative and tran sforrnat ion al theo-
215
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
ries replaced the theories called stmctural; still, Chomsky' s pletely understood. Beginning at the wrong point in Lévi- Ray es, 1,;
work is philosophically akin to what is called structuralism in Strauss' corpus may make it especially hard on the person Strr/1/s,v:
anthropology. Chomsky's writings are necessary and basic to approaching hirri. An introductory program for the English Press, 1
an understanding of generative gi:ammar, and John Lyons' reader who wishes to comprehend Lévi-Strauss' analysis of Le ach , 1,:,
book,Noam Chomsky (New York: Viking, 1970), will help the myth-the vein throu gh his thought that is richest for the 1970.
reader come to Chomsky. King's book includes an espec ially student of autonomous objects-might follow this order: Lea ch , I•:<1
lucid outline of generative grammar, in addition to extending Tristes Tropiques, The Scope of Anthropology, Structural tem,-is111.
the structuralist procedure into time. The books by Lyons, Anthropo logy (part I), Totemism, The Savage Mind, Struc- Paz , O ·111, ,
Barthes, and Jakobson and Halle are also good introductions. tural Anthropology (parts II, III), The Raw and the Cooked, J. S. 13('1
Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology, trans. Annette Lav - From Honey to Ashes. He considers The Savage Mind a di- Cap•, rp
ers and Colin Smith. Boston: Beacon Press, 1970. gressive pause; I consider it cmcially pivota!. Ros si, l 110.
Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of th e Theory of Syntax. Cam- Lévi-Strauss, Claude. From H oney to As hes, I ntroduction to a Lév i-S tr1
bridge: M.I.T. Press, 1970. 20 -48.
Science of Mythology, 2, trans. John and Doreen
---. Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt, Brace , and Weightman. New York: Harp er, 1973.
World, 1968. ---. The Raw and the Cooked, Introduction to a Science of STRU CT UI
---. Syntactic Structures. J anua Linguarum, 4. The Hague: Mythology, 1, trans. John and Doreen Weightman. New
Mouton, 1969. York: Harper, 1970. Lé vi-St 11
Jakobson, Roman, and Morris Halle. Fundamentals of Lan- called "p11n
---. The Savage Mind. Chicago: Un iv. of Chicago Press,
guage. Janua Linguarum, 1. The Hague: Mouton, 1971. ible re lalio1
1966.
King, Robert D. Historical Linguistic s and Generative isolat e "sy ,
---. The Scope of Anthropology, trans. Sherry Ortner Paul yield shnp1
Grammar. Englewood Cli:ffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. and Robert A. Paul. London: Jonathan Cape, 1967.
Lyons, J ohn. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Lon- folklori s I i<,
---. Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and those who 1
don: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968. Brooke Grundfest Schoepf. Carden City , N.Y.: Doubleday, the Mara111li
1967. parti cular ly
---. Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham. Boston: Beacon
STRUCTURALISM: ANTHROPOLOGY Pr es s, 1963. Brém oncl, <
Aspects of anthropological structuralism were in evidence ---. Tristes Tropiques: An Anthropological Study of Sem iot // ·11
before Claude Lévi-Strauss, and many contemporary anthro- Primitive Societies in Brazil, trans. John Russell. New York: Dund es, Al,
pologists are using hi s ideas in their own analysis. A good, Athe neum, 1970. Folkt alf's .
representative examp le would be Victor W. Tumer, The So important-or fascinating-is Lévi-Strauss that numer- sinki: Sw,
Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago: Al- ous essays have been writt en on him. Somehow mo st of th ese Maranda , l'I
din e, 1969). But I think Lévi-Strauss is hi s own theory' s best works seem inadequate, even incorrectto me. I listthem w ith Analy sis 11
and most carefu l practitioner, and I would prefer for th e the caveat that though man y provide sorne insight, many may tion s .i11 t"
reader new to anthropological stmcturalism to begin with also mislead. The papers by Nutini, Scholte , and Caws in- Penn sy lv11
him. His subtl y interpenetrating, concentric style makes his cluded in the Rayes' volum e ar e es pecially int eresti n g, and Propp , V. /1111
ideas sometimes diffi.cult of access. For sorne people his writ- the article by Ros si seems to be the best thing yet written. The Scott and
ings are annoying; for oth ers, like myself, th ey are m etaphori- Structural Study of Myth and Totemism contains Lévi- Bibli ogn , 1,
ca lly rich: his thinking can be he lpful even when it is incom- Strauss' own "The Story of Asdiwal." sear ch C:, ,,
216 10. Aus tl11:
 Selected Bibli ography

Lévi- Rayes, E. Nelson, and Tanya Rayes, eds . Claud e Lévi- COMPOSITION AND INNOVATION
~rson Strauss: The Anthropologist as Hero. Cambridge: M.I.T. These works are not explicitly struc turali st, and sorne of
glish Press, 1970. them were conceived in opposition to structuralism, but all of
sis of Leach, Edmund. Claude Lévi -Straus s. New York: Viking, them hold suggestions for tl1e expansion of struct uralist con-
r the 1970. cerns. The object th at manifests structure was the result of the
,rder: Leach, Edmund, ed . The Structural Study of Myth and To- app lication of a dynamic of composition; the works by Lowes,
tural temism. A.S.A. Monographs, 5. London: Tavistock, 1971. Lord, and Hansen consider the nature of compositio n, and
truc- Paz, Octavio. Claude Lévi-Strauss: An lntroduction, tran s. thus may be related to theories of mental process such as th ose
oked, J. S. Bernstein and Maxine Bern stein. London: Jonathan of Lévi-Strauss and Chomsky. The object is a vehi cle for
a di- Cape, 1970. communication; the works by Duncan, Goffman, Hall , Labov,
Ros si, Ino. "The Unconscious in the Anthropology of Claude Sommer, and especially Hymes pr ese nt imp o1tant aspects of
Lévi-Straus s." American Anthropologist, 75:1 (Feb. 1973 ), the communicating proce ss of fittin g form to context. Evaluat-
ntoa 20-48. in g the result of th e interpl _ay of object and context requires a
oreen theory for innovation, and the books by Barnett and Kuhn are
STRUCTURALISM: FOLKLORE e specially he lpful to that end.
rice of
New Lévi-Strauss' structura l studies of the narrative have be e n Bamett, H. G. Innovation: The Basi s of Cultural Change.
called "paradigmatic." They have concentrated on the revers- New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953.
Pres s, ibl e relations that yie ld meaning. Folklorist s have tended to Dun can, Hugh Dalziel. Symbols in Society. New York: Ox-
isolate "syntagmati c" structures-irreversible relations that fo_rdUniv. Press, 1972.
TPaul yield shape. Vladimir Propp' s book remains the classic Goffinan, Erving. Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the So-
folkloristic study . Brémond and Dundes have be e n among cial Organization of Gatherings. New York: Free Press,
,n and tho se who have int erestingly extended Propp's concep ts. In 196g.
leday , the Marand as' anth ology, the paper by A. Juli en Greimas is a ---. Int eraction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behaviour.
pa1ticularly useful statement. Hammondsworth: Penguin , 1972.
,eacon --. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Carden City,
Brémond, Claud e. "Morphology of the French Fo lktal e," N. Y. Doubleday, 1959.
dy of Semiotica, Il:3 (1970), 247 - 76. Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dim ension. Carden City, N. Y.:
, York: Dundes, Alan. The Morphology of North American Indian Doubleday, 1969.
Folktale s. Folklore Fellows Communications , 195 . Hel- ---. The Silent Language. Gree nwich, Conn.: Fawcett,
sinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1964. 1964.
1umer- Maranda, Pi erre, and Elli Kongas Maranda, eds. Structural Hansen, William F. The Conference Sequen ce: PatternedNar-
f th ese Analysis ofOral Tradition. Un iv. of Penns ylvania Publica- ration and Narrative Inconsist ency in the Odyss ey. Univ. of
nwith tions in Folklor e and Folk life, 3. Philadelphia: Univ. of California Publication s: Clas sical Studie s, 8. Berkeley: Univ.
1ymay Pennsylvania Press, 1971. of California Pre ss, 1972.
.WS in -
Propp , V. Morpholo gy of the Folktal e, ed . and trans. Laurenc e Hymes , D ell. "Direction s in (Ethno -) Lingui stic Th eory," in
1g, and Scott and Loui s A. Wagner. American Folklore Society , Transcultural Studies in Cognition, ed. A. Kimball Romney
m.Th e Bibliographical and Spe cial Serie s, 9; Indian Univ . Re- and Roy Goodwin D 'Andrade. American Anthropologist,
Lévi- search Center in Anthropology, Folklor e, and Linguistics, 66:3, 2 . Menasha, Wis.: Amer ican Anthropologi cal Assn.
10. Austin: Univ. of Texa s Pre ss, 1968. (1964), 6-56.
217
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
---. "Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communica- Mechanics, trans. Peter De Francia and Anna Bostock. Cam- poi
tion," in The Ethnography of Communication, ed. John J. bridge: M.I. T. Press, 1968. irn¡
Gumpers and Dell Hymes. American Anthropologist, 66:6, Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Existence, Space, and Architec- inq
2. Menasha, Wis.: Ame1ican Anthropological Assn. (1964), ture. New York: Praeger, 1971. "A ,
1 -34. ---. Intentions in Architecture . Cambridge: M.I.T. Press,
Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, In- 1968. An,
temational Encyclopedia of Unified Science, Il:2. Chicago: Pye, David. The Nature of Design. New York: Reinhold, 1967- I
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1970. Shahn, Ben. The Shape of Content. New York: Vintage Books, 1
Labov, William. The Social Stratification of English in New 1960. Biei
York City. Washington: Centerfor Applied Linguistics, 1966. Simon, Herbert A. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge: ¡\
Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. New York: Atheneum, M.I.T. Press, 1969. Bon,
1965. Bu,,
Lowes, John Livingston. The Road to Xanadu: A Study in the ARCHAEOLOGY 11,(

Ways of the Imagination. New York: Vintage Books, 1959. Next to the designer himself , th e anthropological archae- F on
Sommer, Robert. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of ologist has been the artifact's major theorist. Deetz's Invitation m
Design . Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice-Hall, 1969. is a succinct, readab le, exce llent introduction to anthropologi- tk,
cal archaeology. The anthologies edited by Deetz and Chang So
include many import ant papers; the reader should be directed Ge rl
11. Theories of Artifactual Analysis especia lly to Lewis R. Binford' s contr ibution s to Deetz' s vol- N<'
mne. The paper by Fontana et al. is ade light. Ivor Noel Hume's Hel11
book is a good introduction to the solid, if theoretically timid, in{!.
DESIGN
work of nonanthropologic al histori cal archaeologists. Wn
People actively engaged in designing things have written 19(
severa l exceedingly import ant essays on the theory of artifacts. Chang, K. C., ed. Settlement Archaeology. Palo Alto: National Jopli,
All of these listed are very suggestive works, but I would like Press Books, 1968. N('
to draw attention in particular to Alexander' s book and to Deetz, James. Invitation to Archaeology. Carden City, N. Y.:
Norberg-Schulz's remarkable Intentions in Architecture. Natura l H istory Press for th e American Museum of Natural Fo,
sorne
Fitch, James Marston.American Building , 2: The Environmen- Histo1y, 1967 .
--- , ed . Man's Imprint from the Past: Readings in th e York:
tal Forces That Shape It. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972 . Redfü
Greenough, Horatio. Form and Function: Remarks on Art , Methods of Archaeology. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.
Pre ss,
Design, and Architecture, ed. Haro ld A. Small. Berkeley: Fontana, Bemard L., J. Ca mero n Greenl eaf, et al. "Johnn y
Ward' s Ranch: A Study in Historie Archaeology." The Kiva, with ('
Univ. of California Press, 1966. art is
28:1-2 (Oct .-Dec . 1962), 1-ll5.
Klee, Pau l. On Modern Art, trans. Paul Findlay. London: Musi c
Faber, 1969. Noe l Hume, Ivor. Historical Archaeology. New York: Knopf~
joum a
--. Pedagogical Sketchbook, trans . Sibyl Moholy-Nagy. 1969.
illu stn
New York: Praeger, 1965.
Le Corbusier. The Modular: A Harmonious Measure to th e ANTHROPOLOGY FOLKI
Human Scale Universally Applicable to Archit ecture and With the exception of tho se who are archaeologists , anthr o• Iti s
218

Cam- pologi sts have evinced little interest in the artifact; still, several
impmtant studies of art have been published. Among other
hitec- important papers , Jopling' s anthology reprints J. L. Fisch er's
"Art Styles as Cultural Cognitive Maps."
Press,
Armstrong, Robert Plant. The Affe cting Presence: An Essay in
1967. Humanistic Anthropology. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Pre ss,
Books, 1971.
Biebuyck, Daniel R., ed. Tradition and Creativity in Tribal
iridge: Art. Berkele y: Univ. of California Pres s, 196g.
Boas, Franz. Primitive Art. 1927; rpt. New York: Dover, 1955.
Bunzel, Ruth L. The Pueblo Potter: A Study of Creativ e Ima gi-
nati on in Primiti ve Art. 1929; rpt. New York: Dover , 1972.
Fontana, Bemard L., William J. Robinson, Charles W. Cor-
uchae- mack, and Eme st B. Leavitt, Jr. Papago Indian Pottery. Seat-
itation tle : Univ. ofWas hingt on Press forthe American Ethnologi cal
pologi- Society , 1962.
Chang Gerbrands, Adrian. Wow-ipit s: Eight Asmat Wood-Carvers of
irected New Guinea. The Hague: Mouton, 1967.
z' s vol- Helm, J une , ed. Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts: Proceed -
-Iume' s ings of the 1966 Annual Spring Meeting . Seattle: Univ. of
, timid , Washington Press for the American Ethnological Society,
1967.
lational Jopling,
Carol F., ed. Art and Aesth etics in Primitive Societies.
New York: Dutt on, 197 1.
·, N. Y.:
For those who are not anthropologists , yet who wou ld like
Natural sorne feeling for the field, A. L. Kroeber' s Anthropolo gy (New
York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948) is a classic introduction. Robe1t
in th e Redfield's The Little Community (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago
}71-
Press , 196o) presents the anthropological tradition of holism
Johnny
with clarity. The culturally relative anthropo ligical approa ch to
ie Kiva , art is well set out in Alan P. Merriam, Th e Anthropology of
Musi c (Evanston, Ill.: Northw estern Univ. Press, 1964). The
: Knopf~ joumal s Am erican Anthropolo gist and Curr ent Anthropology
illustrat e the trends in anthropo logical thinking.
FOLKLORE
, anthro - It is reasonable that the stud ent of patterns in tradition would
Selected Bibli ography
study folk artifacts as well as folk oral literature. In Europe
stud ents of folk cultur e have lon g attended to material tradi-
tion s, but intere st in the artifact is recent among American
folklorists. Although folkloristic schol ars of the artifact have
produced many good studies, their theo retical intention s have
gen erally remained submerged in des cription. Th ese works
will serve as an introduction to the folklore (or folklife or re-
gional ethnology) approach to the artifact (or mater ial cultur e).
Bogatyrev, Petr. The Fun ctions of Folk Costume in Moravian
Slovakia, tran s. Richard G. Crum . Approach es to Semiotics,
5. The Hague: Mouton , 1971.
Erixon , Sigurd. "Regional Europ ean Ethnolo gy." Folkliv, 2-3
(1937), 89 - 108; 3 (1938), 263 -94.
Evan s, E. Estyn . Irish Folk Ways. New York: Devin-Adair,
1957.
Fenton, Alexand er. "An Approach to Folk Life Studie s." Key-
ston e Folklore Quart erly, XII:1 (Spring 1967 ), 5-21.
Gailey, Alan, and Alexander Fenton, ed s. The Spad e in North-
em and Atlantic Europe. Belfast: Ulster Folk Mu seum and
In stitute for Irish Studies , Queen's Univ., 1970.
Glassie , He nry. Pattern in th e Mat erial Folk Culture of the
Eastern United Stat es. Univ. of Penn sylvania Publications
in Folklore and Folklife, 1. Phil adelph ia: Un iv. of Pe nnsyl-
vania Press, 1969.
--. "Structur e and Function , Folklore and the Artifact."
Semio tica, VII:4 (1973 ), 3 13-51.
Jenkins, J. Geraint. The English Farm Wagon : Origins and
Stroctur e. Reading: Oakwood Press for Univ. of Reading ,
Museum of Engli sh Rural Life , 1961.
-- , ed. Studi es in Folk Life: Essays in Hon our of Iorw erth
C. Peate. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969.
Yoder, Don. "Th e Folklife Studi es Movement. " Pennsylvania
Folklif e, 13:3 (Jul y 1963), 43 -56 .
An ide a of folklore as a modern discipline can be taken from
Richard M . Dorson, ed .,Folklor e andFolklife: An Introduction
(Chicago: Univ. of Chi cago Press, 1972 ); Alan Dund es, ed., The
Study of Folklo re (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hal l,
219
Folk Housing in Middl e Virginia
1965); Jan Harold Brunvand , The Study oj Ameri can Folklore: Univ. of California Press , 1969 ). Th e major joum als are the Mw
An Introdu ction (New York; Norton, 1968); and from thes e Geographical Review andAnnals oj the Association oj Ameri - P1
joumals:Joumal oj American Folklore,Joumal oj the Folklore can Geographers. N
Institut e, Folk Lije, Ulster Folklije, Ethnologia Europaea. A111
ART HISTORY Yt
fü:11
GEOGRAPHY The art historian' s customary atten tion to extraordinary
monuments, his tacit acceptance of progr ess ive schemes, and 81
Cultural and historical geographers have been inter este d in
the artifact as a mean s.to dividing space andas a component in his proclivity to uncontrolled generalizations frequ e ntly make
the cultural system of environmental modification. Th e former hi s works good reading , but poor aids to the formulati on of
inter est is be st stated in Kniffen' s essay, the latter in Rapoport ' s theories. Still, there are many art hi sto1ical works of different
kinds that requir e the attention of the studen t of artifacts be- <f
book. The interests are combined in good local or reg ional Rus
stud ies, such as tho se of Evans, Wacker, We iss, and Sauer . cause of sparkling commentary (as in the case of Ruskin, Ku- El
bler, Malraux , Greenberg, or Read ), because of the correlation
Evans , E. E styn. Moume Country: Land scape and Lije in of art works with oth er expressions of cultur e (Panofsky,
South Down. Dundalk : Dundalgan Pre ss, In st . of Irish L'Orang e, and Kouwenhoven ), or beca use of close hi storical- III .
Studi es, Quee n's Univ., Belfast, 1967 . · desc riptive scrutiny of a movement or class of object (Madse n
Kniffen, Fred. "Fo lk Housing: Key to Diffu sion." Annals oj the and Montgomery ). Th e univ ersa lizing application of Gowan s' s MET
Association oj American Geographers, 55:4 (De c. 1965) , meth od stops me, but the introducti on of his book is an imp or- M1
· 549-77. tant statement, conceptually comp arable with the writings of Son1t
Lewis, Peirc e F. "The Geography of Old Hous es ." Earth and anthropo logical stud ents of art.
Mineral Sciences, 39:5 (F eb. 1970), 33-37. Bloc·!
Rapoport, Amos. House Form and Cultur e. Foundations of Gowans, Alan. On Parallels in Universal History Discoverable
Yo
Cultural Geograph y Series . En glewood Cliffs, N. J.: Pren- in Arts and Artija cts: An Outlin e Statement. Univ. of Vic- Bu lll
toria Monograph Series : Hi story in the Arts, 6. Victoria, B. C.:
tice -Hall, 196g.
Univ. of Victoria, 1972. Yo
Sauer, Carl O. The Geography oj the Ozark Highlands oj Gan l
Missouri. Geographic Society of Chicago Bulletin, 7. Gree nb erg, Clement. Art and Cultur e: Critical Essays. Boston: do,
Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1920. Beacon Pre ss, 196g. Hex11
Wacker, Pet er O. The Musconetcong Valley oj New Jersey: A Kouwenhov en , John A. The A rts in Modem American Civiliza-
19
Historical Geography. New Brunswick , N. J. Rutger s Univ. tion. New York: Norton, 1967 . Hosk
Pre ss, 1968. Kubler, George . The Shape oj Time: Remarks on the History oj ] ~)('
Weiss , Richard. Hiiuser und Landschajt en der Schweiz . Erlen - Things. New Haven : Yale Univ. Press, 1967.
L'Orang e, H. P. Art Forms and Civic Lij e in the Lat e Roman Co,
bach: Eu gen Rent sch, 1959.
Empire. Prin ceto n: Princeton Univ. Press, 1972 . main
An introdu ction to cultu ral geography may be found in Philip Madsen, S. Tschudi. Art Nouveau, trans. R. J. Chri stoph erson. injud
L. Wagner and Marvin W. Mikesell, eds. , Readings in Cultural New York: McGraw-Hill , 1967. oj A11
Geography (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967). Anoth er Malrau x, André . Museums Without Walls: The Voices of Si- (Ncw
good place to begin is John Leightly, ed., Land and Lije: A lence, trans. Stuart Gilbert and Franci s Price . Carden City, poki11
Selection jro m the Writings oj Carl Ortwin Sauer (Berkel ey: N. Y.: Doubl eday , 1967 . to1y. 'I
220
 Selected Bibliography

re the Montgomery, Charles F. American Furniture: The Federal two selections of essays by Richard M. Dorson: American
~meri- Period, in the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum. Folklore and the Historian (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,
New York: Viking, 1966. 1971) and Folklore: Selected Essays (Bloomington : Indiana
Panofsky, Erwin. Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism. New Univ. Press, 1972), chap. 8 and 9.
York: World, 1957.
Read, Herbert. Art and Alienation: The Role of the Artist in
:dinary Society. New York: Viking, 1969. PRACTICE
~s, and ---. Art and Industry. Bloomington: Indiana Univ . Press,
, make Studies of history are better than methodological essays for
1964. providing the reader with a sense of the possibilities of histori-
:ion of --. Icon and Idea: The Function of Art in the Development
fferent cal research. Below are listed works I value especia lly highly
ofHuman Consciousness. New York: Schocken Books, 1967. because they share intensity (Hoskins is a good example), care -
cts be- Ruskin, John. The Stones of Venice. 3 vols. London: Smith,
in, Ku- ful methods (Macfarlane, Merton, and Montell), aná sociocul-
Elder , 1851-53 . tural sophistication (Bloch, Demos, and Laslett).
elation
nofsky, Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society, trans . L. A. Manyon . 2 vols.
torical- 111. History Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press, 1968.
1adsen ---. French Rural History: An Essay on Its Basic Charac-
,wans's METHOD teristics, trans. Janet Sondheimer. Berkel ey : Univ. of
impor- Many descriptions are avaliable of historiographic method . California Press, 1970.
:ings of Sorne good examples follow. Demos, John . A Little Commonwealth: Family Lije in
Bloch, Marc. The Historian 's Craft, trans. Peter Putnam. New Plymouth Colony. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1970.
;erable Greven, Philip J., Jr. Four Generations: Population, Land and
York: Vintage Books, 1953. Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts. lthaca,
of Vic- Butterfie ld, Herbert. The Whig Interpretation of History. New
1, B. C.: N. Y.: Comell Univ. Press , 1970.
York: Norton, 1965. Hoskins, W. G. The Midland Peasant: The Economic and So-
Gardiner, Patrick. The Nature of Historical Explanation. Lon -
Boston: cial History of a Leicestershire Village. London: Macmillan,
don: Oxford Univ. Press, 1968.
Hexter,J. H.DoingHistory. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1965.
:iviliza- Laslett, Peter. The World We Have Lost: England Befare the
1971. Industrial Age. New York: Scribner's, 1965.
Hoskins, W. G. Local History in England. London: Longmans,
~toryof Macfarlane, Alan. Witch craft in Tudor and Stuart England: A
1965.
Regional and Comparative Study. New York: Harper, 1970.
Roman Comments upon the problems of hi story by scholars whose Marx, Leo . The Machine in the Carden: Technology and the
main commitment is to disciplines other than history are usefu l Pastoral Ideal in America. New York: Oxford Univ. Press,
,herson. in judging norrnative historiography. Marvin Harris' The Rise 1967.
of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture Merton, Robert K. Science, Technology and Society in Seven-
s of Si- (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968), though somewhat teenth Century England. New York: Harper, 1970.
,m City, polemical, includes a history of anthropological studies of his- Montell, William Lynwood. Th e Saga ofCoe Ridg e: A Study
tory. The position of one influential folklori st can be found in inOralHistory. Knoxville: Univ. ofTennessee Press, 1970.
221
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class. exp lorers, traveler s, and ear ly settlers, so that , oddly, the VI
New York: Vintage Books, 1963. seventeenth and ea rly eighteenth centuries can be known
White, Lynn, Jr. Medieval Technology and Social Change. better from documents than the late eight eenth, nineteenth, SÍ (
New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969. and early twentieth centures. He will find sorne professional
hi storical writings that, no matter how stringently they battle
co
There is a distinct class of study that falls between history
and geogra phy. These historical studies of landscapes are of
stereotyp ing, still speak in fuzzy generalities about most Bo
great use to th e student of the artifact. p eople and speak with precision only about upper-class m en.
Br
Clark, Andrew Hill. Three Centuries and the Island: AH istor- VIRGINIA: FIRST-HAND ACCOUNTS I
ical Geography of Settlements and Agriculture in Prince Arber, Edwin, and A. G. Bradley, eds. Travels and Works of 1
Edward Island, Ganada. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, Fis
Captain ]ohn Smith. 2 vols. Edinburgh: John Grant, 1910.
1959. l
Beverley, Robert. The History and Present State of Virginia, w,,
Evans, E. Estyn. The Personality of Ireland: Habitat, Heri- ed. Louis B. Wright. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Caro lina
tage and History. Cambridge: Cambridge Un iv. Press, Press for the Institute of Early American History and Cul- l
1973. ture at Williamsburg, Va., 1947.
Hoskins, W. G. The M aking of the English Landscape. Ham- Bumaby, Andrew. Travels through the Middle Settlements in
mondsworth: Penguin, 1970.
IV.
North-America in the Years 1759 and 1760. With Observa-
Jordan, Terry G. German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Far- tions Upon the State of the Colonies. Ithaca, N .Y.: Comell EN
mers in Nineteenth-Century Texas. Austin: Univ. ofTexas Univ. Press, 1960.
Press, 1966. 'l '
Cook, Ebenezer. The Sot-Weecl Factor: Or, a Voyage to Mary-
Lemon, James T. The Best Poor Man's Country: A Geo- d at<
land. A Satyr, in Early Maryland Poetry, ed. Bernard C. be
graphical Study of Early Southeastern Pennsylvania. Bal- Steiner. Maryland Historical Fund Publication, 36. Balti-
timore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1972. Bar l
more: Maryland Historical Society, 1900.
Taylor, Christopher. Dorset. London: Hodder and Stoughton, Farish, Hunter Dickinson, ed.Joumals and Letters of Philip Add
1970. Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old S<
Dominion. Williamsburg, Va.: Co lomial Williamsburg, Bar l
VIRGINIA fü
1943.
A regular assumption of the historian is that there will be Hakluyt, Richard, ed. The Principal Naviga tions, Voyage s, Brig
writings to study . Sorne societies obsessively docum ent Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation. 12 vols. 19
th emse lves, preserving wills, rolls, and accoun ts in great Glasgow: James MacLehose, 1903- 1905. Vol. 8 is the im- Bru,
numbers. Others do not, which makes it much hard er to do portant one for Virginia. el,
historical research-or good hi storical research-in an area Jefferson , Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia. Boston: lnno
like Middle Virginia than in an area like eas tem Mas- Wells and L illy, 1829. S/ I
sachusetts. Not only are ea rly records scanty, there are not Jones, Hugh. The Present State of Virginia From Whence Is 19
even full local histories written by Victorian amateurs. The Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina, e d. Smit
student of a place like Middle Virginia will find only thin, poor Richard L. Mo1ton. Chape l Hill: Univ . of Nort h Carolina vc l
local histories. He will find sorne useful first-hand accounts of Press for the Virginia Historical Society, 1956 . no/
222
 Selected Bibliography

, the VIRGINIA: HISTORIANS ENGLAND: LO CAL STU DI ES

1own Th ese works improve as we near the pr esent, but the impres- Over the pa st century a grea t many wor ks dea lin g with the
enth, sion they leave talli es perf ectly with neither the first-hand ac- domestic archit ectur e of an Engli sh coun ty or locality ha ve
iona l count s nor with architectural analysis. been pub lish ed . Although many of them incl ude good illus-
)attle
Boorstin, Daniel J. The Am ericans: The Colonial Exp erience . tration s and comme nta ry, I have chose n to list on ly recen t and
most exce llent works; that by Wood -J on es is a supe rb mode l study.
roen. New York: Vint age Books , 1958.
Brid enbaugh, Car l. Myth s and Realities: Societies of the Co- Brunskill , R. W. "T he Clay Houses of Cumb erland." Transac-
lonial South. Baton Roug e : Loui siana State Uni v. Pre ss, tions of th e Ancient Monuments Society, 10 (1962), 57-80.
1952. Char les, F. W. B. Medieval Cruck-Building and Its Deriva-
·ks of F iske, John. Old Virginia and Her Neighbors . 2 vols. Boston:
1910 . tives: A Study of Timb er-Framed Constructio n based 1Jn
Hou ght on Miffün , 1899. Buildings in Worcesters hire . Society for Medi eval Ar-
5inia, Weit en bak er, Thoma s J. Th e Planters of Colonial Virginia. cha eo logy Mono graph Series, 2 . London : Soci ety for
:olina Princeton: Princ eto n Univ. Press, 1922.
l Cu l- Medi eva l Archaeolog y, 1967.
Eden, P. "Sma ller Post -med ieva l Hou ses in Eastem E ng-
nts in IV. Traditional Architecture land," inEa stAng lian Studies, ed . Lion el M. Munb y. Cam-
erva- bridg e : W. Heffer (1968 ), 71-93.
)m ell ENGLAND Hewe tt, Cecil Alee. The Development of Carpentry: 1200-
Th e ser ious int eres t in English trad itiona l architecture 1700: An Essex Study. New ton Abbot: David and C harles,
v!.ary- dat es into the nin e tee nth centu ry. Addy's ear ly work shou ld 1969.
.rd C. be remembere d. Brunsk ill' s handbook is very usefu l, and Pete rs, J. E. C. The Developme nt of Farm Buildings in West-
Balti - Barley's work is particularly exce llent. ern Low land Staffordshir e up to 1880. Manches ter: Man-
cheste r Un iv. Press, 1969.
)hilip Addy, Sidn ey Oldall. The Evolution of the Eng lish House. Stell, Christopher . "Pen nin e Hou ses : An Introduction." Folk
e Old Social England Ser ie s. London: Swan Sonnensc he in , 1898. Life, 3 (1965), 5-24.
,burg, Barley, M. W. The Englis h Farmhouse and Cottage. Lo nd on: Wacfhams, M. C. "Th e De ve lopmen t of Buildin gs in Witham
Routledg e and Kega n Paul, 1961. from 1500 to circa 1880. " Post-Medieval Archaeology, 6
¡ages, Brigg s, Ma1tin S. The En glish Farmhou se. Londo n : Batsfo rd, (1972), 1-41.
: vols. 1953. Wood-Jones, Raymond B. Tradit ional Domestic Archit ecture
,e im- Brun skill, R. W. An Illustrat ed Handbook of Vemacular Ar- in the Banbury Regían. Mancheste r: Manches ter Univ.
chitecture. New York: Universe Book s, 1970. Pres s, 1963.
)ston: Inn oce nt, C. F. The Development of English Buildin g Con-
struction. 1916; rpt. New ton Abbot: David and Charl es,
1 971. WALES
rice Is
1a,ed. Smith, J. T. "T imb er -Fram e d Buildin* in En glan d: lt s D e- Th e b ibli og rap hy on Welsh folk arc hitec tur e is short but
i-olina velopment and Regional Differe nc e . Archaeological Jour- nob le . Pea te 's is an exce llent pion eer in g study; Fox and Rag-
nal, CXXII (1965), 133- 58. lan' s is the first of the exemplary modern stu di es of British

223
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
traditional domestic architecture; and th e study by Smith and
Jones is excellent.
Fox, Sir Cyril, and Lord Raglan. Monmouthshire Houses. 3
vols. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales, 1951-54.
Jones, S. R., and J. T. Smith. "The Houses of Breconshire."
Brycheiniog, IX (1963), 1-77; X (1964), 69-183; XI (1965),
1-149; XII (1966/67); 1-91.
Peate, Iorwerth C. TheWelshHouse: A Study in Folk Culture.
London: The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, 1940.
SCOTLAND
Considerably less information is available on Scottish folk
architecture than on that of the other areas of the British Isles.
A beginning can be made with cha p. 7 of T. W. West, A H istory
of Architecture in Scotland (London: Univ. of London Press,
1967), chaps. VII and VIII of I. F. Grant, Highland Folk Ways
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), and in these works
devoted to folk housing.
Gailey, Alan. "T he Peasant Houses of the South-west High-
land s of Scotland: Distribution, Parallels and Evolution."
Gwerin , III:5 (June 1962), 227-42.
Sinclair, Colín. The Thatched H ouses of the Old Highlands.
Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1953.
IRELAND
Irish architecture has not been handled with the systematic
care accorded that of England. The students of Irish houses
have, however, often admirably considered the house as a part
of cu ltur e . Information on folk house types can be found in
E. Estyn Evans' Irish Folk Ways (New York: Devin-Adair,
1957), in Kevin Danaher 's The Pleasant Land of Ireland
(Cork: Mercier Press, 1970), and in many good articles, espe-
cially in the joum al Ulster Folklife. Among the basic art icle s
are:
Campbell, Áke. "Irish Fields and Houses: A Study of Rural
Culture." Béaloideas, V:1 (1935), 57-74.
224
--- . "Notes on the Irish House." Folkliv, 2-3 (1937), 205-
34; 2 (1938), 173-96.
Evans, E. Estyn. "Donegal Survivals." Antiquity, XIII:50
(June 1939), 207-22.
--. "The Ulster Farmhous e." Ulster Folklife, 1 (1955),
27-31.
Gailey, Alan. "The Thatched Houses of Ulster." Ulster
_ Folklife, 7 (1961), 9-18.
O Danachair , Caoimhín. "The Combined Byre-and-Dwelling
in Ireland." Folk Life, 2 (1964), 58-75.
--. "Three House Types." Ulster Folklife, 2 (1956),
22-26.
AFRICA
Much of the information on African traditional architectu re
is scattered through ethnograp hi es and geographical studies.
Much of the work concentrating on architecture is limit ed to
decoration or construct ion. There are , though, sorne good,
comp lete works-the three included here are all exce llent-
and the future shou ld hold more.
Beguin, Jean-Pierre, et al. L'Habitat au Cameroun. París: ll
Office de le Recherche Scientifique Outre-Mer, 1952 . f
Prussin, Labelle. Architecture in Northem Ghana: A Study o
of Forms and Functions. Berk eley: Univ. of Californ ia r
Press, 1969. 1
Walton, James. African Village. Pretoria: J. L. van Schaik, ('
1956.
~
H
NORTH AMERICA
13
There are many good histories of American domestic ar-
chitecture, though thes e dea l mostly with the fashionable few
and often slide into error when they attempt to cons id er folk
building. There are also many awfu l books on American do- B
mestic arch itecture; they are not listed.
Fitch, James Marston. American Building: The Historical B
Forces That Shaped It. New York: Schock en, 1973.

205- Gowans, Alan. Images of American Living: Four Centuries of
Architecture and Fumiture as Cultura1 Expression. Phila-
[Il:50 de lphi a: Lippinc ott , 1964.
Kniffen, Fred, and Henr y Glassie. " Building in Wood in the
1955), Eastem United States: A Tim e-Place Perspective." The
Geographical Review, LVI:1 (Jan . 1966), 40-66.
'Jlster Morrison, Hugh. Early American Architecture from the First
Colonial Settlements to the National Feriad. New York:
·elling Oxford Univ . Press, 1952.
Reps, John W. Town Plannin g in Frontier America. Prin ce-
:1956), ton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1969.
Whiffen, Marcus. American Architecture Since 1780: A
Cuide to the Styles. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1969.
te ctu re NORTH AMERICA: LOCAL STUDIES
tudi es .
lited to Most of the local studi es of American domes tic architecture
: good, are of limited value, b eing pictur e book s portraying local
,llen t- exp res sion s of national and intemational styles. Still, archit ec -
tural historians, geographers, and folklorists hav e produced
many studies that incorporate good inform ation , although the
. Paris: architectural hi storians tend to maintain an int erest in only a
,52.
few sorts of buildings, and there is a tend ency to sup erficiality
l Study of architectura l recording among both folklorists and geog-
.lifomia
raphers. The excellent]oumal oj the Society of Architectural
Historians has, unfortunat ely, carrie d few papers on Ameri-
Schaik, can traditional architecture. The mod es t joum al Pion eer
America conta in s an abundance of invaluable data on folk
architecture.
Blair, Don. Harmonist Construction: Principally as Found in
es tic ar- the Two-Story Houses in Harmonie, Indiana, 1814-1824.
:tble few Indiana Historical Society Publi cat ion s, 23:2. Indianapoli s:
ider folk Indiana Histori cal Society, 1964.
·ican do- Biumbaugh, G. Edwin. "Co lonial Architecture of the Penn-
sylvania Germans." Pennsylvania German Society Pro-
ceedings, XLI (1933), 1-60, plates 2-105.
istorical Bucher, Robert C. "Th e Continenta l Lo g House." Pennsyl-
3· vania Folklife, 12:4 (Summer 1962), 14-19.
Selected Bibliography
Bunting, Bainbridge, J ean Lee Booth , and William R. Sims, Jr.
Taos Adobes: Spanish Colonial Territorial Architecture of
the Taos Valley. Publi cation 2. Santa Fe: Fort Burgwin
Research Center, Museum of New Mexico Press, 1964.
Candee, Richard M. "A Documentary History of Plymouth
Colony Architecture, 1620-1700." Old -Time New England,
LIX:3 (Jan.-Ma rch 1969), 59-71; LIX:4 (Spring 1969),
105-11; LX:2 (Fall 1969), 37-53.
Connally, Emest Allen. "The Cape Cod House: an Introduc-
tory Study." Joumal of the Society of Architectural Histo-
rians, XIX:2 (May 1960), 47-56. .
Cotten, Fred R. "Log Cabins of the Parker County Region."
West Texas Historical Association Year Book, XXIX (Oct.
1953), 96-104.
Dombusch, Charl es H., and John K. Heyl. Pennsylvania
German Bams. Pennsylvania German Folklore Society,
XXI (1956). Allentown: Schlechter's, 1958.
Fife, Austin E. "Stone Houses of North em Utah." Utah His-
torical Quarterly, 40:1 (Winter 1972), 6-23.
Fitchen, John . The New World Dutch Bam: A Study of Its
Characteristics, Its Structural System, and Its Probable
ErectionProcedures. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Un iv. Press,
1968.
Forman, Henry Chandlee. The Architecture of th e Old South:
The Medieval Style, 1585-1850 . Cambridge: Harvard Univ .
Press, 1948.
Garvan, Anthony N.B. Architecture and Town Planning in
Colonial Connecticut. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1951.
Glassie, Henry. "The Double-Crib Barn in South Central
Pennsylvania." Pioneer America, I :1 (Winter 1969), 9-16;
I:2 (July 1969), 40-4 5; Il:1 (Jan. 1970), 47-52; Il:2 (July
1970), 23-34.
--. "Eighteenth-Century Cultural Process in Delaware
Valley Folk Building." Winterthur Portfolio, 7. Char lott es -
ville: Univ. Press of Virginia for the Henry Fran cis du Pont
Winterthur Museum, 1972, 29-57.
---. "T he Pennsy lvania Bam in the South ." Pennsylvania
Folklife, 15:2 (Winter 1965- 66), 8-19; 15:4 (Summer 1966),
12-25.
225
Folk Housing in Middle Virginia
-- . "The Types of the Southern Mountain Cabin," in The
Study of American Folklore, ed. Jan H. Brunvand. New
York: Norton (1968), 338-70.
---. "The Variation of Concepts Within Tradition: Barn
Building in Otsego County, New York," in Man and Cul-
tural Heritage, ed. H. J. Walker and W. G. Haag. Geosci-
ence and Man, 5. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ., in
press.
Heimsath, Clovis. Pioneer Texas Buildings: A Geometry Les-
son. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1968.
Isham, Norman M., and Albert F. Brown. Early Connecticut
Houses: An Historical and Architectural Study. 1900; rpt.
New York: Dover, 1965.
Kelly, J. Frederick. Early Domestic Architecture of Connec~
ticut. 1924; rpt. New York: Dover, 1963.
Kniffen, Fred. "Louisiana House Types." Annals of th e As-
sociation of American Geographers, XXVI (1936), 179-93.
---. "The Physiognomy of Rural Louisiana." Louisiana
History, IV:4 (Fall 1963), 291-99.
Lancaster, Clay. Ante Bellum Houses of the Bluegrass. Lex-
ington: Univ . of Kentucky Press, 1961.
Long, Amos, Jr. The Pennsylvania German Family Farm.
Publications of th e Penns ylvania German Society, VI.
Breinigsville: The Pen nsylvania German Society, 1972.
Niederer, Frances J. The Town of Fincastle, Virginia. Char-
lottesvill e : Univ . Press of Virginia, 1966.
Perrin, Richard W. E. Historie Wisconsin Buildings: A Survey
of Pioneer Architecture, 1835-1870. Publications in His-
tory, 4. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1962.
Peterson, Charles E. "The Houses of French St. Louis ," in
The French in th e Mississippi Valley, ed. John Francis
McDermott. Urbana: Univ. of Illinoi s Press (1965), 17-40.
Rempel, J ohn l. Building with Wood and Other Aspects of
Nineteenth-Century Building in Ontario. Toronto: Univ. of
Toronto Press, 1967.
Ridlen, Susanne S. "Bank Barns in Cass County, Indiana."
Pioneer America, IV:2 (July 1972), 25-43.
226
Rodgers, Ava D. The Housing of Oglethorpe County, Mo11111
Georgia: 1790-1860. Tallahassee: Florida State Univ. ski! 1 el
Press, 1971. Bui ldl11
Séguin, Robert-Lionel. Les Granges du Québec du XVII e au F ento11,
XIXe Siecle. Musée National du Canada Bulletin, 192 . Ot- Ecll11li1 1
tawa: Ministere du Nord Canadien et d es Ressources Anliq1il
Nationales, 1963. McK'v , 1
Wacker, Peter O. "New Je rsey's Cultural Landscape Before Am ('1/1•1
1800." Proceedings of the Second Annual Symposium of lnt (•1'1
111
the New Jersey Historical Commission. Newark: New Jer-
sey Historical Society (1971), 35-62.
Welsch, Roger L. Sod Walls: The Story of the Nebraska Sod
House. Broken Bow, Neb.: Purcells, 1968.
Whiffen, Marcus. The Eighteenth-Century Houses of Wil-
liam sburg . Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg,
1960.
Wilhelm, E. J ., Jr. "Folk Settlement Types in the Blue Ridge
Mountains." Keystone Folklore Quart erly , XII:3 (Fall
1967), 151-74.
Wilson, Eugene M. "The Single Pen House in th e South."
Pioneer America , II:1 (Jan. 1970), 21-28.
Zelinsky, Wilbur. "The New England Connecting Barn. " The
Geographical Review, XLVIII:4 (Oct. 1958), 540-53.
RECORDING TECHNIQUES
The easiest criticism to level at studies of traditional ar-
chitecture is that of theoretical anemia, but even sheer ly
descriptive accounts have commonly been ruin e d by sloppy
recording. Buildings must be exac tingly measured and
studied in detail , and the y must be pr ec isely located on the
land. Only then is description complete, and only th en can the
analyst move pa st description and be gin saying something of
significance about th e buildings. Here are sorne works that
outline re cording proc edur es.
Brunskill , R. W. "A Systematic Procedure for Recording Eng-
lish Vemacular Architecture." Transactions of the Ancient
 Selected Bibliography

unty, Monum en ts Society, 13 (1965-66), 42-126. In 1973, Brun- Peterson, Charles E. "The Technology of Early American
lJniv. skill el•volope d an important addition: "Recording the Building." Newsletter of the Association of Preservation
Buil din gs oí the Farmstead," mimeo. Technology , l:1 (1969), 3-17.
le au Fen to n, A.lexander. The Recording of Crofts and Houses. Renk, Thomas B. "A Cuide to Recording Structural Details of
2.Ot- E di n b urgh: School of Scottish Studies, National Mu seum of Historie Buildings." Historical Archaeology, III (1969) ,
urc es Antiguiti es, n .d. 34-48.
McKee, H arley J.Recording Historie Building s: The Historie Roberts, Warren E. "Fieldwork: Recording Material Culture,"
iefore Am erican Buildings Survey. Washington: U.S. D ept. of the in Folklore and Folklife: An Introduction, ed. Richard M.
im of I nte rior, National Park Service, 1970. Dorson. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pre ss (1972), 431-44.
N Jer-

a Sod
. Wil-
;burg,

Ridge
(Fall

:mth ."

."Th e
3.

nal ar-
heerly
,lopp y
:l and
on the
:an the
üngof
<s th at

g Eng-
ncien t

227