J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
DOI 10.1007/s10950-013-9395-y
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Neotectonic and seismotectonic investigation of seismically
active regions in Tunisia: a multidisciplinary approach
N. Bahrouni & S. Bouaziz & A. Soumaya & N. Ben
Ayed & K. Attafi & Y. Houla & A. El Ghali & N. Rebai
Received: 6 February 2013 / Accepted: 28 August 2013 / Published online: 18 September 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Due to its key position within the Africa–
Europe convergence zone, Tunisia is marked by thrust-
ing, folding, and faulting and has a major rupture zones
associated with active faults. Consequently, most of
Tunisian land is seismically active with significant active
N. Bahrouni (*) : A. Soumaya : Y. Houla
Geological Survey, National Office of Mines,
24, Rue de l’Energie 2035 La Charguia, B.P. 215
1080 Tunisie, Tunis Cedex, Tunisia
e-mail: bahrouni_nejib@yahoo.fr
A. Soumaya
e-mail: abdelkader.soumaya@onm.nat.tn
Y. Houla
e-mail: houla_yassine@yahoo.com
S. Bouaziz
LR. “Water-Energy-Environment” (AD-10-02),
Engineering School of Sfax, University of Sfax,
Bp. 1173-3038, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: samir.bouaziz@enis.rnu.tn
N. Ben Ayed : A. El Ghali
Laboratory of Structural geology, Sciences Faculty of
Bizerte, University of Carthage,
Tunis, Tunisia
N. Ben Ayed
e-mail: benayed.n@gnet.tn
K. Attafi
Geophysics Department, National Institute of Meteorology,
B.P. 156, 2035 Tunis, Tunisia
N. Rebai
Geology Department, University of Tunis El Manar II,
Campus University, 1060 Tunis, Tunisia
deformations, showing recent seismic events and their
relative surface effects. This paper reports on several
aspects of the seismotectonics, historical, and present-
day seismicity and places them in the general tectonic
and geodynamic framework of Tunisia. Field investiga-
tions, based on an integrated multidisciplinary approach,
included (1) the identification of active faults, their mo-
tion and displacement, geomorphic aspects, and scarps
and their relation with the general structural map of
Tunisia and (2) an extensive analysis of brittle tectonic
deformation affecting Quaternary deposits in several sites
throughout Tunisia. The integration of field data within
the existing data related to the seismic events that took
place during the last decades allowed the establishment
of an earthquake distribution map, as well as major
seismic zones for better understanding of the seismicity
database of Tunisia. To establish microzonation maps in
seismic regions such as Gafsa and its surroundings, we
have analyzed surface effects and secondary structures
associated with active faults and correlated them with
deformation rates, reconstructed for significant seismic
events. Most faults exhibited typical left-stepping en-
echelon with strike-slip component pattern suggesting
that Tunisia is presently subjected to NNW–SSE com-
pression. The focal mechanism of most Tunisia earth-
quakes combined with the existing tectonic and structural
information and reconstruction of the Quaternary stress
tensor allowed (a) better understanding of seismic zoning,
(b) provided better assessment of the seismic hazard, and
(c) facilitated the interpretation of the relationship be-
tween seismic zones and the geodynamic African–
Eurasian plate boundary.
236
Keywords Neotectonic . Seismotectonic . Active fault .
Seismicity . Seismogenic zone . Surface effect . Tunisia .
African margin
1 Introduction
From Morocco to Tunisia, the northern African margin
is characterized by crustal shortening accommodated
by major constructional structures such as the Atlas
chains, Saharan flexure, and the Maghrebides chain
(Durand-Delga and Fontboté 1980; Bouillin 1986).
Seismic activity across this margin is tightly related
to evolution of these major structures and their inter-
actions with the southern European margin. In the
northern margin of Africa, the regions of the Western
Mediterranean Sea, a plate boundary zone separating
Nubia (Africa) from Eurasia is characterized by a
complex and polyphase geodynamic history. This lat-
ter straddles from episodes of extension (Tethyan
Rifting) to episodes of convergence (closure of the
Mediterranean Sea) which induced subduction zones
and continental collision chains (Dercourt et al. 1986,
2000).
The recent tectonics of the Mediterranean Sea is fairly
well-known thanks to numerous neotectonic and
seismotectonic studies, focal mechanisms determina-
tions, and in situ stress measurements. Seismicity in the
Western Mediterranean area showed an obvious com-
plexity since it is diffuse over the entire Africa–Europe
collision zone (McKenzie 1972; Hatzfeld 1978; Philip
1987; Meghraoui 1988; Ritz 1991; Morel and Meghraoui
1996; Meghraoui and Doumaz 1996; Meghraoui and
Pondrelli 1998; Nocquet and Calais 2004; Kherroubi
et al. 2009; Harbi et al. 2010; Meghraoui and Pondrelli
2012; Bahrouni et al. 2013a; Fig. 1).
In the Eastern Mediterranean edge, at the limit of the
Eurasian–Arabian plate collision zone, seismicity is con-
centrated in a strongly seismogenic zone, stretching from
the Eagean Arc to Anatolia, Zagros, Caucasus. In con-
trast, convergence along the Western Mediterranean from
Morocco to Tunisia is accommodated in a narrow seis-
mic zone (North Africa and in its continuation offshore).
In this margin, the complex kinematic pattern needs an
in-depth study (Morelli and Barrier 2004; Serpelloni
et al. 2007, 2010; Lorito et al. 2008).
Compared with the eastern part of the Mediterranean
region, convergence rates of few centimeters per year (in
NE direction) were observed. However, the same
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
convergence hardly reached few millimeters per year
of a predominantly NNW–SSE directed movement, in
the Western Mediterranean (in Morelli and Barrier
2004). Despite the relatively low convergence rates,
the region suffered from periodic earthquakes which
occurred mostly along the North African plate boundary
(Hoceima, 2004 in Morocco (Stich et al. 2005); El
Asnam, 1954, 1980 and Boumerdes, 2003 in Algeria
(Meghraoui et al. 2004) (Fig. 1). In Tunisia, seismicity
appeared low to moderate, but earthquakes regularly to
locally caused damage and very significant surface ef-
fects, as shown by seismic activity records since ca.
1,000 years (IMN Catalog). On the other hand, Roman
then Arabic historic sources indicated strong seismic
activities, with numerous devastating earthquakes, such
as in Utique (410 AD), Kairouan (854 AD), and Tunis
(856 AD) (INM Catalog). In Tunisia, earthquakes epi-
centers are usually located in the Northwestern Atlas,
Southern Atlas, Eastern Pelagic platform, and to the
vicinity of Tunis. Further observations showed the ac-
tive zone where the Late Quaternary surface related
deformations (Faults, flexures, uplifts) can be easily
recognized. The classification of Earthquakes was quite
different, which made the understanding of mechanisms
more difficult (e.g., Metlaoui–Gafsa (1977–1989),
Agareb (1998, 2003), Tunis (2002), Ghardimaou
(2004), Monastir (1944–2005), etc.). However, the
intra-plate model, as well as the regional deformations
of the present day stress, is still unclear leading to
debated data. Our knowledge of the present day kine-
matics was greatly improved by measuring the direction
and style of the strain rate field, derived from Quaternary
and focal seismic mechanisms.
Data from the present multiscalar approaches
provided useful information to clarify the present-
day kinematic model of the North African margin.
We propose to treat the active deformation based
on observations and new investigations in the ac-
tive zone to develop new databases for detailed
studies of recent tectonics, geological information
collected in Quaternary deposits, seismotectonics,
historical seismicity, ruptures, and surface effects in
selected risky areas chosen to represent several types
of deformations. The rebuilt regional stress tensor pro-
vided new information about the neotectonic deforma-
tion models and the seismotectonics of Tunisia that
will be eventually integrated within the frame of
the orogenic dynamics and the present state of the
North African margin.
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
Fig. 1 Seismotectonic map of the plate boundary in North Africa (Meghraoui 2012). a Focal mechanism: global CMTs in red and European
Mediterranean RCMTs in blue. b Quaternary tectonic shortening directions (red symbols) and P-axes (yellow symbols)
2 Geological and seismotectonic setting
Previous geological studies (Burollet 1956; Zargouni 1985;
Turki 1985; Ben Ayed 1986; Ben Ayed and Zargouni
1990; Bouaziz 1995; Chihi 1995; Zouari 1995; Bouaziz
et al. 2002; Abbes 2004; Ouali 2007) subdivided Tunisia
into several main morphostructural domains (Fig. 2). From
south to north, they described the areas below.
2.1 The South Tunisian Saharan platform: Dahar
plateau and Jeffara plain
2.1.1 Tectonic features and major events
To the south of the folded Atlasic belts, the South
Tunisian platform (also called Dahar plateau) behaved
as a relatively stable and coherent block since the end of
the Mesozoïc (Bouaziz 1995). This plateau, with an
elevation ranging from 400 to 647 m, above msl, is a
gently dipping monocline (1–2° W), bordered to the
northeast by Jeffara subsiding coastal plain. The Dahar
plateau consists of Precambrian bedrock topped by a
thick Paleozoic cover, except the area of the
237
Telemzane–Dahar–Neffussa Arch where the Triassic dis-
cordant on the Paleozoic (Bishop 1975; Memmi et al.
1986; Busson 1967; Bouaziz 1995). The structure of the
Dahar plateau is affected by the major tectonic events that
occurred at the plate boundaries in relationship with the
evolution of the Western Tethys (Barrier et al. 1993;
Bouaziz et al. 2002). The dominant regional feature is
the NW–SE trending Southern Tunisian Fault, also
known as Jeffara Fault which controlled the Permo-
Carboniferous sedimentation and the individualization
of the Jeffara Trough (Castany 1954; Busson 1967;
Bouaziz et al. 2002; Gabtni et al. 2006). Subsidence of
this trough continues to Quaternary. In addition, the
Dahar plateau is affected by Tethyan E–W trending
faults (Tebaga fault, Zemlet el Ghar Fault, and Azizia
Fault; in Libya) as well as NE–SW trending faults
(Remada-Bahiret el Bibane Fault) which experienced
Quaternary reactivation (Fig. 2).
2.1.2 Seismotectonics
If the Mesozoic tectonic history of the Dahar plateau is
now rather well-known, some aspects of its neotectonic
238 J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256

Fig. 2 Regional tectonic settings of Tunisia and Quaternary paleostress reconstruction

J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
evolution and the subsiding Jeffara coastal plain are still
debated. Recently, a seismic activity was recently
recorded in Tataouine (Mw=3.8, January 23, 2010) with
the epicenter, located in the south western part of
Tataouine (X=32°43′, Y=8°60′).
2.2 Southern Tunisian Atlas
2.2.1 Tectonic features and major events
The transition between Atlas fold-and-thrust belt and the
northern edge of the Sahara platform (i.e., Southern Atlas;
Fig. 2) showed en-echelon E–W to NE–SW trending folds,
associated with dextral faults oriented N120–130 such as
the Gafsa and Metlaoui Faults system (Zargouni and
Ruhland 1981; Zargouni 1985; Bouaziz 1995; Boukadi
1994; Zouari 1995; Chekhma et al. 1996). Folding began
during the Miocene tightening and further developed dur-
ing the Early Pleistocene “Post-Villafranchian folding
phase.” A characteristic feature of the South Tunisian
Atlas is the complete character of the Cretaceous series,
the well-developed character of the Tertiary basin and tilted
Plio-Quaternary deposits. The sedimentary sequence, pre-
senting significant thickness and facies variations, was
probably controlled by tectonic deformations (Burollet
1956; Fournier 1978; M’Rabet 1981).
2.2.2 Seismotectonics
The South Tunisian Atlas is located in the southern
portion of the seismic zone bordering the North African
plate, as indicated by the periodic seismic events. In
particular, the Gafsa area, bordered to the north by the
NW–SE trending Gafsa active Fault, is a zone of high
seismic hazard. The most active tectonic structures are
related to the reactivation of preexisting NW–SE and
E–W trending strike-slip faulting (Chekhma et al 1997).
The temporal and spatial distribution of micro-seismic
activity in the Gafsa area was studied by Dlala and
Hfaiedh (1993) and the paleoseismic study completed
by Said et al. (2011) in order to cover the area of
aftershocks of May 22, 1972 and December 27, 1985
(Mw=4.2) in Gafsa and November 7, 1989 (Mw=4.4) in
Metlaoui and December 8, 2010 in Sidi Aich (Mw=3.6).
2.3 Tunisian Atlas belts
In the North African margin, the main Tertiary Atlasic
chain extends for more than 2,000 km from the Iberian
239
to the Calabro-Peloritain arch (from west to east)
(Mattauer et al. 1977; Piqué et al. 2002; Frizon de
Lamotte et al. 2000; Meghraoui et al. 1996; Meghraoui
and Pondrelli 2012; Figs. 1 and 2).
2.3.1 Tectonic features and major tectonic events
The Central Tunisian Atlas is characterized by NE–SW
trending folds compliant with the general Atlasic direction.
This folded foreland extends westward in Algeria–
Morocco and northeastward in the Pelagian Sea (Ben
Ayed 1986; Haller 1983; Ellouz 1984). These folds show
a Jurassic–Cretaceous core capped by an Early Pleistocene
(Villafranchian) crust, often affected by folding. Tight
anticlines separated by wide synclines are usually filled
by Neogene–Quaternary deposits. Those fold positions
generally follow the NE–SW inherited fault direction, with
Triasic evaporites as major detachment layer. The Tunisian
Atlas belt domain is therefore characterized by NW–SE
and E–W graben systems.
2.3.2 Seismotectonics
The most active elements of the Central Tunisia Atlas are
the E–W striking Kairouan–Cherichira, Kasserine faults,
and the N–S trending Sidi Ali Ben Aoun fault which
experienced Quaternary dextral reactivation (Ben Ayed
1986; Dlala and Ben Ayed 1988; El Ghali et al. 2003;
Fig. 2). Earthquakes in the area are located in narrow and
linear stripes aligned to the vicinity of these active faults.
They are clearly observed near Sbiba-Foussana grabens
and the well-known N–S axis, to the east.
2.4 Oriental Tunisia
2.4.1 Tectonic features and major events
Oriental Tunisia is represented by a shallow domain
considered as the passive continental margin. This do-
main includes the Sahel and the Pelagian block,
extending to Sicily by the NW–SE Pantelleria–Linosa–
Malta rift system (Haller 1983; Ellouz 1984) and the
north of Syrte golf (Boccaletti et al. 1990). It is charac-
terized by kilometric anticlines separated by vast syncli-
nal plains and Neogene–Quaternary grabens, such as the
Mahdia and El Jem grabens (Fig. 2). The folds, buried
beneath the Late Cenozoic sediments, are affected by
major normal and strike-slip fault trending N–S, E–W,
NE–SW, and NW–SE. These inherited fault systems
240
controlled the Mio-Plio-Quaternary thickness changes
and drainage network (Bedir and Bobier 1987; Ghribi
and Bouaziz 2010). A marine carbonate barrier
(Tyrrhenian) extends along the coastal line, recording
spectacular tectonic deformations (Mejri 2012). This do-
main is limited to the west by the so-called N–S axis (i.e.,
“Pan-African lineament” of Abbes 2004 and Ouali 2007)
which exceeds 100 km long N–S trending tight fold,
halokinetically active from the Zaghouan ridge (north of
Tunisia) to the Chott range in the south (Fig. 2).
2.4.2 Seismotectonics
The Mio-Pliocene sequences as well as the Villafranchian
crust and the Tyrrhenian marine carbonate are affected by
both major and minor fault trending N–S and E–W,
creating tilted blocks. The most active one is the NNW–
SSE trending Skanes–Khnis fault zone. Its left strike-slip
component was proven by the displacements of the
Tyrrhenian marine carbonates (>500 m) (Kamoun et al.
1980). The ~10-km-long fault of Skanes–Khnis is com-
plicated by several smaller sinistral faults identified in the
Henchir Tennir plateau (Kamoun et al. 1980; Kamoun
1981). This fault continues into the sea and re-appears in
Korba area (Cap Bon), the presence of which was further
confirmed by moderate earthquakes. In addition, a rough-
ly N–S compression, well documented by the historical
deformation, as well as recent seismic events of moderate
magnitude were clearly observed in Monastir December
2, 1968 (Mw=4.4) and May 30, 1997 (Mw=3.1), Mahdia
April 24, 1991 (Mw=3.7), Gabes-Golfe February 1st,
1994 (Mw=3.3), Hammamet Gulf October 10, 2005
(Mw=3.2), and Sfax-Agareb May 9, 2001 (Mw=4.4).
Other seismic events were also recorded in the eastern
offshore of Tunisia (INM, Catalog).
2.5 Tellian Atlas
2.5.1 Tectonics features and major events
The Northern Tunisian Atlas is the northern edge of the
Maghrebides chain, usually characterized by Meso-
Cenozoic successions deposited in deep and unstable
marine troughs (Piqué et al. 2002). It is also character-
ized by the superposition of several allochthonous units
(i.e., Numidian Flysch and Tellian Units) typically verg-
ing to the SE (Rouvier 1977). These units are cross-cut
by numerous NE–SW trending halokinetic structures
(diapirs zone of Perthuizot 1972; Vila et al. 1996). The
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
overall Cenozoic evolution of the Tellian Atlas is com-
plex because of the active fault and folds in the front of
the Maghrebides chain. In addition to these allochtho-
nous units, the Atlas of Tunisia is known by Miocene
and Pliocene magmatic rocks (igneous rocks; Laaridhi-
Ouazaa 1994).
2.5.2 Seismotectonics
Despite the fact that seismicity is diffuse in the Tellian
domain and that the earthquakes occur along faults with
variable directions, two major types of seismicity can be
easily distinguished: (1) a very diffuse seismicity locat-
ed at moderate depths (around 10 km) probably due to
the overthrust folds and (2) a seismicity directly related
to the sub-vertical faults affecting the autochthonous
domain probably crossing the entire continental crust
(Gueddiche et al. 1998; Fig. 2). The average magnitude
of the recorded earthquakes exceeded 4.6 in most cases,
indicating reverse to reverse-thrust faults with an axis of
compression trending N160 (Hfaiedh 1983; Gueddiche
et al. 1992; Kacem 2004; Bahrouni et al. 2013a, b).
3 Neotectonic evolution and stress indicators
Tunisian North African margin is limited to the north
by two recent chains: a collision Alpine chain (i.e.,
“Maghrebides chain”), developed to the vicinity of
Africa–Europe contact and an intra-continental chain
(i.e., “Atlasic Chain”) located in the northern edge of
the Saharan platform. The reconstruction of the stress
field during the last 25 million years showed that the
Alpine domain and the Atlasic foreland were generated
during the Neogene and Quaternary by polyphased
tectonics (Philip et al. 1986; Ben Ayed 1986; Bouaziz
et al. 2002).
In Tunisia, two major compressional events occurring
during Cenozoic were mentioned by previous works. The
first corresponded to the NW–SE Miocene compressional
event “Tortonian phase” that led to the formation of
Central Tunisian Atlas (Dlala 1984; Chihi 1984; Philip
et al. 1986). The second tectonic event is the NNW–SSE
to N–S “Post-Villafranchian phase,” which reactivated the
previous structures (Zargouni 1985; Ben Ayed 1986;
Bouaziz et al. 2002). These paroxysmal events are
interrupted by a NE–SW Mio-Pliocene extension and
minor extensional events during the Quaternary.
Numerous events prevailing later in both extensive and
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
compressive regime were generally related to the
seismotectonic activities.
Further investigations of tectonic features showed that
Quaternary deposits were carried along many selected
sites. The detailed analysis of recent deformations
consisted of an inventory of local tectonically induced
structures (fault reactivations, collapse, cracking, ruptures
on preexisting faults, local deformation, etc. …). Based
on the analysis of the brittle tectonics found in the
Quaternary deposits, most of stress patterns were contro-
versially classified and dated (Fig. 2) showing the distri-
bution of active Quaternary faults as well as detailed
analysis of fault populations in relationship with
paleostress that prevailed since Early Quaternary. The
reconstruction of the paleostress axes (maximum stress
σ1, intermediate stress σ2, and minimum stress σ3, with
the Ф ratio=(σ2−σ3/σ1−σ3) showed the orientation and
the direction of slips on faults occurring during the same
tectonic event (Tables 1 and 2). The principle, conditions
of application, and limits of the methods were described
and discussed in detail by Angelier (1989). Detailed
analysis of recent structures observed and measured in
Quaternary deposits allowed better understanding of tec-
tonic and seismic activities.
3.1 Post Early Pleistocene deformation
The Pliocene Silty clay sequences are covered by 2.5–
15 m of dusty loam with calcareous nodules and crust
(i.e., “Villafranchien Facies”) or its lateral equivalent,
consisting mainly of conglomerates. This typical facies
is affected by variable scaled faults. It represents an
excellent recorder of the tectonic activity indicating folds,
normal, reverse, and strike-slip fault system. We present
few examples detected in various morphostructural do-
mains in Tunisia. Results are well argued by various
trending compressions and extensions (Figs. 2, S1–5
and 3, segments A1 and A2; Table 1).
3.2 Post Middle Pleistocene deformation
3.2.1 Affecting the marine deposits “Tyrrhenian”
Along the Tunisian coast, Pleistocene deposits showed
both silicoclastic and carbonate facies (Paskoff and
Sanlaville 1976; Oueslati et al. 1982; Mahmoudi 1986;
Jeboui 2002; Elmejdoub and Jedoui 2009). They form a
palaeo-barrier parallel to the present shoreline and over-
lay Mio-Pliocene and Villafranchian series. Pleistocene
241
marine deposits (i.e., Tyrrhenian formations) outcrop in
variable altitudes, reaching about 30 m in the eastern
Tunisia. However, these formations are related to a high
sea level of about +6 m (Jeboui 2002). This altitude
variation is likely related to the tectonic deformation
(Ben Ayed 1986; Ben Ayed and Oueslati 1988; Ben
Ayed et al. 1997; Bouaziz et al. 2003; Mejri 2012).
These Tyrrhenian sequences are excellent recorders of
deformation affected by strike-slip, reverse and normal
faults, and trending E–W folds. The reconstituted stress
tensor shows: a NNE–SSW (σ1=012–020) compression
and roughly an E–W extension (σ3=103–111; Figs. 2 and
3, segment B; Table 1, S9–10). Such deformations indicate
the permanence of compressional regime following the
folding phase of the Pleistocene, confirming the orienta-
tion of the submeridian compressional stress axis.
3.2.2 Affecting the continental deposits
The Middle to Upper Pleistocene continental deposits
(equivalent to the “Akarit Formation”) are represented
by gypsum and silts (2 to 7 m) capped by 0.50–0.80-m-
thick gypsum crust. The analysis of the strike-slip fault
populations suggested a stress tensor characterized by a
σ1=N113 and a σ3=N023 (Figs. 2 and 3, segment C;
Table 1, S16).
3.3 Post Holocene deformation
Alluvial deposits of the Holocene were assigned by
Castany (1951), Vaufrey (1933), and Ben Ouezdou
(1984), to the low terraces (1–10 m). These deposits are
affected by normal faults with a decimetric to metric
vertical dips reactivated by strike-slip movement. The
analysis and digital processing of coherent fault popula-
tions suggested, respectively, N071 extension and strike
slip: σ1=132 and σ3=042 (Figs. 2 and 3, segment C;
Table 1, S17–17′).
4 Seismicity and active deformation
Owing to its location in the northern edge of the African
plate, Tunisia currently experiences a continuous tectonic
activity expressed by a moderate seismicity. Therefore,
the observation was limited to study the effects of histor-
ical and current seismic events. The corresponding stress
tensor determination and focal mechanisms are presented
in Figs. 4 and 5 and in Table 2.
242 J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256

Table 1 Results of stress tensor determinations affecting the Quaternary deposits

Site no. (S) Strat. Locality n σ1 σ2 σ3 ф Coh. % Ang. (α) Nature

D P D P D P

18 Holocene Djarba 05 156 08 067 04 000 81 0.158 100 09 Compression

17′ Holocene Gafsa 07 158 71 168 19 077 03 0.422 100 5 Extension
17 Holocene Gafsa 07 132 04 064 78 042 11 0.258 100 07 Strike
16 M. Pleistocene Skhira 08 113 04 147 85 023 03 0.294 100 05 Strike
15 Tyrrhenian Douira 13 178 04 087 04 135 84 0.477 100 05 Compression
14 Tyrrhenian El Biban 11 044 01 134 15 183 075 0.462 100 05 Compression
13 Tyrrhenian J. Nadour 12 015 13 169 75 103 06 0.479 83 06 Strike
12 M. Pleistocene O. Ksab Gafsa 6 011 70 153 16 067 12 0.322 100 10 Extension
11′ M. Pleistocene Lala Gafsa 11 108 06 124 84 018 02 0.324 100 13 Strike
11 M. Pleistocene Lala Gafsa 17 098 66 126 21 032 10 0.420 88 08 Extension
10″ Tyrrhenian Salakta 22 137 82 013 04 103 06 0.271 91 10 Extension
10′ Tyrrhenian Salakta 15 012 10 091 47 111 41 0.200 93 11 Strike
10 Tyrrhenian Salakta 22 016 05 105 08 139 81 0.434 100 08 Compression
09 Tyrrhenian Monastir 14 138 13 103 74 046 09 0.311 100 06 Strike
08 L. Pleistocene A. Oktor 16 170 18 171 72 080 00 0.501 100 02 Strike
07 M. Pleistocene Utique 06 057 29 071 60 150 06 0.635 100 11 Strike
06 Tyrrhenian Sounine Bizerte 07 150 02 60 04 032 86 0.624 100 05 Compression
05′ E. Pleistocene Mida Gafsa 14 053 81 122 03 032 08 0.510 93 07 Extension
05 E. Pleistocene Mida Gafsa 16 007 08 041 81 098 05 0.530 100 05 Strike
04′ E. Pleistocene Gouna Agareb 9 046 69 0636 17 149 12 0.302 78 13 Extension
04 E. Pleistocene Gouna Agareb 11 110 05 162 81 021 07 0.438 100 05 Strike
03 E. Pleistocene Bouthadi 07 025 02 115 03 088 86 0.549 100 06 Compression
02 E. Pleistocene Rouhia 13 159 21 119 64 063 15 0.061 92 06 Strike
01 E. Pleistocene Gaafour Siliana 12 152 00 062 01 042 89 0.389 100 11 Compression

Site references of sites of fault slip analyses; n number of faults; Strat. stratigraphic affected level; σ1, σ2, and σ3 principal stress axes; D
trend of each axis, in degrees; P plunge of each axis, in degrees; ф ratio (σ2−σ3/σ1−σ3); Coh. consistency of fault slip data set
percentage; α average angle stria shear (in degrees); Nature type of stress (compressional with reverse fault; extensional with normal
faults; strike slip); E Early; M Middle; L Late

Table 2 Results of stress tensor determinations affecting the historical building and co-seismic surface effects; same legend as the Table 1

Site no. (S) Strat. Locality n σ1 σ2 σ3 ф Coh.% Ang. (α) Nature

D P D P D P

24′ Post 1969 Chérichira 06 147 18 147 72 057 00 0.718 100 01 Strike
24 Before 1969 Chérichira 12 165 11 134 77 074 07 0.479 100 04 Strike
23 Coseismic 1989 Métlaoui 11 154 05 139 85 064 013 0.312 91 04 Strike
22 Roman En Nfidha 04 017 06 099 56 111 34 0.074 100 01 Strike
21′ Arab Chérichira 16 005 16 176 74 095 02 0.566 94 07 Strike
21 Arab Chérichira 17 076 72 044 15 136 09 0.447 94 06 Extension
20 Roman Monastir 07 139 04 141 86 49 00 0.479 100 02 Strike
19 Roman Slouguia 6 175 27 173 63 85 01 0.559 100 09 Strike
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
Fig. 3 Examples of Quaternary deformations and diagram of stress tensor. A1, A2 Early Pleistocene; B Tyrrhenian (Middle–Late
Pleistocene); C Late Pleistocene to current
4.1 Historical seismicity
Recent investigations, carried out in the archeological
sites located within Punic, Roman, and Arab-Muslim
cities, showed the presence of disorders and abnormali-
ties in historical deformations that are related to destruc-
tive earthquakes (Fig. 4; Table 2). In Tunisia, such earth-
quakes were unexpected because no events have been
recorded in any document. Subsequently, the catalog of
243
historical seismicity that covers less than thousand years
(INM Catalog) is incomplete and needs further improve-
ment and completion.
4.1.1 Deformation in the Capsian deposits
along the Kasserine fault
In Central Tunisia, the Kasserine graben is filled with
Quaternary deposits. Three terraces can be observed in
244 J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256

Fig. 4 Examples of historical building deformation and diagram of stress tensor in Tunisia. Affected Roman constructions (A Bella Rugia; B
Enfidha; C Monastir); Roman–Arab constructions (D1, D2 Cherichira aqueduct); recent constructions (E Bridge Kairouan–Haffouz)

connection with the J. Selloum by thick and encrusted indicators and vestiges of prehistorical industries
alluvial cones. The deposits of the low terrace contain assigned to Late Capsian (4,000 years BP; Bkhairi and
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
Karray 2008). In the transition of the Kasserine fault,
these deposits are affected by a N090, 85 N, 10 E dextral
strike-slip fault suggesting a NW–SE compression.
4.1.2 Deformation in the Utique city
The Punic city of Utique (north of Tunis, in Mejerda
Valley) was destroyed by a historical earthquake in 410–
412 AD (INM Catalog) whose trace was observed in the
Roman ruins by Ben Ayed (1986). The “Great Oecus”
building in the city was crossed by vertical open cracks,
oriented N010 to N020E affecting the mosaic walls with
a displacement of 1 to 2 cm. The tilted floor of the
“Grand Oecus” shows an anticline bulge of 10 m long
and 2 m wide extending in an E–W direction with 10 cm
of amplitude. These surface deformations caused by
sub-meridian compression were attributed to the de-
structive earthquake of Utique city (410–412 AD). The
calculated mechanism is probably related to the strike-
slip/reverse fault, in perfect agreement with the compos-
ite mechanism (N–S to NE–SE) calculated in the same
area by Hfaiedh et al. (1985) (Fig. 5, mechanisms no. 5).
4.1.3 Deformations in the roman building
Monastir City The Roman house situated in the path of
the Monastir fault (Henchir Tennir) was updated by
archaeological excavations (Kamoun et al. 1980;
Kamoun 1981; Sorel et al. 1983). The mosaic covering
its floor dates back to the first or second century AD. It
was cut by left strike-slip faults N170 trending arranged
in en-echelon, with horizontal displacement of less than
15 cm (Fig. 4 C). This mosaic was also affected by a 10-
cm fold, trending N060. The detailed analysis revealed a
strike-slip tectonic with σ1=139 and σ3=049 (Figs. 2 and
4, segment C; Table 2, S20), related to the active fault of
“Monastir–Skanes–Cap Bon” (Fig. 2).
Bulla Regia City In the historical city of Bulla Regia,
deformations affecting both soil and monuments
consisted mainly of a hectometric anticline that affected
the southern edge of the “Second monumental plaza”
(Ben Ayed 1986). The folding of the water basin raised
the siphon to a higher position than the rest of the basin
(Gueddiche et al. 1998). The scale of the fold is approx-
imately 30 cm with a N080 axis (Fig. 4, segment A).
These deformations are related to the historical seismic
activity that could have caused the destruction of the
entire city of Bulla Regia. The calculated mechanism
245
from the stress field and fault geometry provides a focal
solution of strike-slip/reverse regime (NW–SE to N–S),
as proposed by Gueddiche et al. (1992; Fig. 5, mecha-
nisms nos. 1 and 2).
Sloughia City To the east of Sloughia study site (re-
gion of Teboursouk), the foundation mortars of the
Roman building were cut by a system of dextral
strike-slip fault (N140 80E). In map scale, these
trending faults have recently affected the Quaternary
deposits (Rebai 1992). The analysis of brittle deforma-
tion showed a strike-slip regime characterized by σ1=
N175 and σ3=N085 (Figs. 2 and 5, mechanisms nos. 3
and 4; Table 2, S19).
Ras Angela City In the Ras Angela (15 km to the west
of Bizerte), the Tyrrhenian deposits are overlain by silty-
sands containing bones, fragments of pottery dated be-
tween II to IV century AD (Ben Ayed and Oueslati
1988). These deposits are affected by strike-slip fault
oriented N100–120, 70 N, 30 E; The possible calculated
mechanism corresponds to a strike-slip reverse regime
(Hfaiedh et al. 1985; Fig. 5, mechanisms no. 3).
Enfidha City The old Uppenna site of Enfidha site
includes ruins of a large fortress and a church containing
mosaics with epitaphs of various bishops. The Roman
ruins are affected by a dextral fault (N142–155), show-
ing a side shift of few centimeters within the Hammam
and the mosaics (Figs. 2 and 4 B). The calculated tensor
of minor faults shows a strike-slip regime characterized
by a σ1=N017 and σ3=N085 (Table 2; S22).
4.1.4 The Cherichira Fatimid aqueduct deformation
Roman aqueduct of Oued El–Mouta–Cherichira (west
of Kairouan) used to drain water from the J. Oueslat to
the Aghlabide basins of Kairouan. This long aqueduct
was built by the Roman and restored twice by Arabs
during the Aghlabid period (800–903 AD) and the
Fatimid (909–969 AD) (Solignac 1952–1953). The aq-
ueduct was affected by a NE–SW normal fault followed
by a strike-slip movement (Figs. 2 and 4, segment D1,
D2; Table 2, S21, S21′). The analysis of fault population
indicates that the first event is characterized by a σ3
trending N136 and the second by a σ1=N005 and σ3=
095 (Bahrouni et al. 2013a, c).
These new observations are consistent with histori-
cal manuscripts that have shown the existence of
246
several destructive earthquakes having affected the
region of Kairouan. During the earthquake that oc-
curred in 240 Hegira (854 AD), 13 villages in the plain
of Kairouan were destroyed and the earthquake caused
several victims (Al Suyuti 1505; Ibn Tagri Badri 1861).
During the Fatimid period (911/912 AD), the same
area was struck by a second devastating earthquake,
probably responsible of the destruction of the aque-
duct. Ibn al-Athir refers to this earthquake saying: “In
that year there were some earthquakes at Kairouan.
Nobody had ever seen such powerful earthquakes be-
fore” (Ibn al Athir 1869).
5 Discussion
The convergence of African and Eurasian plates gener-
ated various tectonic structures, recognized in all Alpine
Peri-Mediterranean chains. In Tunisia, these structures
accommodate an increasing amount of deformation
moving from the Saharan platform to the North
African margin. The network of major faults that affect
those structures follows the dominant orientations of N–
S, E–W, NW–SE, NE–SW, inherited from older tectonic
features (probably Paleozoic). Recent tectonic events
have reactivated these structures, resulting in a system
of active and seismogenic faults as for: Gafsa–Jeffara,
Metlaoui, N–S axis, Kasserine, Kairouan–Cherichira,
Skanes–Monastir, Nahli, Ghardimaou, etc. (Fig. 2).
Neotectonic activity resulted in folding, extensive
faulting, and in compressive regime. These tectonic
regimes seem to be parts of a poly-phase deformation
which continued from the Miocene to Quaternary with
permutations and reorientation of stress axes.
The investigation of the Quaternary stress field was
carried out by the analysis of the directions of maximum
horizontal stress (σ1 and σ3). The dominant compression-
al events are summarized in Table 1. Since the Early
Pleistocene, compressions have been characterized by
various σ1 trending N150–170, 020–050, 132–138, and
080–110 and σ3 trending 020–060, 080–111, and 146–
150. However, the axis σ1 (150–170) and σ3 (080–110)
are generally associated with the same strike-slip regime.
The data of stress fields confirm the reactivation of the
preexistent extensive as well as compressive structures.
The predominated compressive stress fields reached fur-
ther external zones, including the Saharan platform. The
post-Villafranchian compression (N160 on average)
which generated the folds of the southernmost Atlas is
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
Fig. 5 Current seismic activity, individual, and composite focal„
mechanism in relationship with tectonic major active faults of
Tunisia. Earthquake focal mechanisms (Schmidt’s projection,
lower hemisphere, compressional dihedron: white color, exten-
sional dihedron: black color): composite mechanisms nos. 1–6
from Gueddiche et al. 1998 and Hfaiedh 1983, individual mech-
anisms nos. 7–22 from the present study. The compression
strikes N–S to NW–SE, in accordance with the general state of
stress due to the African–European convergence
marked by minor and major faults (i.e., Gafsa–Jeffara,
Bahiret El Bibane, N–S axis, Cherichira, Monastir–
Skanes, Tunis, Utique, and Ghardimaou). These com-
pressive events highlighted the convergence between
the African and European plates according to directions
from NW–SE to N–S, prevailing since the Miocene.
In the investigated areas of Tunisia, the historical
seismic data confirm the presence of a compressive
tectonic regime with a shortening axis oriented NNW–
SSE to N–S (Table 2). These events are likely related to
the destroying earthquakes during the Roman–Arab
period. This regime is in accordance with previous data
(Kamoun 1981; Hfaiedh et al. 1985; Ben Ayed 1986;
Gueddiche 1992; Rebai 1992; Saïd et al. 2011).
6 Current seismicity
In Tunisia, the instrumental recording of seismicity can be
divided into three epochs: (1) during the colonial period in
early nineteenth century, the country had three main sta-
tions, in the capital city (Mainka seismograph), in Thala
(close the Tunisian–Algerian border in central-western
Tunisia, a three-component station with LP sensors), and
the last in Gafsa City; (2) following the 5.6 magnitude
earthquake on December first 1970 (near the capital city
Tunis), a small seismic array of four telemetered station
was installed; and (3) lasted till 1989, date of the installa-
tion of the current seismograph network (Fig. 5).
Nevertheless, we can estimate the complete earthquake
catalog for a period of more than 300 years. During this
period, written sources describing the effects of earth-
quakes are abundant and accessible. Seismological moni-
toring network of the INM consists of 14 fixed stations for
the calculation of the recorded earthquake parameters. It is
synchronized by a receptor type remote-coding receiving
the DCF frequency. The readability of seismograms was
set to 10 runs/s. The residue RMS, RHZ, and ERH were
calculated by the program hypoinverse 71PC. In addition,
the instrumental seismicity data show that this activity is
not homogeneous throughout Tunisia. The main activity is
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256 247
 248

Table 3 Focal mechanism solution parameters calculated for 16 seismic events of Tunisia during 1989–2001 (data provided by INM and treated in current work)

No. Date Time Lat. Long. Strike P1 Dip P1 Rake P1 Strike P2 Dip P2 Rake P2 P-axis Dip P T-axis Dip T Mag. Depth (km)

07 3 April 1997 22 h25 36°05′ 10°13′ 150 75 002 075 90 001 040 20 100 45 3.8 7
08 30 January 1995 21 h17 35°51′ 10°20′ 165 90 −143 075 55 001 035 25 115 25 4.5 6
09 4 February 1995 11 h38 35°52′ 10°29′ 085 70 141 010 55 026 320 10 220 40 4 6
10 1 February 1995 17 h11 35°53′ 10°32′ 010 55 −137 250 55 −043 220 50 310 02 4.1 4
11 5 July 1997 17 h58 34°40′ 09°43′ 240 55 001 150 88 002 200 20 100 25 2.8 13
12 13 March 1992 00 h33 34°27′ 09°39′ 350 60 001 255 80 002 305 15 210 25 4.4 22
13 9 May 2001 0 h31 33°54′ 10°30′ 120 50 001 30 89 002 80 25 335 25 4 14
14 5 January 1998 04 h41 33°51′ 10°11′ 45 85 001 315 85 003 05 05 270 05 4.7 16
15 6 May 2001 03 h55 36°16′ 08°34 255 70 003 355 70 001 125 05 215 30 3.4 8
16 3 December 1998 09 h32 36°04′ 08°46′ 005 55 −001 090 85 −002 330 65 70 05 3.4 18
17 10 March 1998 18 h00 34°46′ 46°08 055 55 001 295 90 002 355 01 265 55 3.6 18
18 29 March 1996 20 h38 34°49′ 09°32′ 170 85 −143 250 50 −010 035 30 290 20 4.4 10
19 2 March 1990 03 h58 34°40′ 08°50′ 118 85 001 340 45 002 228 05 328 65 4.4 5
20 7 November 1989 17 h08 34°20′ 08°24′ 105 70 001 005 88 002 150 20 045 60 4.4 12
21 9 January 1998 03 h03 34°13′ 09°15′ 290 90 002 020 85 001 005 40 225 40 3.6 15
22 11 May 1994 08 h44 34°13′ 08°27′ 270 70 −003 180 88 −001 130 15 225 10 4.6 5
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
located in the active zone at the front of the Tellian chain,
the active faults of Atlas belts, and the Pelagian Sea
(Fig. 5). The focal solutions of major earthquakes are
obtained from the polarities of Pg waves observed on the
seismograms of the fixed and temporary network (MQ
800; Hfaiedh et al. 1985; Gueddiche et al. 1998; Dlala and
Hfaiedh 1993; El Ghali et al. 2003).
Focal mechanisms spreading over different structural
domains in Tunisia provide significant indications on
the current movement of active faults. The calculated
mechanisms of the stress tensor are in good compliance
with the focal solutions of major earthquakes.
Moreover, the depths of current seismic events some-
times exceed 18 km (Table 3). It is worth noting that the
Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary coverage does not exceed
the thickness of 10 km. Accordingly, we can say that
some of these active faults cross the entire post-Triassic
series. Moreover, the 18-km faulting may even affect the
brittle part of the crust.
The stress field of the historical period to present day
shows that the entire Tunisia is dominated by a roughly
N–S compressive tectonics. Paleostress data are numer-
ous enough allowing us to distinguish two main areas,
which are individualized by different stress regimes. In
the northern Tunisia, this regime tends to be a strike-
slip/reverse whereas at the Southern Atlasic domain, it is
a globally strike-slip/normal regime. The major direction
of the stress σ1, N150–170, 130, 020–040, and 080–110
trending is distributed along the major faults such as
Chericira–Kairouan, Gafsa–Jeffara, Skanes–Cap Bon,
Kasserine, Agareb faults, etc. The characteristics of the
stress field in the Quaternary are similar to those of the
historical period and present-day seismicity. The kine-
matics of major accidents was remobilized since the
Early Pleistocene (Ben Ayed 1986; Bouaziz et al.
2002). Since the Pleistocene to the historical period,
Tunisia has been affected by a NNW–SSE to N–S com-
pression responsible for Quaternary and historical build-
ing deformation.
The reconstruction of the trajectories of the current
stress shows that the main stress σ 1 describes a
reorientation from the north (NNW–SSE) to the south
(NW–SE) trending direction (Ben Ayed 1986). These
trajectories are disturbed along a major tectonic feature
(major fault and fold) which are abruptly changed by the
σ1 trending direction at the contact of these structures.
The reorientation of stress direction took place in the
Tunisian–Libyan borders (Schaeffer 1980; Bouaziz
1995), as proven by in situ stress measurements.
249
6.1 Co-seismic surface ruptures
In Tunisia, several recent earthquakes generated de-
structive surface ruptures, particularly in the seismical-
ly active regions of Gafsa and Cherichira–Kairouan
(Fig. 2). These moderated seismic areas cannot bring
valuable information concerning the geometry of the
surface deformations and the orientation of the present-
day stress model, compared with the corresponding
focal mechanisms. The qualitative and quantitative
description of these effects allowed better understand-
ing of the mechanisms involved in the recent deforma-
tion and provided additional information about the
hazardous zones where the deformation is concentrat-
ed (seismicity and active faults). The type of deforma-
tion (stress tensor), the direction, and the rate of dis-
placement can be also identified. Thus, more attention
should be given to potential large earthquakes.
6.1.1 Data analysis from field observations
and surface effects
Surface ruptures of Gafsa region The Gafsa fault is a
set of large active right lateral strike-slip fault, located
within Gafsa region (Figs. 6 and 7). It is considered as
one of the most active seismogenic zones in the
Southern Tunisian Atlas. Most of its downtowns were
affected by significant damage during the last earth-
quakes. Many site effects were observed in the Gafsa,
Metlaoui, and Sidi Aich urban zone where the damage
was most extensive (Bahrouni et al. 2013b; Fig. 6). In
fact, in the last decade, several earthquakes caused
important material damage in Gafsa region. The mag-
nitudes of these earthquakes ranged from 3 to 6.
Therefore, the evaluation of the seismic hazard was a
key step to analyze the site effects, based on the obser-
vation of co-seismic surface rupture and their correlation
with active Gafsa faults. In addition, the analysis of
fracture system organization and the movement in terms
of tensor stress were also carried out:
& As for Gafsa earthquake, May 11, 1994 (Mw=4.7),
the principal surface damages were observed in
Gafsa city within a radius of 5 km. Open cracks
appeared on the glacis of J Ben Younes (Near
Jugarta Hotel; Fig. 6, segment c) in the form of
vertical ruptures in en-echelon metric to decametric
length and centimetric to decimetric width. They
are organized along potential shear joints according
250
Fig. 6 Surface rupture observed in Kairouan–Haffouz bridge (a); Metlaoui landscape (b); Gafsa and Sidi Aich (c–d); Sidi Aich urban site (e)
to two combined directions: sinistral N–S–N020
and dextral N115–140 suggesting a NNW–SSE
setback trending σ1. These surface effects show a
good coherence with the stress tensor calculated for
Gafsa fault (Fig. 2, S5).
& Concerning Metlaoui earthquake, November 7, 1989
(Mw=4.4), deep open cracks have affected Ypresian
series and encrusted grounds, appeared 2 km to the
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
north of Metlaoui city, extending for more than 5 km.
The maximum lateral offset exceeds 5 cm, but the
transversal offset ranges between 10 and 80 cm.
These surface ruptures displayed dextral N90–130
and sinistral N170–180 stepping in en-echelon
model. They suggest an axis of a N154 σ1
trending (Fig. 6, segment b; Table 2, S23). The
obtained results argue with the calculated tensor of
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
Fig. 7 Seismotectonic and focal mechanisms of recent earthquakes of seismically active Gafsa region (Dlala and Hfaiedh 1993; Saïd
et al. 2011: modified)
the Metlaoui dextral fault trending NW–SE (syn-
thetic of Gafsa fault). The focal mechanism solu-
tion of the latter is strike slip (Fig. 7).
& In December 8, 2010, Sidi Aïch city (northeastern
edge of Gafsa district) was struck by an earthquake
(Mw=3.6), causing considerable damage and im-
portant surface ruptures within urban city (Fig. 6,
segments d, e). The most outstanding effects are
surface cracks and building damage (houses and
school) displayed in en-echelon system: dextral
N110–120 and sinistral N170–010 suggesting σ1
trending NNW–SSE.
Surface ruptures in the Cherichira–Haffouz bridge The
Kairouan–Haffouz bridge, restored in 1969 and located
800 m to the NW of the Fatimide aqueduct, is affected
by a sinistral fault N180–020 (Fig. 2, S24). The lateral
displacement affecting the roadway and the pavement
was estimated to 8 cm (Fig. 6, segment a). The digital
processing shows a σ1 and a σ3 trending, respectively,
N147 and N057 (Table 2, S24′). In addition, this move-
ment is responsible of the sinistral deformation
destroying the Fatimide aqueduct as well as the defor-
mations observed the old bridge probably built before
1969. The stress tensor is characterized by a σ1=N165
and a σ3=N074 (Fig. 4 E; Table 2, S24). These effects
are additional proofs of the breaking power caused by
earthquakes taking place after 1969.
251
Surface ruptures in the Northern Tunisia In Northern
Tunisia, the earthquake of Chemtou, in August 6, 1985
(MW=3.5) generated surface effects with significant ver-
tical decametric N010–025 cracks shape. These defor-
mations are compliant with the mechanisms of the area
of Jendouba–Ghardimaou (Fig. 5), indicating the con-
tinuation of the same NNW–SSE compressive regime
(Gueddiche et al. 1992).
6.2 Current strain model
During the Quaternary, the NNW–SSE compressive
regimes are consistent with the focal mechanisms of
recent earthquakes. The major faults were probably re-
activated alternatively to accommodate relative plate
motions in the transfer zone. Paleostress determination
and calculation of focal mechanism for the recent
earthquake show that the active stress field is oriented
N139 to N005, with a compressive σ1=N170. In order
to review the present-day kinematic model, the inves-
tigated area of Metlaoui provides new insights about
the surface break configuration associated with the
November 7, 1989 earthquake (Mw=4.4). This earth-
quake produces a 5-km-wide surface rupture zone with
a complex strike faulting N120–140 dextral and N180–
010 senestral in en-echelon system (Fig. 8). The investi-
gation indicated that this earthquake occurred along
preexisting fault (i.e., “Metlaoui Fault”) affecting both
Ypresian and Late Quaternary deposits (dejection cone,
252 J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256

Fig. 8 Interpretative model of surface ruptures in Metlaoui area associated with the November 7, 1989 earthquake, Mw=4.4; surface
ruptures displaying as a strike slip in en-echelon system: present-day structural pattern
J Seismol (2014) 18:235–256
glacis, and soil). This major fault (synthetic of Gafsa
Fault) is composed of two segments: the first near
Metlaoui with 7 km right N130 strike-slip fault. The
second appears to the southeast in the Sehib anticline (a
10-km-long structure) (Figs. 2 and 7).
Major ruptures and cracks exhibit conjugate stepping in
en-echelon pattern to generate hundreds of meters long
structure: a strike-slip motion with σ1=N154 and σ3=N064
(Fig. 8, S23). The maximum right-lateral offset exceeds
5 cm. However, the transversal offset ranges between 10
and 80 cm, with important depth. Furthermore, these
surface rupture processes are associated with Riedel model
of right-lateral simple shear going with the main motion
(Fig. 8). This geometric pattern provides a good tectonic
model to explain the relationship between the co-seismic
surface rupture and the preexisting active fault of
Metlaoui. The seismic source is directly related to the
“regional Gafsa active fault system.” It is a further clarifi-
cation of the current deformation model as well as the
North African kinematic model that can be incorporated in
the convergent plate model for European and African
plates (Mckenzie 1972; Hfaiedh et al. 1985; Ben Ayed
1986; Meghraoui et al. 1986, 2012; Philip 1987; Dlala
1984) and for the Arabian and Eurasian plates (Fu et al.
2007).
7 Conclusion
Neotectonic evolution of Tunisia showed evident stability
of the tectonic stress orientation since Early Miocene.
During the Quaternary, Tunisia was dominated by com-
pressive tectonics with four main directions 1 (N130–
140, 150–170, 020–050, and 110–115). The stress pattern
was compressive in the Tellian domain and remained
strike-slip extensional in the Atlas, contemporary with
the compressive regime. The analysis of the deformations
and the surface ruptures generated in the seismically
active zone allowed the reconstitution of the seismic
history that took place within a context of high seismicity
and big earthquakes. Moreover, the stress direction fur-
ther confirmed the compatibility between neotectonic and
seismotectonic data, in good agreement with the axes of
pressures of the focal mechanisms (i.e., Eastern Algeria
and the Siculo-Tunisian canal). The main activities were
observed in the front of the overthrust folds (Ghardimaou,
Ichkeul), Atlasic domain (Cherichira–Kairouan,
Kasserine, Gafsa–Jeffara, Metlaoui), Eastern Tunisia,
253
and Pelagian Sea (Agareb–Sfax, Skanes–Monastir–
Cape Bon).
It was concluded that the main source of seismic activ-
ities in the Northern African plate is essentially caused by
inter-plate deformations along major active faults. During
the last 50 years, several destructive earthquakes occurred
because of these tectonics (Aghadir, Morocco (1960); El
Asnam, Algeria (1954 and 1980); and Gafsa, Tunisia
(1977 and 1989)).
The resulting seismotectonic studies are consistent
with focal mechanism solutions and neotectonic data
from North African margin. It can be incorporated in
the convergent model of the African–European plate
motion which represents the main source of active tec-
tonics and seismic activity. The kinematic for the major
plates that controlled the tectonic evolution appreciably
changed through time, even during Quaternary. The
entire convergent front between Nubia and Eurasia,
extending from the Atlantic to the Arabian Plate, was
accompanied by the deformation of both Eurasian and
African margin, mostly as diffuse compression and ex-
tension in short-lived basins.
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