HOUSEHOLD POPULATION AND HOUSING

CHARACTERISTICS 2
This chapter provides a descriptive summary of the social, economic, and demographic
characteristics of households sampled in the survey with a focus on some basic background characteristics
such as age, sex, education, place of residence, and socio-economic condition of households. This
information is crucial for the interpretation of key demographic and health indicators from which to draw
meaningful policies and programmes for intervention. This information is also a basis for gauging the
representativeness of the survey.

The basic characteristics of the sampled population, that is, age, sex, education, and place of
residence, form the basis of the background information by which most key demographic and health
indices are analysed throughout this report. New to the DHS in general, and the 2003 GDHS in particular,
is the wealth quintile, which is an indicator of the level of wealth that is consistent with expenditure and
income measures. The wealth quintile was constructed using information on household ownership of a
number of consumer items, ranging from a television to a bicycle or car, as well as dwelling
characteristics, such as source of drinking water, sanitation facilities, and type of material used for
flooring. Each asset was assigned a weight (factor score) generated through principal components
analysis, and the resulting asset scores were standardised in relation to a normal distribution with a mean
of zero and standard deviation of one. Each household was then assigned a score for each asset, and the
scores were summed for each household; individuals were ranked according to the total score of the
household in which they resided. The sample was then divided into quintiles from one (lowest) to five
(highest). A single asset index was developed for the whole sample; separate indices were not prepared
for the urban and rural population.

In the 2003 GDHS, a household is defined as a person or a group of persons, related or unrelated,
who live together in the same house or compound, share the same housekeeping arrangements, and are
catered for as one unit. The Household Questionnaire was used to collect information on all usual
residents and visitors who spent the night preceding the survey in the household. This mode of data
collection allows the analysis of either the de jure (usual residents) or de facto (those who are present at
the time of the interview) populations.

2.1 HOUSEHOLD POPULATION BY AGE AND SEX

Age and sex are important variables in analysing demographic trends. Table 2.1 presents the
distribution of the de facto household population in the 2003 GDHS survey by five-year age groups,
according to sex and urban-rural residence. Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1 show the population by sex for
Ghana. The data show that there are slightly more women (53 percent) than men (47 percent) in the
overall population. There is a slightly higher concentration of women in the urban than rural areas (55 and
51 percent). The age structure is typical of a young population characterised by high fertility. This type of
population structure imposes a heavy burden on the social and economic assets of a country. Ghana’s
population is still young, with 44 percent of the population under 15 years, with the percentage in the
older age groups (65 years and above) constituting just 5 percent of the population.

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 11

 Figure 2.1 Population Pyramid
Age
80+
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59 Male Female
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Percent

GDHS 2003

Table 2.1 Household population by age, sex, and residence

Percent distribution of the de facto household population by five-year age groups, according to sex and
residence, Ghana 2003
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Urban Rural Total
––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––
Age Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
<5 13.3 10.7 11.9 17.5 16.2 16.8 15.8 13.9 14.8
5-9 14.0 11.8 12.8 17.5 15.0 16.2 16.1 13.6 14.8
10-14 16.1 12.8 14.3 16.9 13.3 15.0 16.6 13.1 14.7
15-19 11.5 11.5 11.5 9.0 7.5 8.2 10.0 9.3 9.6
20-24 7.8 10.1 9.1 5.0 6.8 5.9 6.2 8.2 7.2
25-29 8.0 8.3 8.2 5.6 7.1 6.4 6.6 7.6 7.1
30-34 6.4 6.7 6.5 5.0 6.1 5.6 5.5 6.4 6.0
35-39 4.9 5.9 5.4 4.3 5.8 5.1 4.5 5.9 5.2
40-44 3.6 4.6 4.2 3.7 4.4 4.0 3.7 4.5 4.1
45-49 3.7 3.8 3.7 4.0 3.5 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.7
50-54 2.7 3.7 3.3 2.5 3.9 3.2 2.6 3.8 3.3
55-59 1.7 2.4 2.1 1.7 2.6 2.1 1.7 2.5 2.1
60-64 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3
65-69 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6
70-74 1.1 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.6 1.4
75-79 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8
80 + 0.6 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.1 0.8 1.3 1.0
Don't know/missing 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 4,575 5,539 10,115 6,925 7,326 14,250 11,500 12,865 24,365

12 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics

 Data from the GDHS show an excess of males in the 10-14 age group, and a deficit in the 20-24
and 40-44 age groups. The excess of males in the 10-14 age group could be the effect of age shifting by
interviewers in the DHS, out of the eligible age range (15-59) for the individual interviews, to reduce their
workload. This effect is also obvious for females in the 50-54 age group, who are not eligible for the
individual interview. The deficit of males in the 20-24 and 40-44 age groups is also reflected in the 2000
Census (GSS, 2002), and may be attributable to differential outmigration of males in search of jobs.

2.2 HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION

The size and composition of households and the sex of the head of household are important
aspects that impact on household welfare. Table 2.2 shows information collected in the 2003 GDHS on
sex composition and household size. The mean household size is 4.0, with household size in rural areas
(4.3) larger than in urban areas (3.6).

Two-thirds (66 percent) of households are headed by males, while a third (34 percent) are headed
by females. The percentage of female-headed households is higher in urban (40 percent) than in rural
areas (29 percent).

Single-person households are more common in urban (25 percent) than rural areas (18 percent).
This may be due to an influx of unmarried young persons migrating to urban areas in search of
employment or to further their education.

Table 2.2 Household composition

Percent distribution of households by sex of head of house-

hold and by household size, according to residence, Ghana
2003
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Residence
–––––––––––––––––
Characteristic Urban Rural Total
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sex of head of household
Male 60.3 71.1 66.2
Female 39.7 28.9 33.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of usual members
1 24.5 17.5 20.7
2 14.2 11.3 12.6
3 14.2 13.1 13.6
4 15.4 14.5 14.9
5 11.4 13.6 12.6
6 8.3 10.6 9.5
7 5.3 7.9 6.7
8 2.7 4.3 3.6
9+ 4.0 6.9 5.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households 2,870 3,381 6,251
Mean size 3.6 4.3 4.0
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Note: Table is based on de jure members, i.e., usual resi-
dents.

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 13

 2.3 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS

Education is important in that it helps individuals to make informed decisions that impact their
health and well-being. Ghana’s system of education has undergone several stages of restructuring over the
past 25 years (Sedgwick, 2000). The current system of formal education was introduced in 1989. It is
based on a three-tier system: six years of primary education, followed by three years of junior secondary
school (JSS), and a further three years at the senior secondary school (SSS) level. From the mid-1970s till
the introduction of the current system of education, the six years of primary education was followed by
five years of secondary education―three years of JSS and two years of SSS. Prior to the mid-1970s,
students who completed six years of primary education had a choice. They could attend four years of
middle school or attend five years of secondary school with a small group having the further option to
pursue an additional two years of pre-university education. Upon completion of formal schooling, a
student could choose to further his or her education at the tertiary level. In addition to university
education, there are a host of institutions offering vocational, technical, and professional training that may
be tertiary or non-tertiary. The different systems of formal education have been taken into account in
tabulating the educational attainment of women and men interviewed in the 2003 GDHS.

Table 2.3.1 shows the percent distribution of the de facto female household population age six
years and over by highest level of education attended or completed, according to background
characteristics. Thirty-seven percent of women have never been to school, about 30 percent have some
primary or have completed primary school, 31 percent have some secondary or have completed secondary
school, and about 2 percent have more than secondary school education.

The data reveal that the proportion of women with no education is higher among older women,
suggesting some improvement in education over the years. This may be due to the impact of the Free
Compulsory Universal Basic Education (fCUBE) programme introduced in 1996. Education varies by
place of residence. Urban women are more likely to be educated than rural women. For example, 26
percent of urban females have no education, compared with 47 percent of rural females. The proportion of
urban females with some secondary education or higher (47 percent) is more than twice as high as that of
rural females (21 percent).

It is notable that females in the northern half of the country (Northern, Upper East, and Upper
West regions) are seriously disadvantaged educationally. More than two-thirds of women in these regions
have never been to school, compared with one-fifth in the Greater Accra region. In addition, 13 percent of
females in Greater Accra have completed secondary education or higher, compared with less than 2
percent in the Northern and Upper West regions. With the exception of the three northern regions, the
majority of females in all regions have been to school.

It is worth noting that the proportion of female household members who have never attended
school decreases with higher wealth status. Sixty-five percent of women in the lowest wealth quintile
have no education compared with only 15 percent in the highest quintile.

Table 2.3.2 shows that 26 percent of males have never been to school, 33 percent have had some
primary or have completed primary education, 37 percent have had some secondary or completed
secondary education, and about 4 percent have more than secondary education. One-third of males in
rural areas have no education compared with only 15 percent in urban areas. There is a marked urban-
rural differential in secondary and higher education: 16 percent of males in urban areas have completed
secondary or higher education compared with only 4 percent in rural areas.

14 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics

 Table 2.3.1 Educational attainment of household population: women

Percent distribution of the de facto female household population age six and over by highest level of education attended or
completed, according to background characteristics, Ghana 2003
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
More Median
Some than Don’t years
Background No Some Completed secon- Completed secon- know/ of
characteristic education primary primary1 dary secondary2 dary missing Total Number schooling
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Age
6-9 47.5 51.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 100.0 1,457 0.0
10-14 15.2 65.0 6.3 13.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,685 3.0
15-19 14.7 15.3 7.5 58.3 3.9 0.1 0.1 100.0 1,191 6.8
20-24 21.6 11.8 6.3 44.8 11.5 3.9 0.0 100.0 1,053 8.0
25-29 33.9 11.3 6.1 36.5 9.8 2.3 0.1 100.0 981 5.7
30-34 35.5 13.1 4.5 41.0 2.6 3.3 0.0 100.0 821 5.3
35-39 41.6 14.2 5.7 33.6 2.7 2.2 0.1 100.0 756 3.0
40-44 35.3 12.9 3.9 41.6 3.0 2.6 0.7 100.0 577 5.4
45-49 40.2 15.4 2.0 37.5 0.7 4.0 0.1 100.0 465 3.3
50-54 61.3 8.5 2.6 23.5 0.4 2.6 1.1 100.0 492 0.0
55-59 68.0 9.3 1.4 16.4 1.1 2.5 1.4 100.0 320 0.0
60-64 81.1 3.7 2.6 11.2 0.0 1.0 0.4 100.0 297 0.0
65+ 86.6 5.2 0.2 6.6 0.3 0.9 0.4 100.0 674 0.0
Residence
Urban 25.9 22.5 4.6 38.1 5.8 2.8 0.4 100.0 4,841 5.3
Rural 46.8 27.8 4.0 19.5 0.9 0.6 0.4 100.0 5,944 0.0
Region
Western 29.5 30.8 5.7 29.0 2.8 2.0 0.1 100.0 960 3.3
Central 39.1 29.1 4.6 23.7 2.2 1.2 0.2 100.0 904 1.6
Greater Accra 20.3 21.9 4.6 40.1 9.2 3.6 0.2 100.0 1,547 6.4
Volta 31.2 33.0 4.8 26.9 2.3 1.6 0.3 100.0 1,023 2.5
Eastern 29.6 27.0 6.2 32.4 1.9 2.2 0.6 100.0 1,166 3.7
Ashanti 28.3 25.7 4.1 37.7 2.7 1.1 0.4 100.0 2,154 4.1
Brong Ahafo 37.0 27.5 5.2 27.4 1.8 0.6 0.4 100.0 1,061 2.4
Northern 74.4 16.4 1.3 6.2 0.9 0.7 0.1 100.0 989 0.0
Upper East 71.1 18.3 1.1 6.7 1.3 1.0 0.6 100.0 661 0.0
Upper West 66.1 19.2 2.8 8.7 1.5 0.3 1.3 100.0 321 0.0
Wealth quintile
Lowest 65.1 22.7 2.5 8.8 0.2 0.1 0.6 100.0 1,992 0.0
Second 47.2 29.6 3.8 18.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 100.0 2,046 0.0
Middle 36.5 28.9 5.5 27.4 1.2 0.2 0.3 100.0 2,172 2.1
Fourth 28.0 26.3 5.4 35.9 3.2 0.9 0.3 100.0 2,204 4.1
Highest 15.4 20.1 3.9 44.8 9.5 6.0 0.3 100.0 2,372 7.9
Total 37.4 25.4 4.3 27.8 3.1 1.6 0.4 100.0 10,785 2.1
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Note: Total includes 13 women with missing information on age who are not shown separately.
1
Completed grade 6 at the primary level
2
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

Across the regions the pattern among the male population is similar to that exhibited by the
females. Males in the three northern regions are disadvantaged, with 54-59 percent never having been to
school compared with less than 20 percent in the other regions, except Brong Ahafo (24 percent) and the
Central (21 percent) regions. The variation in education among the male population according to wealth
quintile is similar to that among the female population. Wealthy males are less likely to have no
education. For example, 7 percent of males in the highest wealth quintile have no education compared
with 53 percent in the lowest.

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 15

 Table 2.3.2 Educational attainment of household population: men

Percent distribution of the de facto male household population age six and over by highest level of education attended or com-
pleted, according to background characteristics, Ghana 2003
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
More
Some than Don’t Median
Background No Some Completed secon- Completed secon- know/ years of
characteristic education primary primary1 dary secondary2 dary missing Total Number schooling
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Age
6-9 45.2 53.6 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 1,544 0.0
10-14 14.8 67.7 6.1 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,907 2.7
15-19 9.3 18.9 7.9 60.8 3.7 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,148 6.9
20-24 12.9 8.7 5.6 50.5 17.6 4.7 0.0 100.0 707 8.4
25-29 15.6 9.1 4.7 43.6 16.3 10.3 0.3 100.0 758 8.5
30-34 21.4 7.5 4.0 48.5 13.1 5.2 0.5 100.0 634 9.0
35-39 25.4 8.4 4.1 46.7 7.7 6.6 1.1 100.0 522 9.1
40-44 24.4 6.3 2.1 50.9 6.8 9.3 0.3 100.0 420 9.3
45-49 26.3 9.0 4.2 45.9 6.0 8.5 0.2 100.0 445 9.2
50-54 25.7 7.6 3.5 48.2 4.8 9.3 0.9 100.0 301 9.1
55-59 34.7 5.6 3.2 35.9 4.7 15.4 0.6 100.0 197 9.0
60-64 52.7 8.2 3.3 27.6 3.5 4.1 0.5 100.0 253 0.0
65+ 66.3 6.8 1.7 20.6 2.1 2.3 0.2 100.0 523 0.0
Residence
Urban 15.2 25.5 4.4 38.1 9.7 6.6 0.5 100.0 3,865 6.9
Rural 33.3 31.4 4.0 26.9 2.5 1.5 0.4 100.0 5,511 2.2
Region
Western 14.5 32.5 6.8 37.3 5.9 2.9 0.0 100.0 817 5.4
Central 21.0 34.4 3.7 35.1 2.6 3.2 0.0 100.0 719 4.1
Greater Accra 12.8 21.9 3.7 37.0 15.4 8.4 0.8 100.0 1,194 8.5
Volta 18.0 30.7 5.2 37.5 3.6 4.7 0.3 100.0 825 5.2
Eastern 18.9 28.0 6.7 37.9 3.2 4.6 0.8 100.0 1,031 5.4
Ashanti 16.4 29.1 3.0 43.0 5.6 2.4 0.4 100.0 1,773 5.8
Brong Ahafo 23.5 34.6 4.3 29.4 4.6 3.4 0.2 100.0 1,020 3.6
Northern 58.6 25.3 2.2 9.0 3.2 1.4 0.2 100.0 1,060 0.0
Upper East 54.1 28.3 3.8 10.2 1.6 0.6 1.3 100.0 651 0.0
Upper West 54.2 26.3 2.6 11.3 2.5 2.8 0.4 100.0 286 0.0
Wealth quintile
Lowest 52.6 28.8 3.4 12.8 1.1 0.6 0.7 100.0 1,865 0.0
Second 30.4 35.3 4.8 26.6 1.7 0.7 0.5 100.0 1,899 2.3
Middle 22.5 33.4 5.0 35.3 2.3 1.1 0.3 100.0 1,911 3.8
Fourth 16.5 26.1 4.6 40.7 7.4 4.4 0.3 100.0 1,855 6.3
Highest 7.0 20.8 3.0 42.4 15.1 11.3 0.4 100.0 1,846 8.9
Total 25.9 29.0 4.2 31.5 5.5 3.6 0.4 100.0 9,376 3.9
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Note: Total includes 18 men with missing information on age who are not shown separately.
1
Completed grade 6 at the primary level
2
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

Men are more educated than women at all levels of education, implying that females continue to
lag behind males in education. The median number of years of schooling completed is twice as high
among men (3.9 years) as among women (2.1 years). It is disappointing to note that the level of education
has deteriorated over the last five years for both women and men. The proportion of women with no
education rose from 34 percent in 1998 (GSS and MI, 1999) to 37 percent in 2003, with the median
number of years of schooling falling slightly from 2.3 to 2.1 over the five years. Similarly, the proportion

16 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics

of men with no education rose from 21 percent (GSS and MI, 1999) to 26 percent with the median
number of years of schooling falling from 4.9 to 3.9 over the last five years. Nevertheless, the male-
female gap in educational attainment has narrowed over the same period.

The 2003 GDHS collected information on school attendance among the population 6-24 years
that allows the calculation of net attendance ratios (NARs) and gross attendance ratios (GARs). The NAR
for primary school is the percentage of the primary-school-age (6-11 years) population that is attending
primary school. The NAR for secondary school is the measure of the secondary-school-age (12-18 years)
population that is attending secondary school. By definition, the NAR cannot exceed 100 percent. The
GAR however, measures participation at each level of schooling among persons age 6-24. The GAR is
almost always higher than the NAR for the same level because the GAR includes participation by those
who may be older, because they may have started school late, may have repeated one or more grades in
school, or may have dropped out of school and later returned, or may be younger than the official age
range for that level.

Table 2.4 presents data on NAR and GAR for the de jure household population by level of
schooling and sex, according to place of residence and wealth quintile. Sixty percent of children age 6-11,
who should be attending primary school, are currently doing so. At the same time, the GAR at the
primary school level is 95 percent, indicating that more than a third (35 percent) of young Ghanaians
attending primary school are above or below primary school age. Not surprisingly, both the NAR and
GAR are much lower at the secondary than at the primary school level. Slightly more than one-third of
students age 12-18 who should be attending secondary school are in school at that level. The GAR for
secondary school is 41 percent, indicating that the proportion of underage or overage youths in secondary
school is not so large. The results show similar proportions of NAR for females and males at primary and
secondary school level, indicating that there is no gender gap in school attendance among the Ghanaian
school age population who should be attending school at a given level. However, the GARs at primary
and secondary school levels are slightly higher for males than females, indicating a relatively higher
overage or underage attendance among males than females.

As expected, school attendance ratios at both the primary and secondary levels are lower in rural
than in urban areas. For instance, the NAR at the primary school level in rural areas is 56 percent
compared with 68 percent in urban areas. Similarly, the GAR at secondary school is 31 percent in rural
areas compared with 53 percent in urban areas. Regional differences are obvious for the NAR and GAR
with attendance ratios notably lower among the three northern regions (Northern, Upper East, and Upper
West) compared with all other regions, and especially in the case of the GAR at the primary school level.

There is a strong relationship between household economic status and school attendance that can
be seen at both the primary and secondary levels and among males and females. For example, the NAR
increases from 43 percent among students from poorer households (lowest wealth quintile) in primary
school to 78 percent among students from richer households (highest wealth quintile). Similarly, the GAR
rises three-fold from 20 percent among secondary school attendees in the lowest wealth quintile to 63
percent among those in the highest wealth quintile.

The Gender Parity Index (GPI) represents the ratio of the GAR for females to the GAR for males.
It is presented at both the primary and secondary levels and offers a summary measure of gender
differences in school attendance rates. A GPI less than 1 indicates that a smaller proportion of females
than males attend school. In Ghana, the GPI is slightly less than 1 (0.9) for both primary and secondary
school attendance, indicating that the gender gap is relatively small. There are no marked differences in
the GPI by place of residence. The Northern Region has the widest gap (0.8) for primary school
attendance and the Brong Ahafo Region has the widest gap (0.7) for secondary school attendance.

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 17

 Table 2.4 School attendance ratios

Net attendance ratios (NAR), gross attendance ratios (GAR), and gender parity index for the de jure household population
by level of schooling and sex, according to background characteristics, Ghana 2003
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Net attendance ratio1 Gross attendance ratio2 Gender
Background –––––––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––– parity
characteristic Male Female Total Male Female Total index3
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
PRIMARY SCHOOL
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Residence
Urban 69.9 66.7 68.3 110.0 100.4 105.2 0.91
Rural 56.2 55.2 55.8 92.0 86.8 89.6 0.94
Region
Western 70.6 68.2 69.4 109.3 102.8 106.1 0.94
Central 61.3 60.6 61.0 98.5 99.5 99.0 1.01
Greater Accra 72.3 71.1 71.7 108.9 102.9 105.9 0.95
Volta 60.7 66.1 63.5 106.9 107.0 106.9 1.00
Eastern 58.9 60.9 59.8 99.6 92.0 96.1 0.92
Ashanti 69.0 65.9 67.5 104.8 98.5 101.7 0.94
Brong Ahafo 66.3 56.5 62.0 119.8 109.0 115.1 0.91
Northern 47.4 39.5 43.8 70.8 55.1 63.7 0.78
Upper East 42.4 46.4 44.2 70.3 61.0 66.0 0.87
Upper West 41.9 41.2 41.5 74.9 68.2 71.5 0.91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 43.8 41.8 42.9 72.6 66.7 69.9 0.92
Second 57.9 53.6 55.9 100.9 89.4 95.5 0.89
Middle 66.0 62.4 64.4 107.9 101.3 104.8 0.94
Fourth 67.6 68.3 67.9 109.2 101.5 105.4 0.93
Highest 78.9 77.0 77.9 109.2 105.7 107.4 0.97
Total 61.0 59.6 60.4 98.4 92.0 95.4 0.94
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
SECONDARY SCHOOL
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Residence
Urban 45.4 44.8 45.1 55.3 50.1 52.6 0.90
Rural 26.8 25.9 26.4 33.0 28.3 30.8 0.86
Region
Western 36.8 41.9 39.3 41.9 44.3 43.1 1.06
Central 34.3 30.5 32.4 39.6 34.9 37.2 0.88
Greater Accra 47.7 48.6 48.2 59.2 56.6 57.7 0.96
Volta 36.2 35.4 35.8 50.5 38.7 44.6 0.77
Eastern 37.8 35.6 36.8 45.8 37.2 41.6 0.81
Ashanti 42.8 39.2 40.9 48.1 42.2 45.1 0.88
Brong Ahafo 32.8 26.6 30.0 40.5 29.9 35.7 0.74
Northern 17.4 15.8 16.7 24.6 19.2 22.4 0.78
Upper East 16.5 23.2 19.4 24.1 26.6 25.2 1.11
Upper West 20.2 22.5 21.2 27.4 26.4 27.0 0.96
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.4 15.2 15.3 22.1 17.0 19.8 0.77
Second 27.3 19.7 23.9 33.6 21.5 28.2 0.64
Middle 34.5 34.7 34.6 40.8 36.7 38.8 0.90
Fourth 40.4 42.3 41.4 51.0 47.1 49.0 0.92
Highest 57.5 53.6 55.3 66.6 60.8 63.3 0.91
Total 34.6 35.0 34.8 42.4 38.8 40.6 0.91
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1
The NAR for primary school is the percentage of the primary-school age (6-11 years) population that is attending primary
school. The NAR for secondary school is the percentage of the secondary-school age (12-18 years) population that is at-
tending secondary school. By definition the NAR cannot exceed 100 percent.
2
The GAR for primary school is the total number of primary school students, expressed as a percentage of the official pri-
mary-school-age population. The GAR for secondary school is the total number of secondary school students, expressed as
a percentage of the official secondary-school-age population. If there are significant numbers of overage and underage stu-
dents at a given level of schooling, the GAR can exceed 100 percent.
3
The Gender Parity Index for primary school is the ratio of the primary school GAR for females to the GAR for males. The
Gender Parity Index for secondary school is the ratio of the secondary school GAR for females to the GAR for males.

18 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics

 Figure 2.2 shows the age-specific attendance rates (ASAR) for the de jure household population
age 6-24 by sex. The ASAR shows participation in schooling at any level, from primary through higher
education. The closer the ASAR is to 100, the higher the participation of a given age population at that
level. Less than 50 percent of children age seven and below are attending school. School attendance rises
markedly up to age 11, remains high up to age 14, and then gradually declines. There are no marked
differences in the proportion of males and females attending school up to age 15, after which there are
significantly higher proportions of males than females attending school.

Figure 2.2 Age-Specific Attendance Rates

Percent
100
Male
Female
80

60

40

20

0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Age

GDHS 2003

2.4 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

There is a strong correlation between the socio-economic condition of households and the
vulnerability of its members, and especially children, to common diseases. The amenities and assets
available to households are important in determining the general socio-economic status of the population.
The GDHS included questions on a household’s access to electricity, source of drinking water, type of
sanitation facilities, flooring materials, and ownership of durable goods. Table 2.5 presents the
distribution of households by household characteristics, according to residence.

One in two households in Ghana has electricity. Three-fourths of households in urban areas
(77 percent) have electricity compared with one-fourth (24 percent) of rural households. The 2003 data
show an increase in the use of electricity among rural households over the last five years (GSS and MI,
1999), while access to electricity in urban households has declined over the same time period. The decline
in the use of electricity by urban households may be attributed to the rapid development in housing
projects, some of which are not yet connected to the national power grid.

The availability of and accessibility to potable water may, to a large extent, minimise the
prevalence of water-borne diseases among household members, especially young children. The source of
drinking water is important because potentially fatal diseases, such as diarrhoeal diseases, guinea worm,
bilharzia, typhoid, cholera, and dysentery, are common in the country. The main sources of drinking
water are piped, protected well or borehole, and rivers or streams. Sixteen percent of households have

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 19

 access to piped water in their dwelling, yard Table 2.5 Household characteristics
or plot, while 23 percent access drinking
Percent distribution of households by household characteristics, according
water from a public tap. Twelve percent of to residence, Ghana 2003
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
households get their drinking water from Residence
open wells, and 28 percent obtain drinking Household –––––––––––––––––
characteristic Urban Rural Total
water from protected wells or boreholes. –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Electricity
Fourteen percent of households obtain Yes 76.9 24.1 48.3
drinking water from rivers and streams. Not No 23.1 75.8 51.6
Missing 0.0 0.1 0.1
surprisingly, rural households have less
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
access to clean drinking water than urban
Source of drinking water
households. For example, one in three urban Piped into dwelling 11.5 0.7 5.7
households have piped water in their Piped into compound/plot 21.9 1.2 10.7
Public tap 39.1 8.9 22.8
dwelling, yard or plot, compared with 2 Open well in dwelling/yard 2.5 1.3 1.9
Open public well 5.9 12.8 9.6
percent of rural households. The major source Protected well in dwelling/yard 2.4 1.7 2.0
of drinking water for rural households is a Protected public well 7.8 41.1 25.8
Spring 0.3 0.9 0.6
well or borehole. For example, two-fifths of River, stream 2.0 24.3 14.1
rural households get their drinking water Pond, lake 0.5 2.4 1.5
Dam 0.1 3.7 2.0
from a protected public well or borehole, Rainwater 0.5 0.2 0.3
compared with one-tenth of urban Tanker truck 2.3 0.4 1.3
Satchel water 3.0 0.3 1.5
households. The overall access to piped Other 0.4 0.0 0.2
drinking water has remained the same over Missing 0.0 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
the last five years (GSS and MI, 1999). It
Time to water source
takes eight in ten urban households and about Percentage <15 minutes 79.8 46.5 61.8
half of rural households less than 15 minutes Median time to source 4.3 14.3 9.4
to reach their nearest source of drinking Water availability
All the time 75.9 91.9 84.5
water. The median time to source in urban Several hours per day 11.4 4.8 7.8
households is 4 minutes compared with 14 A few times a week 9.1 1.7 5.1
Less frequently 2.7 1.0 1.8
minutes among rural households. The vast Not at all 0.7 0.4 0.5
majority of households have access to water Don’t know 0.1 0.0 0.1
Missing 0.1 0.2 0.2
all the time. Rural households are more likely Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
than urban households to have access to Sanitation facility
water all the time. Flush toilet 21.2 1.7 10.7
Traditional pit toilet 26.7 54.0 41.5
Ventilated improved pit latrine 40.8 13.5 26.0
The availability of toilet facilities in No facility, bush, field 6.7 30.6 19.6
Bucket, pan 4.5 0.2 2.2
households ensures a more efficient and Missing 0.1 0.1 0.1
hygienic method of human waste disposal. Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Most households in Ghana (42 percent) have Sharing toilet facilities
traditional pit latrines, 26 percent have No 14.6 8.6 11.4
Yes 78.5 60.8 68.9
improved ventilated pit latrines (KVIP), and No facility 6.7 30.6 19.6
Missing 0.1 0.1 0.1
11 percent have flush toilets. One-fifth of
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
households have no toilet facility. Lack of a
Flooring material
toilet facility is more common in rural areas Earth/sand/mud 3.2 17.8 11.1
(31 percent) than in urban areas (7 percent). Mud mixed with dung 0.1 2.4 1.3
Wood/palm/bamboo/parquet 0.4 0.1 0.2
Two-fifths of urban households have KVIP Linoleum 19.5 5.7 12.0
toilets, compared with 14 percent of Ceramic tiles/terrazo 3.9 0.3 2.0
Cement 54.5 71.5 63.7
households in rural areas. Traditional pit Carpet 18.4 2.1 9.6
toilets are twice as common in rural areas (54 Missing 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
percent) as in urban areas (27 percent). Flush
Continued…
toilets are more common in urban households

20 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics

(21 percent) than in rural households Table 2.5—Continued
(2 percent). Access to flush toilets has risen
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
over the last five years, from 8 percent in Residence
1998 (GSS and MI, 1999) to 11 percent in Household –––––––––––––––––
characteristic Urban Rural Total
2003. The majority of households (69 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Cooking fuel
percent) share toilet facilities with one or Electricity 0.6 0.1 0.3
more households. LPG, natural gas 14.6 1.4 7.4
Biogas 0.7 0.0 0.3
Kerosene 1.3 0.4 0.8
The type of flooring material used in Coal, lignite 0.7 0.0 0.3
dwellings is a proxy indicator of the socio- Charcoal 54.1 10.1 30.3
Firewood, straw 25.6 87.4 59.0
economic status of the household as well as Dung 0.0 0.1 0.1
its likely exposure to disease-causing agents. Other 2.3 0.4 1.3
Most households in Ghana (87 percent) have Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
finished floors (terrazzo, tiles, cement, carpet, Disposal of household waste
Collected by government 30.6 0.4 14.2
and linoleum), with only 12 percent of Collected by community assoc. 4.2 3.9 4.0
households having rudimentary or natural Collected by private company 4.8 0.3 2.3
flooring material (earth, sand, mud or mud Dumped in compound 2.5 5.9 4.3
Dumped in street/empty plot 47.3 74.0 61.7
mixed with dung). There has been little Burned 7.7 6.4 7.0
change over the last five years in the Buried 2.5 3.5 3.0
Composted 0.2 5.3 3.0
percentage of households with finished Other 0.2 0.1 0.1
flooring. Rural households are much more Missing 0.1 0.2 0.3
likely to have cement floors (72 percent) than Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
urban households (55 percent). The second Possibility of eviction
Very likely 21.0 4.9 12.3
most common flooring material in rural areas Somewhat likely 20.7 10.9 15.4
is earth, sand, or mud (18 percent). About Not at all likely 56.7 83.6 71.3
Don’t know 1.5 0.6 1.0
one-fifth of urban households have linoleum
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
floors and almost the same proportion have
Member of HIS
carpeted floors. Yes 3.5 2.8 3.1
No 95.9 96.3 96.2
Two common sources of cooking Don’t know 0.6 0.8 0.7
Missing 0.0 0.2 0.1
fuel in the country are firewood (59 percent)
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
and charcoal (30 percent). One in four urban
Number of households 2,870 3,381 6,251
households uses firewood, while 87 percent –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
of rural households depend on firewood as HIS = Health Insurance Scheme
their main source of cooking fuel. On the
other hand, more than 50 percent of urban households use charcoal compared with 10 percent of rural
households. Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) or natural gas is used more commonly by urban households
(15 percent) than households in rural areas (1 percent). However, even in urban areas, few households use
electricity for cooking (1 percent), presumably because of the higher cost.

The GDHS also included questions pertaining to disposal of household waste, possibility of
eviction, and membership in mutual health organisations (MHO) or health insurance schemes (HIS). Data
on these are also shown in Table 2.5. The majority of households (62 percent) dispose of their household
waste in the street or an empty plot, with a much higher proportion of rural households than urban
households disposing of household waste in this manner. Fourteen percent of households have their waste
collected by the government and this is predominantly done in urban areas. Seven percent of households
burn their waste, 4 percent have their waste collected by a community association, 4 percent dump it in
their compound, while 3 percent each bury or compost their household waste.

When asked about the possibility of eviction, most household respondents said that this was not
likely at all (71 percent). Twelve percent of households mentioned that it was very likely that they could

Household Population and Housing Characteristics | 21

 be evicted, while 15 percent of households mentioned that it was somewhat likely. Urban households are
more likely to report that they face possible eviction than rural households. A very small percentage of
households in Ghana (3 percent) belong to an HIS. Among those who belong to an HIS, the majority
belong to an MHO (43 percent) or have government health coverage (20 percent), with 29 percent
belonging to a private health insurance scheme (data not shown). About half of those who belong to any
kind of insurance scheme mentioned that they have benefited from it in the past, and a large majority (91
percent) of those who are not members of an insurance scheme indicate that they would consider joining
one in the future (data not shown).

2.6 HOUSEHOLD DURABLE GOODS

Respondents were asked about ownership of particular household goods such as radios and
television sets (access to media), refrigerators (access to food storage), telephones (access to other means
of communication), and modes of transport (bicycle, motorcycle, car, or truck). Ownership of these items
is also indicative of the household’s social and economic well-being. Table 2.6 presents data on the
percentage of households possessing various durable consumer goods, by residence. The results show that
71 percent of households own a radio, 26 percent have a television, 23 percent have bicycles, and 19
percent own refrigerators. It is striking to note that nearly one in four households possess none of the
durable items identified. There has been a noticeable rise in ownership of consumer durable goods over
the last five years, with the most marked increase in the ownership of refrigerators, which increased from
2 percent in 1998 (GSS and MI, 1999) to 19 percent in 2003.

Table 2.6 Household durable goods

Percentage of households possessing various durable consumer goods,

by residence, Ghana 2003
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Residence
–––––––––––––––––
Durable consumer goods Urban Rural Total
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Radio 76.1 66.6 71.0
Television 44.9 9.9 26.0
Telephone 14.3 0.7 6.9
Refrigerator 34.6 5.5 18.8
Video deck 20.6 2.2 10.6
Bicycle 16.0 29.1 23.1
Motorcycle 2.6 1.7 2.1
Car/truck 9.0 2.4 5.4
Tractor 0.4 0.2 0.3
Horse/cart 0.3 1.4 0.9
None of the above 18.3 27.1 23.1
Number of households 2,870 3,381 6,251

Sixty-seven percent of households in rural areas have a radio. Smaller proportions, however, own
consumer items such as televisions, telephones, refrigerators, and cars. Twenty-nine percent of rural
households own bicycles, compared with 16 percent of urban households. Televisions, refrigerators,
telephones, and cars or trucks are mostly restricted to urban areas, presumably due to the lack of
electricity or affordability in rural areas.

22 | Household Population and Housing Characteristics