Electrical Meters

Galvanometer
• A galvanometer is the
main component in
analog meters for
measuring current and
voltage
• Digital meters are in
common use
– Digital meters operate
under different principles
 Galvanometer
• A galvanometer consists of a coil of wire
mounted so that it is free to rotate on a pivot
in a magnetic field
• The field is provided by permanent magnets
• A torque acts on a current in the presence of a
magnetic field
 Galvanometer
• The torque is proportional to the current
– The larger the current, the greater the torque
– The greater the torque, the larger the rotation of the coil before
the spring resists enough to stop the rotation
• The deflection of a needle attached to the coil is
proportional to the current
• Once calibrated, it can be used to measure currents or
voltages
 Ammeter
• An ammeter is a device that measures current
• The ammeter must be connected in series
with the elements being measured
– The current must pass directly through the
ammeter
 Ammeter in a Circuit
• The ammeter is connected in
series with the elements in
which the current is to be
measured
• Ideally, the ammeter should
have zero resistance so the
current being measured is
not altered
 Ammeter from Galvanometer
• The galvanometer
typically has a resistance
of 60 W
• To minimize the
resistance, a shunt
resistance, Rp, is placed in
parallel with the
galvanometer
 Ammeter
• The value of the shunt resistor must be much less
than the resistance of the galvanometer
– Remember, the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel
will be less than the smallest resistance
• Most of the current will go through the shunt
resistance, this is necessary since the full scale
deflection of the galvanometer is on the order of
1 mA
 Voltmeter
• A voltmeter is a device that measures
potential difference
• The voltmeter must be connected in parallel
with the elements being measured
– The voltage is the same in parallel
 Voltmeter in a Circuit
• The voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the element in
which the potential difference
is to be measured
– Polarity must be observed
• Ideally, the voltmeter should
have infinite resistance so that
no current would pass through
it
– Corrections can be made to
account for the known, non-
infinite, resistance of the
voltmeter
 Voltmeter
• The value of the added resistor must be much
greater than the resistance of the galvanometer
– Remember, the equivalent resistance of resistors in series
will be greater than the largest resistance
• Most of the current will go through the element
being measured, and the galvanometer will not
alter the voltage being measured
Inductance
 Some Terminology
• Use emf and current when they are caused by
batteries or other sources
• Use induced emf and induced current when
they are caused by changing magnetic fields
• When dealing with problems in
electromagnetism, it is important to
distinguish between the two situations
 Self-Inductance
• When the switch is
closed, the current does
not immediately reach its
maximum value
• Faraday’s law can be used
to describe the effect
 Self-Inductance
• As the current increases with time, the
magnetic flux through the circuit loop due to
this current also increases with time
• This increasing flux creates an induced emf in
the circuit
 Self-Inductance
• The direction of the induced emf is such that it
would cause an induced current in the loop
which would establish a magnetic field
opposing the change in the original magnetic
field
• The direction of the induced emf is opposite
the direction of the emf of the battery
• This results in a gradual increase in the current
to its final equilibrium value
 Self-Inductance
• This effect is called self-inductance
– Because the changing flux through the circuit and
the resultant induced emf arise from the circuit
itself
• The emf εL is called a self-induced emf
 Self-Inductance, Equations
• An induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of
change of the current
– The emf is proportional to the flux, which is proportional to the
field and the field is proportional to the current
dI
εL  L
dt
• L is a constant of proportionality called the inductance of
the coil and it depends on the geometry of the coil and
other physical characteristics
 Inductance of a Coil
• A closely spaced coil of N turns carrying
current I has an inductance of
NB εL
L 
I d I dt
• The inductance is a measure of the opposition
to a change in current
 Inductance of a Solenoid
• Assume a uniformly wound solenoid having N
turns and length ℓ
– Assume ℓ is much greater than the radius of the
solenoid
• The flux through each turn of area A is
N
B  BA  μo n I A  μo IA
 Inductance of a Solenoid
• The inductance is
N  B μo N 2 A
L 
I
• This shows that L depends on the geometry of
the object
 RL Circuit, Introduction
• A circuit element that has a large self-
inductance is called an inductor
• The circuit symbol is
• We assume the self-inductance of the rest of
the circuit is negligible compared to the
inductor
– However, even without a coil, a circuit will have
some self-inductance
 Effect of an Inductor in a Circuit
• The inductance results in a back emf
• Therefore, the inductor in a circuit opposes
changes in current in that circuit
– The inductor attempts to keep the current the
same way it was before the change occurred
– The inductor can cause the circuit to be “sluggish”
as it reacts to changes in the voltage
 RL Circuit, Analysis
• An RL circuit contains an
inductor and a resistor
• Assume S2 is connected to a
• When switch S1 is closed (at
time t = 0), the current begins
to increase
• At the same time, a back emf
is induced in the inductor that
opposes the original increasing
current
 RL Circuit, Analysis
• Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the previous
circuit in the clockwise direction gives
dI
ε IR L 0
dt
• Looking at the current, we find
ε
I  1  e Rt L

R
 RL Circuit, Analysis
• The inductor affects the current exponentially
• The current does not instantly increase to its
final equilibrium value
• If there is no inductor, the exponential term
goes to zero and the current would
instantaneously reach its maximum value as
expected
 RL Circuit, Time Constant
• The expression for the current can also be
expressed in terms of the time constant, t, of
the circuit
ε
I
R

1  e t τ 
– where t = L / R
• Physically, t is the time required for the
current to reach 63.2% of its maximum value
 RL Circuit, Current-Time Graph
• The equilibrium value of
the current is e /R and is
reached as t
approaches infinity
• The current initially
increases very rapidly
• The current then
gradually approaches
the equilibrium value
 RL Circuit, Current-Time Graph
• The time rate of change
of the current is a
maximum at t = 0
• It falls off exponentially as
t approaches infinity
• In general,
d I ε t τ
 e
dt L
 RL Circuit Without A Battery
• Now set S2 to position b
• The circuit now contains
just the right hand loop
• The battery has been
eliminated
• The expression for the
current becomes

ε tτ t
I  e  Ii e τ
R
 Energy in a Magnetic Field
• In a circuit with an inductor, the battery must
supply more energy than in a circuit without
an inductor
• Part of the energy supplied by the battery
appears as internal energy in the resistor
• The remaining energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor
 Energy in a Magnetic Field
• Looking at this energy (in terms of rate)
dI
I ε  I R  LI
2

dt
– Ie is the rate at which energy is being supplied by
the battery
– I2R is the rate at which the energy is being
delivered to the resistor
– Therefore, LI (dI/dt) must be the rate at which the
energy is being stored in the magnetic field
 Energy in a Magnetic Field
• Let U denote the energy stored in the inductor
at any time
• The rate at which the energy is stored is
dU dI
 LI
dt dt

• To find the total energy, integrate and

I 1 2
U  L  I d I  LI
0 2
Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
• Given U = ½ L I2 and assume (for simplicity) a solenoid
with L = mo n2 V
2
1  B  B 2
U  μo n 2V    V
2  μo n  2 μo
• Since V is the volume of the solenoid, the magnetic
energy density, uB is
U B2
uB  
V 2μo
• This applies to any region in which a magnetic field exists
(not just the solenoid)
 Energy Storage Summary
• A resistor, inductor and capacitor all store
energy through different mechanisms
– Charged capacitor
• Stores energy as electric potential energy
– Inductor
• When it carries a current, stores energy as magnetic
potential energy
– Resistor
• Energy delivered is transformed into internal energy
 Example: The Coaxial Cable
• Calculate L for the cable
• The total flux is

b μo I
 B   B dA   dr
a 2πr

μo I b
 ln  
2π  a
• Therefore, L is

 B μo b
L  ln  
I 2π  a 
 Mutual Inductance
• The magnetic flux through the area enclosed
by a circuit often varies with time because of
time-varying currents in nearby circuits
• This process is known as mutual induction
because it depends on the interaction of two
circuits
 Mutual Inductance
• The current in coil 1 sets
up a magnetic field
• Some of the magnetic
field lines pass through
coil 2
• Coil 1 has a current I1 and
N1 turns
• Coil 2 has N2 turns
 Mutual Inductance
• The mutual inductance M12 of coil 2 with
respect to coil 1 is
N2 12
M12 
I1
• Mutual inductance depends on the geometry
of both circuits and on their orientation with
respect to each other
Induced emf in Mutual Inductance
• If current I1 varies with time, the emf induced
by coil 1 in coil 2 is
d 12 d I1
ε2  N2  M12
dt dt
• If the current is in coil 2, there is a mutual
inductance M21
• If current 2 varies with time, the emf induced
by coil 2 in coil 1 is
d I2
ε1  M21
dt
 Mutual Inductance
• In mutual induction, the emf induced in one
coil is always proportional to the rate at which
the current in the other coil is changing
• The mutual inductance in one coil is equal to
the mutual inductance in the other coil
– M12 = M21 = M
• The induced emf’s can be expressed as
d I2 d I1
ε1  M and ε2  M
dt dt
 LC Circuits
• A capacitor is connected
to an inductor in an LC
circuit
• Assume the capacitor is
initially charged and then
the switch is closed
• Assume no resistance and
no energy losses to
radiation
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• Under the previous conditions, the current in
the circuit and the charge on the capacitor
oscillate between maximum positive and
negative values
• With zero resistance, no energy is transformed
into internal energy
• Ideally, the oscillations in the circuit persist
indefinitely
– The idealizations are no resistance and no
radiation
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• The capacitor is fully charged
– The energy U in the circuit is stored in the electric
field of the capacitor
– The energy is equal to Q2max / 2C
– The current in the circuit is zero
– No energy is stored in the inductor
• The switch is closed
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• The current is equal to the rate at which the
charge changes on the capacitor
– As the capacitor discharges, the energy stored in
the electric field decreases
– Since there is now a current, some energy is
stored in the magnetic field of the inductor
– Energy is transferred from the electric field to the
magnetic field
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• Eventually, the capacitor becomes fully
discharged
– It stores no energy
– All of the energy is stored in the magnetic field of
the inductor
– The current reaches its maximum value
• The current now decreases in magnitude,
recharging the capacitor with its plates having
opposite their initial polarity
 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
• The capacitor becomes fully charged and the
cycle repeats
• The energy continues to oscillate between the
inductor and the capacitor
• The total energy stored in the LC circuit
remains constant in time and equals
2
Q 1 2
U  UC  UL   LI
2C 2
 LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass
System

• The potential energy ½kx2 stored in the spring is analogous to the

electric potential energy (Qmax)2/(2C) stored in the capacitor
• All the energy is stored in the capacitor at t = 0
• This is analogous to the spring stretched to its amplitude
 LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass
System

• The kinetic energy (½ mv2) of the spring is analogous to the

magnetic energy (½ L I2) stored in the inductor
• At t = ¼ T, all the energy is stored as magnetic energy in the
inductor
• The maximum current occurs in the circuit
• This is analogous to the mass at equilibrium
 LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass
System

• At t = ½ T, the energy in the circuit is completely stored in

the capacitor
• The polarity of the capacitor is reversed
• This is analogous to the spring stretched to -A
 LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass
System

• At t = ¾ T, the energy is again stored in the magnetic field

of the inductor
• This is analogous to the mass again reaching the
equilibrium position
 LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass
System

• At t = T, the cycle is completed

• The conditions return to those identical to the initial conditions
• At other points in the cycle, energy is shared between the electric
and magnetic fields
 Time Functions of an LC Circuit
• In an LC circuit, charge can be expressed as a
function of time
– Q = Qmax cos (ωt + φ)
– This is for an ideal LC circuit
• The angular frequency, ω, of the circuit
depends on the inductance and the
capacitance
– It is the natural frequency of oscillation of the
circuit
ω 1
LC
 Time Functions of an LC Circuit
• The current can be expressed as a function of
time
dQ
I  ωQmax sin(ωt  φ )
dt
• The total energy can be expressed as a
function of time
2
Qmax 1 2
U  UC  UL  cos ωt  LImax sin 2 ωt
2

2c 2
Charge and Current in an LC Circuit

• The charge on the capacitor

oscillates between Qmax and
-Qmax
• The current in the inductor
oscillates between Imax and -
Imax
• Q and I are 90o out of phase
with each other
– So when Q is a maximum, I is
zero, etc.
Energy in an LC Circuit – Graphs
• The energy continually
oscillates between the
energy stored in the
electric and magnetic
fields
• When the total energy is
stored in one field, the
energy stored in the other
field is zero
 The RLC Circuit
• A circuit containing a
resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor is called an RLC
Circuit
• Assume the resistor
represents the total
resistance of the circuit
 RLC Circuit, Analysis
• The total energy is not constant, since there is
a transformation to internal energy in the
resistor at the rate of dU/dt = -I2R
– Radiation losses are still ignored
• The circuit’s operation can be expressed as
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2 R  0
dt dt C
 RLC Circuit Compared to Damped
Oscillators
• The RLC circuit is analogous to a damped
harmonic oscillator
• When R = 0
– The circuit reduces to an LC circuit and is
equivalent to no damping in a mechanical
oscillator
 RLC Circuit Compared to Damped
Oscillators
• When R is small:
– The RLC circuit is analogous to light damping in a
mechanical oscillator
– Q = Qmax e-Rt/2L cos ωdt
– ωd is the angular frequency of oscillation for the
circuit and
1
 1 R   2 2

ωd     
 LC  2L  
 RLC Circuit Compared to Damped
Oscillators
• When R is very large, the oscillations damp out very
rapidly
• There is a critical value of R above which no oscillations
occur

RC  4L / C
• If R = RC, the circuit is said to be critically damped
• When R > RC, the circuit is said to be overdamped
 Damped RLC Circuit, Graph
• The maximum value of Q
decreases after each
oscillation
– R < RC
• This is analogous to the
amplitude of a damped
spring-mass system
Alternating Current Circuit
 AC Circuits
• An AC circuit consists of a combination of
circuit elements and a power source
• The power source provides an alternative
voltage, Dv
• Notation Note
– Lower case symbols will indicate instantaneous
values
– Capital letters will indicate fixed values
 AC Voltage
• The output of an AC power source is
sinusoidal and varies with time according to
the following equation:
– Δv = ΔVmax sin ωt
• Δv is the instantaneous voltage
• ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the source
– Also called the voltage amplitude
• ω is the angular frequency of the AC voltage
 AC Voltage
• The angular frequency is
2π
ω  2π ƒ 
T
– ƒ is the frequency of the
source
– T is the period of the source
• The voltage is positive during
one half of the cycle and
negative during the other half
 Resistors in an AC Circuit
• Consider a circuit consisting
of an AC source and a
resistor
• The AC source is symbolized
by
• ΔvR = DVmax= Vmax sin wt
• ΔvR is the instantaneous
voltage across the resistor
 Resistors in an AC Circuit
• The instantaneous current in the resistor is
DvR DVmax
iR   sin ωt  I max sin ωt
R R
• The instantaneous voltage across the resistor
is also given as
ΔvR = Imax R sin ωt
 Resistors in an AC Circuit
• The graph shows the current
through and the voltage
across the resistor
• The current and the voltage
reach their maximum values
at the same time
• The current and the voltage
are said to be in phase
 Resistors in an AC Circuit
• For a sinusoidal applied voltage, the current in
a resistor is always in phase with the voltage
across the resistor
• The direction of the current has no effect on
the behavior of the resistor
• Resistors behave essentially the same way in
both DC and AC circuits
 Phasor Diagram
• To simplify the analysis of
AC circuits, a graphical
constructor called a
phasor diagram can be
used
• A phasor is a vector
whose length is
proportional to the
maximum value of the
variable it represents
 Phasors
• The vector rotates counterclockwise at an
angular speed equal to the angular frequency
associated with the variable
• The projection of the phasor onto the vertical
axis represents the instantaneous value of the
quantity it represents
 rms Current and Voltage
• The average current in one cycle is zero
• The rms current is the average of importance
in an AC circuit
• rms stands for root mean square
Imax
Irms   0.707 Imax
2

• Alternating voltages can also be discussed in

terms of rms values
DVmax
DVrms   0707
. DVmax
2
 Inductors in an AC Circuit
• Kirchhoff’s loop rule can
be applied and gives:

Dv  Dv L  0 , or
di
Dv  L  0
dt
di
Dv  L  DVmax sin ωt
dt
 Current in an Inductor
• The equation obtained from Kirchhoff's loop rule can be
solved for the current

DVmax DVmax
iL 
L  sin ωt dt  
ωL
cos ωt

DVmax  π DVmax
iL  sin  ωt   I max 
ωL  2 ωL
• This shows that the instantaneous current iL in the
inductor and the instantaneous voltage ΔvL across the
inductor are out of phase by (p/2) rad = 90o
 Phase Relationship of Inductors in
an AC Circuit
• The current is a maximum
when the voltage across the
inductor is zero
– The current is momentarily
not changing
• For a sinusoidal applied
voltage, the current in an
inductor always lags behind
the voltage across the inductor
by 90° (π/2)
Phasor Diagram for an Inductor
• The phasors are at 90o
with respect to each
other
• This represents the phase
difference between the
current and voltage
• Specifically, the current
lags behind the voltage by
90o
 Inductive Reactance
• The factor ωL has the same units as resistance
and is related to current and voltage in the
same way as resistance
• Because ωL depends on the frequency, it
reacts differently, in terms of offering
resistance to current, for different frequencies
• The factor is the inductive reactance and is
given by:
– XL = ωL
 Inductive Reactance
• Current can be expressed in terms of the
inductive reactance
DVmax DVrms
Imax  or Irms 
XL XL
• As the frequency increases, the inductive
reactance increases
– This is consistent with Faraday’s Law:
• The larger the rate of change of the current in the
inductor, the larger the back emf, giving an increase in
the reactance and a decrease in the current
 Voltage Across the Inductor
• The instantaneous voltage across the inductor
is
di
Dv L  L
dt
 DVmax sin ωt
  Imax X L sin ωt
 Capacitors in an AC Circuit
• The circuit contains a
capacitor and an AC
source
• Δv = ΔvC = ΔVmax sin ωt
– Δvc is the instantaneous
voltage across the
capacitor
 Capacitors in an AC Circuit
• The charge is q = CΔVmax sin ωt
• The instantaneous current is given by
dq
iC   ωC DVmax cos ωt
dt
 π
or iC  ωC DVmax sin  ωt  
 2
• The current is p/2 rad = 90o out of phase with
the voltage
 More About Capacitors in an AC
Circuit
• The current reaches its
maximum value one
quarter of a cycle sooner
than the voltage reaches
its maximum value
• The current leads the
voltage by 90o
 Phasor Diagram for Capacitor
• The phasor diagram
shows that for a
sinusoidally applied
voltage, the current
always leads the voltage
across a capacitor by 90o
 Capacitive Reactance
• The maximum current in the circuit occurs at
cos ωt = 1 which gives
DVmax
Imax  ωC DVmax 
(1 / ωC )
• The impeding effect of a capacitor on the
current in an AC circuit is called the capacitive
reactance and is given by
1 DVmax
XC  which gives Imax 
ωC XC
 Voltage Across a Capacitor
• The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor can be
written as ΔvC = ΔVmax sin ωt = Imax XC sin ωt
• As the frequency of the voltage source increases, the
capacitive reactance decreases and the maximum
current increases
• As the frequency approaches zero, XC approaches infinity
and the current approaches zero
– This would act like a DC voltage and the capacitor would act as
an open circuit
 The RLC Series Circuit
• The resistor, inductor, and
capacitor can be
combined in a circuit
• The current and the
voltage in the circuit vary
sinusoidally with time
 The RLC Series Circuit
• The instantaneous voltage would be given by
Δv = ΔVmax sin ωt
• The instantaneous current would be given by i
= Imax sin (ωt - φ)
– φ is the phase angle between the current and the
applied voltage
• Since the elements are in series, the current at
all points in the circuit has the same
amplitude and phase
 i and v Phase Relationships –
Graphical View
• The instantaneous voltage
across the resistor is in phase
with the current
• The instantaneous voltage
across the inductor leads the
current by 90°
• The instantaneous voltage
across the capacitor lags the
current by 90°
 i and v Phase Relationships –
Equations
• The instantaneous voltage across each of the
three circuit elements can be expressed as
Dv R  Imax R sin ωt  DVR sin ωt
 π
Dv L  Imax X L sin  ωt    DVL cos ωt
 2
 π
DvC  Imax X C sin  ωt    DVC cos ωt
 2
 Voltage in RLC Circuits
• ΔVR is the maximum voltage across the resistor and ΔVR
= ImaxR
• ΔVL is the maximum voltage across the inductor and ΔVL
= ImaxXL
• ΔVC is the maximum voltage across the capacitor and
ΔVC = ImaxXC
• The sum of these voltages must equal the voltage from
the AC source
• Because of the different phase relationships with the
current, they cannot be added directly
 Phasor Diagrams

• To account for the different phases of the voltage drops,

vector techniques are used
• The phasors are rotating vectors
• The phasors for the individual elements are shown
 Resulting Phasor Diagram
• The individual phasor
diagrams can be
combined
• Here a single phasor Imax
is used to represent the
current in each element
– In series, the current is the
same in each element
 Vector Addition of the Phasor
Diagram
• Vector addition is used to
combine the voltage
phasors
• ΔVL and ΔVC are in
opposite directions, so
they can be combined
• Their resultant is
perpendicular to ΔVR
 Total Voltage in RLC Circuits
• From the vector diagram, ΔVmax can be
calculated

 
2
DVmax  DV  DVL  DVC
R
2

 ( Imax R )   Imax X L  Imax X C 

2 2

DVmax  Imax R   X L  X C 
2 2
 Impedance
• The current in an RLC circuit is
DVmax DVmax
Imax  
R 2   X L  XC  Z
2

• Z is called the impedance of the circuit and it

plays the role of resistance in the circuit,
where
Z  R   X L  XC 
2 2

– Impedance has units of ohms

 Phase Angle
• The right triangle in the phasor diagram can
be used to find the phase angle, φ
 X  XC 
φ  tan1  L 
 R 
• The phase angle can be positive or negative
and determines the nature of the circuit
 Determining the Nature of the Circuit
• If f is positive
– XL> XC (which occurs at high frequencies)
– The current lags the applied voltage
– The circuit is more inductive than capacitive
• If f is negative
– XL< XC (which occurs at low frequencies)
– The current leads the applied voltage
– The circuit is more capacitive than inductive
• If f is zero
– XL= XC
– The circuit is purely resistive
 Power in an AC Circuit
• The average power delivered by the AC source
is converted to internal energy in the resistor
– av = ½ Imax ΔVmax cos f = IrmsΔVrms cos f
– cos f is called the power factor of the circuit
• We can also find the average power in terms
of R
– av = I2rmsR
 Power in an AC Circuit
• The average power delivered by the source is converted
to internal energy in the resistor
• No power losses are associated with pure capacitors and
pure inductors in an AC circuit
– In a capacitor, during one-half of a cycle, energy is stored and
during the other half the energy is returned to the circuit and no
power losses occur in the capacitor
– In an inductor, the source does work against the back emf of the
inductor and energy is stored in the inductor, but when the
current begins to decrease in the circuit, the energy is returned
to the circuit
 Power and Phase
• The power delivered by an AC circuit depends
on the phase
• Some applications include using capacitors to
shift the phase to heavy motors or other
inductive loads so that excessively high
voltages are not needed
 Resonance in an AC Circuit
• Resonance occurs at the frequency ωo where the current
has its maximum value
– To achieve maximum current, the impedance must have a
minimum value
– This occurs when XL = XC
– Solving for the frequency gives

ωo  1
LC
• The resonance frequency also corresponds to the natural
frequency of oscillation of an LC circuit
 Resonance
• Resonance occurs at the
same frequency regardless of
the value of R
• As R decreases, the curve
becomes narrower and taller
• Theoretically, if R = 0 the
current would be infinite at
resonance
– Real circuits always have
some resistance
 Power as a Function of Frequency

• Power can be expressed as a

function of frequency in an
RLC circuit
 DVrms 
2
Rω2
av 
 
2
R ω L ω ω
2 2 2 2 2
o

• This shows that at resonance,

the average power is a
maximum
 Quality Factor
• The sharpness of the resonance curve is
usually described by a dimensionless
parameter known as the quality factor, Q
• Q = ωo / Δω = (ωoL) / R
– Δω is the width of the curve, measured between
the two values of ω for which avg has half its
maximum value
• These points are called the half-power points
 Quality Factor
• A high-Q circuit responds only
to a narrow range of
frequencies
– Narrow peak
• A low-Q circuit can detect a
much broader range of
frequencies
 Transformers
• An AC transformer
consists of two coils of
wire wound around a
core of iron
• The side connected to the
input AC voltage source is
called the primary and
has N1 turns
 Transformers
• The other side, called the secondary, is
connected to a resistor and has N2 turns
• The core is used to increase the magnetic flux
and to provide a medium for the flux to pass
from one coil to the other
– Eddy-current losses are minimized by using a
laminated core
 Transformers
• Assume an ideal transformer
– One in which the energy losses in the windings
and the core are zero

d B
• In the primary, Dv1  N1
dt

• The rate of change of the flux is the same for

both coils
 Transformers
• The voltage across the secondary is
d B
Dv 2  N2
dt
• The voltages are related by
N2
Dv 2  Dv1
N1
• When N2 > N1, the transformer is referred to as a step-up
transformer
• When N2 < N1, the transformer is referred to as a step-
down transformer
 Transformers
• The power input into the primary equals the
power output at the secondary
– I1ΔV1 = I2ΔV2
• The equivalent resistance of the load
resistance when viewed from the primary is
2
 N1 
Req    RL
 N2 
 Transformers
• A transformer may be used to match
resistances between the primary circuit and
the load
• This way, maximum power transfer can be
achieved between a given power source and
the load resistance
– In stereo terminology, this technique is called
impedance matching
 Rectifier
• The process of converting alternating current
to direct current is called rectification
• A rectifier is the converting device
• The most important element in a rectifier
circuit is the diode
– A diode is a circuit element that conducts current
in one direction but not the other
 Rectifier Circuit

• The arrow on the diode ( ) indicates the direction of

the current in the diode
– The diode has low resistance to current flow in this direction
• Because of the diode, the alternating current in the load
resistor is reduced to the positive portion of the cycle
 Half-Wave Rectifier
• The solid line in the graph
is the result through the
resistor
• It is called a half-wave
rectifier because current
is present in the circuit
during only half of each
cycle
 Half-Wave Rectifier, Modification
• A capacitor can be added to the circuit
• The circuit is now a simple DC power supply
• The time variation in the circuit is close to zero
– It is determined by the RC time constant of the
circuit
– This is represented by the dotted lines in the
previous graph
 Filter Circuit, Example
• A filter circuit is one used to smooth out or
eliminate a time-varying signal
• After rectification, a signal may still contain a
small AC component
– This component is often called a ripple
• By filtering, the ripple can be reduced
• Filters can also be built to respond differently
to different frequencies
 High-Pass Filter
• The circuit shown is one
example of a high-pass
filter
• A high-pass filter is
designed to preferentially
pass signals of higher
frequency and block
lower frequency signals
 High-Pass Filter
• At low frequencies, ΔVout is
much smaller than ΔVin
– At low frequencies, the
capacitor has high reactance
and much of the applied
voltage appears across the
capacitor
• At high frequencies, the two
voltages are equal
– At high frequencies, the
capacitive reactance is small
and the voltage appears
across the resistor
 Low-Pass Filter

• At low frequencies, the reactance and voltage across the

capacitor are high
• As the frequency increases, the reactance and voltage
decrease
• This is an example of a low-pass filter