Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 17

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

DOI 10.1007/s00170-010-2764-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2)


Paradigm shift by mutually determined products and services

Horst Meier & Oliver Völker & Birgit Funke

Received: 19 March 2009 / Accepted: 4 January 2010


# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010

Abstract As Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2) are 1 Introduction


specified by integratedly considered product and service
shares, they represent a new solution-oriented approach for In mechanical engineering and plant design, product-related
delivering value in use to the customer during the whole services are usually considered as an add-on to the actual
life cycle of a product. The article to be launched describes product [1]. However, industrialized countries are subject to
the general approach of Industrial Product-Service Systems a structural change towards a service society, while the
including motivation and definitions. The incorporated industry sector drifts to emerging and developing countries
paradigm shift from leadership in technology to leadership [2]. Companies of the machine tool and plant sector have to
in use enables innovative business models. It is shown how keep their competitiveness by shifting to more service-
a flexible solution space arises from these business models. oriented businesses. To survive, working plants start the
The broad overview of the scientific issues in Industrial tertiarization of the industry sector by means of Industrial
Product-Service Systems is complemented by exemplary Product-Service Systems (IPS2). IPS2 are forcing a new
research results regarding the delivery phase, like modular understanding for business relationships within the
organization and operational resource planning. business-to-business market. They are based upon
product-service systems that can be defined as customer
Keywords Industrial Product-Service Systems . life cycle-oriented combinations of products and services to
Product-service systems . Business models . provide a higher customer value [3–5]. Main stakeholders
Service delivery . Organization of this business relationship are identified as the customer,
the OEM (also known as the IPS2 provider), the suppliers
(IPS2 module, product, and service supplier), and the
society (e.g., government and competitors) with regard to
sustainable and ecological solutions. Industrial Product-
Service Systems especially deal with dynamic interdepen-
dencies of products and services in production. Research
H. Meier (*) : O. Völker : B. Funke
areas cover new concepts and methods which enable the
Institute Product and Service Engineering, machine producers to design the potential services in an
Chair of Production Systems, Ruhr-University Bochum, optimal way, already during the development of the
44780 Bochum, Germany machine. This paradigm shift from the separated consider-
e-mail: meier@lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de
ation of products and services to a new product under-
URL: http://www.lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de
standing consisting of integrated products and services
O. Völker
creates innovation potential to increase the sustainable
e-mail: voelker@lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de
URL: http://www.lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de competitiveness of mechanical engineering and plant
design. The latter allows business models which do not
B. Funke
e-mail: funke@lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de focus on the machine sales but on the use for the customer,
URL: http://www.lps.ruhr-uni-bochum.de e.g., in form of continuously available machines. The
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

business model determines the complexity of delivery ality instead of a comparable product becomes more
processes, while the characteristics of Industrial Product- attractive.
Service Systems allow covering all market demands. All these market demands lead to an increasing
complexity, as several aspects for successful service
offerings (service engineering, service organization, and
2 Motivation ICT support) have to be established on the same level as the
product-specific ones (Fig. 1).
2.1 Motivation for IPS2 in general These demands are met by consequently offering
Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2) with integrated
Already at the end of the 1960s, Theodore Levitt [6] services for all phases of the product life cycle.
made a statement that is still valid for current industrial
applications: “People don't buy products; they buy the 2.2 Paradigm shift: leadership—from technology
expectation of benefits.” The problem of this statement is to use
to measure the expectation of benefit and to gain the
highest profit out of it. A classical product can be Regarding the production of complex high-technology
demonstrated, calculated, and validated by its technical products, it is necessary to achieve a permanent develop-
functionality. If you want to work with Levitt's statement, ment of the existing product and process knowledge in
you have to develop similar methods and tools for this order to retain the advantages in the competition. In the
solution providing. A company has to tear off from the field of highly complex machine tools, this continuous
thinking within its product range. A high customer view development requires the control of the service processes
is essential, and thus a shifting from product sales to and assumes a comprehensive knowledge of the process by
value sales will be realized. With the ending of the mere the supplier. That is only possible if there is a constant
product selling, also the contact phase between the contact to the machines and plants in the operating process.
customer and the OEM will extend to the development At the same time, the enduring development of market
and use phase of the purchased value. With this new shares and the opening of new business fields gaining loyal
business, opportunities will emerge. The OEM will get customers are necessary to exploit these technological
qualitatively better and much more realistic customer advantages.
knowledge about the usage of the sold machines. The The requirements of the mechanical engineering and
after-sales market will vanish into the business relation- plant construction suppliers are linked to the demands of
ship. However, not only will the OEM profit from the the customers for a comprehensive service offer [8]. This
new business but also the customer will get a win-win however results from the effects of the turbulent global
situation. Customers not only request plants of high markets, afflicting the increasing requirements concerning
quality and high technology but also want to be placed in flexibility, quality, delivery dates, and prices. The custom-
a position to operate these plants optimally. ers respond by concentrating on their core competences and
Another aspect of the current industrial situation is tend to outsource secondary tasks. Nevertheless, the use of
focusing more on individual solutions. Capital investments new and even more complex technologies becomes more
for high technology machines and plants are increasing, and and more important for the customer's competitiveness,
the buyers of these machines and plants have the problem whereas the risk to start such a technology can be covered
to deal with higher risks for their return of investment. The by even less customers due to restrictions regarding capital
solutions providing with its focusing on the value provision lock-up and knowledge.
will also change this situation to a risk sharing between the These tasks on customers and suppliers side can both be
customer and the OEM. This can be both opportunity and met by the supplier's development from leadership in
danger for the industrial collaboration. technology to leadership in use (Fig. 2). The use orientation
Furthermore, the changing markets shift the focus as a system solution in the sense of an integrated offer of
towards sustainability; eco-efficiency has been declared as Industrial Product-Service Systems enables the supplier a
the guiding principle to decrease environmental damages life-cycle-spanning contact to his machines and thus the
[7]. New objectives in production industries, allowing option to optimize them. In the context of innovative
maximal use with minimal resource consumption, compete business models, the suppliers undertake more and more
with traditional economical models like economies of scale. responsibility for individual process steps up to the
In the economic dimension, sustainable development can be responsibility for the complete operation of a plant. The
achieved in increased economic competitiveness by selling customers are therefore freed from the control of the highly
functionality instead of selling products. If functionality can complex processes and are able to focus on their actual core
be provided at competitive prices, purchasing the function- competences.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Increase of complexity Customer expects


of capital goods efficient support for the
(high tech machine tools) complete life-cycle
(outsourcing)
Life cycle Modularization/
configuration
Lower capital commitment
Qualification
e-Business Multimedia (Basel 2)
e-learning
Process Initial start-up
administration
Consequent use of Availability Dynamic market changes
Calculation of risks
I&C technologies guarantee (risk sharing)
Continuous increase of
productivity
Planning/
Expansion of Ramp-up simulation
Real time
service Develop new markets with
Consulting on
offers low educated personal
demand
(globalization)
Establishing Outsourcing
Industrial service service
engineering organization Acceptance
inspection
Replacement part logistics

Fig. 1 Modified market environment leads to new customer demands

2.3 Related research it specially focuses on customer needs and the effects of
customer orientation, e.g., by selling more and better services
There is several research going on in fields more or less [9, 10]. Thereupon, the concept of service-dominant logic
similar to IPS2. Some of this research is concentrating on a evolved also from the marketing perspective, stating that
specific problem or it results from differing viewpoints of customers mainly create value through service experiences
different research disciplines and areas. and relationships [11, 12].
The customer value view was primarily brought to The concept of product-service systems considers the
consideration by marketing researchers when facing the integration of products and services to enable new business
challenges of changing markets and upcoming globalization; models aiming to fulfill customer needs [5, 13–18]. It has a

Fig. 2 Paradigm shift from


leadership in technology to dissatisfaction of the consumer
leadership in use by not controllable level of
technology

Motivation for the OEM: Motivation for the customer


• rise of customer loyalty • focusing on core competences
• opening of new business fields • to make new technologies accessible
• development of market shares • reduction of capital lock-up
• information about the use of its products to
create innovations
Challenge for the OEM: Challenge for the customer:
• create new business models • to evaluate chances and risks
• to identify and evaluate chances and risks • identification of core competencies
• development of service processes • to calculate own processes
• industrialization and automation of services • openness to the supplier:
• new understanding of products: new • transparent processes
• innovative product-service-systems service-based • organization
• suitable development processes business • Internet (remote service)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

broad view on products and services and includes B2C- own survey among the companies involved in the joint
markets. It is most common in Asian and European project Ogemo.net (Optimum Business Models for Product
engineering. Service Systems in Cooperative Time Value Networks), the
The term servitization of products was first referred to in highest relevance of services is awarded to the utilization
the management literature [19] and is sometimes also used phase within the product life cycle [35]. According to this,
as a synonym for product-service systems or integrated most of the services are related to this phase. Concerning
product and service offering (see below). The related service-oriented business models, it could be shown that a
servicification concept also focuses on the enhancement dynamic service level over the life cycle helps to evaluate
of products by adding services while considering more the the total cost of ownership more precisely while reducing
service-engineering approaches [20, 21]. the failure rates of the plants especially in the early and late
The concept of integrated product and service offering phases [36].
views from a life cycle perspective and aims to offer a Currently, the enterprises focus on function-oriented
solution with a combination of products and services that business models (see next section), but some of them have
satisfies an identified customer need. The related functional realized the need in change [37].
sales concept includes the perspective of environmental In the mechanical engineering and plant construction
impacts. The connected concepts of integrated product and industry, product-related services are usually seen as add-
service engineering as well as functional product develop- ons to the actual product [1]. An inefficient orientation
ment focus on creating a method for developing those towards the real customer use, due to the employee's lack of
integrated product and service offering/functional sales. These experience, and the strict aim to fulfill all customer
concepts are mainly discussed in Sweden and Japan [22–26]. requirements led to a high number of special, customer-
Life cycle engineering, life cycle assessment, EcoDesign, individual solutions while clearly increasing the costs.
design for environment and many related concepts focus on Therefore, the product-accompanying approach is no longer
sustainability and how to develop, e.g., energy-efficient targeting and will be replaced by an integrated view
products, whereas in recent years, they tend to incorporate focusing on customer use. This paradigm shift from the
service-related concepts (e.g., intelligent maintenance) to separated view of products and services to a new product
reach these aims [27–31]. understanding (Fig. 3) consisting of Industrial Product-
Service Systems establishes innovation potential to increase
2.4 History and industrial context the competitiveness of the supplier. It also enables business
models where the customer use, e.g., a highly available
For some years now, there has been the knowledge in the machine, and not the selling of the machine itself is in the
field of German mechanical and plant engineering that the focus.
future success of the individual companies is linked Industrial Product-Service Systems thus represent a
decisively to the product-accompanying services. A large paradigm shift in the definition of service performance in
number of enterprises will give this statement, and it is also mechanical engineering due to the integrated observation of
supported by surveys [32–34]. Thus, the strong relevance tangible and intangible goods [38]. By focusing on the
of product-accompanying services is obvious. Proven by customer use, what justifies the increasing meaning of

Fig. 3 History of Industrial


Product-Service Systems
Past Today Future
“Service Products” “Extended Products” “Industrial Product-
Independent service Machine oriented service Service Systems”
development development
(out of engineering department) (in the engineering department)
Simultaneous and
interfering product and
service engineering

S P
S
P P
S S P
P S
S P
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

industrial services [39], Industrial Product-Service Systems – IPS2 is a new product understanding consisting of
enable innovative customer–supplier relationships and new integrated product and service shares.
business models. – IPS2 comprises the integrated and mutually determined
planning, development, provision, and use.
– IPS2 includes the dynamic adoption of changing
3 Definitions customer demands and provider abilities.
– The partial substitution of product and service shares
3.1 Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2) over the life cycle is possible.
– This integrated understanding leads to new, customer-
“An Industrial Product-Service System is characterized adjusted solutions.
by the integrated and mutually determined planning, – IPS2 enables innovative function-, availability-, or
development, provision and use of product and service result-oriented business models.
shares including its immanent software components in
Business-to-Business applications and represents a
3.2 Business models
knowledge-intensive socio-technical system” [38]. Indus-
trial Product-Service Systems apply only in business-to-
A business model can be described by use model,
business applications and represent a socio-technical
architecture of value creation, and turn over model (Fig. 4)
system due to the interdependencies between the imma-
[42, 43]. Depending on the individual use model, an
nent product and service shares and the involved
adjusted concept of the sub-processes is necessary: Due to
persons. During the delivery phase, the service shares
the consequent orientation of the service offer towards the
of Industrial Product-Service Systems are provided over
individual customer use, the supplier takes over more and
the whole life cycle to enhance customer value [40, 41].
more tasks which have been executed by the customer
In distinction to product-service systems, the integrated
before. The customer–supplier relation is thus changed
development of the mutually determined product and
from a supplier–buyer relation to an integrative cooperation
service shares is essential for Industrial Product-Service
[8], where the established division between supplier and
Systems; an exact separation between product and service
customer blurs more or less, depending on the specifica-
is no longer possible.
tions of the use model. The innovative product understand-
This means in detail that
ing of Industrial Product-Service Systems with shares of
– An IPS2 is an integrated product and service offering tangible and intangible goods of course affects the
that delivers values in industrial applications. development process of the service offer but furthermore

Fig. 4 Business models for


IPS2 (based on [42])
Customer
IPS2- use models
value
function- availability- result-
oriented oriented oriented

Architecture occurrence of IPS 2


of value product service
creation P S

Processes

IPS2 product
model

Objects
(Resources)

OEM Supplier Customer

Turn over pay on pay on


pay on order availability production
model
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

leads to completely modified requirements towards the machine (e.g., availability and produced good parts). The
service provision process. machine is either possessed by the customer or the supplier,
The architecture of value creation includes the Industrial depending on the selected business model and the
Product-Service Systems itself with its shares of tangible corresponding turn over model.
and intangible goods as well as the supplier network, which
executes the value creation processes. An Industrial 3.3 Specification of innovative use models
Product-Service System in the context of a function-
oriented use model comprises, e.g., a maintenance contract, Industrial Product-Service Systems are individualized,
in order to provide the functionality for an agreed period of customer-oriented configurations of products and services,
time. In case of an availability-oriented use model, the which affect each other due to their integrated development
usability of the production means it is guaranteed too. For and provision [38]. Innovative and flexible business
the first time now, the supplier takes over business models, which describe the design of the customer–supplier
processes of the customer in personal responsibility, e.g., relation, are based on these dynamic systems. It can be
maintenance or preventative maintenance, and therefore varied between function-, availability-, and result-oriented
bears a part of the product risk. In a result-oriented use use models [44]. The different types of business models are
model, the responsibility of the production result is connected to varying configurations of IPS2 occurring in
transferred to the supplier, as the customers only pay for the range of products and services.
faultless parts. The ability to reconfigure an Industrial A function-oriented use model includes, e.g., a mainte-
Product-Service System is absolutely necessary in the nance contract in order to guarantee the functionality for an
context of a result-oriented use model, as the supplier has agreed period of time. In an availability-oriented use model,
taken over the responsibility for production and thereby the usability of the means of production is also guaranteed.
also takes over the risks caused by fluctuations of required For the first time, the supplier takes over business processes
units. This risk can be avoided by contracted production of the customer as his own responsibility and thus bears a
numbers; it leads, however, to a considerable reduction of part of the production risk. In a result-oriented use model,
customer flexibility and thus, in many cases, to a failure of the complete responsibility of the production result is
result-oriented business models. transferred to the supplier, as the customer pays for the
Industrial Product-Service Systems are paid by the faultlessly produced parts only. The individual business
customer in various ways in the context of specific turn models can be differentiated further by the following
over models, depending on the type of use model selected. criteria (Fig. 5):
The complete range of turn over models is possible, from
the classical purchase of a machine with a supplementary Production responsibility: The supplier takes over the
service contract (e.g., maintenance contract) plus individual responsibility for the production processes on the
service orders which are invoiced separately, up to customer’s side in the context of a result-oriented use
periodical payments depending on defined results of the model. This responsibility remains with the individual

Fig. 5 Specification of innova-


tive use models (based on [44]) Function Availability Result
oriented oriented oriented

Production
Customer Customer Supplier
responsibility

Supply of operating
Customer Customer Supplier
personnel

Service initiative Customer Supplier Supplier

Supply of maintenance Customer/


Supplier Supplier
personnel Supplier

Pay on service Pay on Pay on


Turn over model
order availability production
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

customer in the function- and availability-oriented use & Stimulation of the innovation capability
models. & Know how feedback.
Supply of operating personnel: The operating person-
Within the scope of the collaborative research project SFB/
nel for the machines will be provided by the supplier in
TR29, the mentioned main challenges are concretized (Fig. 6).
case of a result-oriented use model. Otherwise, the
The extensive change of all customer–supplier processes
customer is responsible for the operation of the
according to the IPS2 approach thus enables significant
machine and thus for the operating personnel.
innovation, optimum customer orientation, measurably re-
Service initiative: This specifies if a service process is
duced time-to-market, as well as considerable cost reduction.
executed on the initiative of the customer of the supplier.
Therefore, the methodical and systematic background of
Supply of maintenance personnel: The maintenance
the innovative product understanding has to be supported
personnel for Industrial Product-Service Systems is
by new scientific results regarding all phases of the IPS2
provided by the supplier in the availability- and result-
life cycle, whereas the engineering sciences are in the
oriented use models. In case of a function-oriented use
focus, complemented by economic and social issues.
model, the customer is responsible for the maintenance
The IPS2 approach therefore has to establish a life cycle
of the machine and thus the supply of the appropriate
spanning procedure to achieve higher performance and
personnel, but it can be purchased from the supplier for
increased supplier mutability at the same time.
an agreed payment if the customer orders an additional
New opportunities are driven out of the IPS2 providing.
service.
The interdependent bundle of products and services of the
Turn over model: Referring to the different use models,
IPS2 generates a greater value for the customer. Not like the
the three turn over models (pay on service order, pay on
normal product offering with its defined functionality, the
availability, and pay on production), can be distinguished.
IPS2 includes a greater variety of functions and therefore a
higher value. It is developed as an integrated solution, and
thus the customer should not be able to separate parts of the
3.4 Scientific fields of action
IPS2 to get them from another supplier. Third, the custom-
ization of the IPS2 makes it difficult for the customer to
The shown paradigm shift of Industrial Product-Service
compare it with another offered solution [45]. Providing such
Systems raises new scientific issues over the entire life
an individual solution is a great challenge of current
cycle:
organizations. Further on, new ways for measuring the prize
& Rising complexity of processes by customer integration limit of an IPS2 have to be established, and the information
& Interdisciplinary issues and telecommunication technology have to be used to work
& Knowledge management efficiently [46, 47].

Fig. 6 Scientific fields of action


of the SFB/TR 29 project
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

4 Flexible solution space depending on the business 4.1 Degree of automation


model
In the context of Industrial Product-Service Systems, a
It is the aim of the classical product development to difference has to be made in the degree of automation
limit the solution space for a customer demand with the between the automation of the service process and the
help of function-, concept-, and product modeling automation of the industrial product-service module. Ser-
gradually, until a singular solution is available. The vice processes as well as industrial product-service modules
development of Industrial Product-Service Systems can can be divided into manual, semi-automated, and automat-
be characterized by the fact that a dynamic use by the ed services, respectively industrial product-service mod-
customer, within specifically defined parameters, is to ules, depending on the degree of automation of the
be realized. Therefore, it is not the main aim to reduce provision process.
the solution space to just one solution [48]. The solution While the division is maintained between a service
space, in fact, needs to be created by a large number of provider and a service receiver in the automation of a
solution clusters, in which the Industrial Product-Service service, the automation of an industrial product-service
System can be used in various operation units (Fig. 7). module leads to the integration of service provider and
The solution space is also necessary to react on the service receiver, while an identical service result is
continuously changing customer requirements and pro- available, based on a functionality of goods.
vider abilities. Within the two identified parameters, staff We use the example of the collection of performance
qualification and degree of automation, different options data of machine tools as a service offer by an external
can be created for the IPS2 business models. The white service provider. The data can either be collected manually
space shows the flexibility of the IPS2 product model. on-site by an employee, who determines the data with the
Although, switching between different solution spaces is help of a measurement device, or semi-automated when the
also possible with Industrial Product-Service Systems. employee reads the data off a meter or via a TeleService-
An IPS2 product model has the flexibility to work with Modul, which reads the appropriate data automatically out
the dynamic changes over the life cycle without the of the machine control.
necessity to design a new IPS2. A long-time use of the In all three cases, there is the difference between the
IPS2 product model in the delivery and use phase can be service provider (employee, respectively TeleService-
guaranteed. Modul) and the service receiver (machine tool of the
Furthermore, it can also be necessary that the customer). In the context of the automation of an industrial
modification of the use model and a variation of the product-service module, we have a different situation, as
combination of the industrial product-service modules there is no division between service provider and service
may lead to the transfer of an Industrial Product-Service receiver. Manual processes of industrial product-service
System into another solution cluster. The setting of the modules are carried out by an accordingly qualified
solution space in the context of the design of an employee without supporting IT-systems. A semi-
Industrial Product-Service System based on the concept automated process is carried out by an employee, who is
model takes place with the help of the variation of the supported by IT-systems which are available either as an
parameters “degree of automation,” “use model,” (see external system communicating with the Industrial Product-
Section 3.3) and “staff qualification,” which will be Service System or are directly available through the
explained as follows. Industrial Product-Service System (e.g., through control).

Fig. 7 Solution space (based on


[48])
Staff qualification

P S

P S

P S

Degree of automation
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

An automated process is carried out without any involve- classification of the sub-processes is no aim, the observed
ment by an employee and is therefore carried out self- qualification levels are limited to three stages for the
sufficiently by the Industrial Product-Service System, i.e., determination of the specifications of the sub-processes:
the division between service provider and service receiver
Expert His qualification is in the field of
is eliminated. This leads to the phenomenon that an
analytical and methodological
automated service processes is transforming into a technical
competence. An expert is able to solve
functionality of the IPS2 itself and could no longer be
new problems in his field of action
identified as a traditional service. Depending on the given
without any help, and he is also able to
degree of automation of the provision process, the ratio of
communicate these results to a third
tangible and intangible goods varies within the Industrial
person in a structured form.
Product-Service System, representing a partial substitution
Service- They are able to carry out standard
of tangible and intangible goods.
employees processes without any failures, as long as
they are experienced with these processes.
4.2 Staff qualification
Otherwise, they need support in form of
appropriate documents of experts.
The qualification of the employees who execute the service
Unskilled They have a low degree of qualification
processes is, due to the direct contact to the customer
employees and can therefore execute simple routine
companies, one of the most important factors, influencing
processes only or support complex service
the customer's satisfaction with the service process,
processes. Services with high
respectively process result. It is nearly impossible to differ
requirements concerning the analytical or
between service process and employee action [49]. There-
methodological competence cannot be
fore, a service will only fulfill the expectation of a customer
executed by unskilled employees, even
if the qualification of the employee fulfills this expectation
with the help of an expert.
too [50]. The qualification of an employee is made up of
three components: “knowledge,” “ability,” and “willpow-
er,” the first two describing criteria in the closer sense and
4.3 Characteristics of the sub-processes
latter describing the motivation [50].
The solution space is set by the employee's qualification,
The solution cluster within a solution space is determined
as the sub-processes are designed differently for various
by variations of defined sub-processes with the help of
qualification levels (e.g., by expert support or a detailed
the three parameters of the solution space “degree of
description of individual process steps); other requirements
automation,” “use model,” and “staff qualification.”
are made according the resources for employee support
Theoretically, the result is a 3×3×3 matrix with 27
(documentation, instruction for action, augmented reality,
different sub-process specifications (Fig. 8). The combi-
and shared vision system), and the attributes have to be set
nation of an “automated service process” with the
differently concerning the execution time and costs. Due to
“qualification level” leads to one sub-process specifica-
the heterogeneity of the services which have to be
developed in an Industrial Product-Service System, there
use model

are a large number of different requirement categories; their


degree of optimization is weighted depending on the type
of service and specifies the qualification level. These
categories are listed as follows:
oriented
result-

proper
& Social competence, e.g., interaction with customers or solution
colleagues manner cluster
& Analytical competence, e.g., error identification or
availability-
oriented

process optimization
& Method competence, e.g., methods for the planning of
material flow
&
function-

Technological competence, e.g., expert knowledge in


oriented

one industrial sector


& Technical competence, e.g., technical skills
automated semi- manual degree of automation
automated
As the solution space increases exponentially to the
relevant parameters and their classification and a precise Fig. 8 Solution cluster [48]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

tion, as the automated process takes place without any The critical factor for a successful service execution
employee involved. Finally, the attributes and resources however is indicated in the resources linked with the
for each sub-process specification will be allocated with services, as achieving the necessary availability is based on
data, and the sub-processes of all types of services linked them. Those resources imply much planning work that has
in the target systems will be checked on consistency to be considered not only in the phase of service delivery
concerning the phrasing of the target. but already in the phase of service design as well.

5.2 IPS2 network as an organizational structure


5 Exemplary approaches
The organizational structure deals with the formal structur-
Within the following sections exemplarily, the approaches ing of enterprises. It defines workflow connections between
for the delivery and use phase will be shown, referring to the organizational units to manage corporate duties [55].
the IPS2 specific organizational and planning problems. The organizational structure is parted into the task
These approaches are excerpts from the Collaborative structuring, creation of organizational units (vacancies and
Research Project SFB/TR 29 on “Product-Service- departments), and the instruction and information flows
Systems—dynamic interdependency of products and serv- between the units. A traditional operational organization
ices in the production area.” They are supported by the describes the production procedure, sequence, times, and
results of the industrial projects “Optimum Business steps. The transport of information and products for the
Models for Product Service Systems in Cooperative Time order handling and the definition of working places are
Value Networks” (Ogemo.net) [51], “Develop Technology parts of the operational organization. This generally con-
Advantages in German-Chinese Cooperation” (Co- trols the normal business processes to guarantee a similar
Service) [52], and “Innovative Product-Related Services and efficient acting.
in Customer-Supplier-Networks” (INVEST-S) [53]. For the design of an organizational structure for
Industrial Product-Service Systems, the question of the
5.1 IPS2 delivery and use phase right allocation of competences and decisions is very
important. This will be described as the centralized and
The offering of Industrial Product-Service Systems with decentralized partition. The term centralized means the
dynamic interdependency of products and services in the allocation of personal and competences on one place of the
production area is transforming the traditional definition of company. Instead of the geographical allocation of personal
organization into a new form of relationship between the and resources near the operation site, that is meant by
customer and the providing company [38]. IPS2 solutions decentralized organization.
are designed flexibly in regard to possible changes of For the delivery and use phase of the IPS2 life cycle,
individual customer needs and requirements during the use questions about the partition of the provision tasks are in
phase [54]. focus. This includes the partition inside one company and
The change to new kinds of business models requires the possibility to outsource the provision tasks to external
reorganization and reorientation within the enterprises [52]. suppliers.
An organization for IPS2 consists of competences out of A general and for all situations suitable organizational
production and service industries. To be competitive, an structure is not possible because of the very heteroge-
IPS2 provider has to combine his and external competences neous customer and provider situations [56]. A best
to get the best fitting solution. The organizational challenge fitting organization for a manufacturer of customer-
lies within keeping the guarantee for sustainability and individual products could be different from an organiza-
availability over the life cycle. Limited resources, market tion for a manufacturer of customer-independent volume
demands, changing customer requirements and continuous products. Presently, the service development is suffering
improvement with gained use knowledge are influences from a lack of adequate tools and methods for improving
that have an effect on the organizational structure and the the standardization of the service processes. One approach
process workflows. The influences are dynamic, and thus to improve the service delivery is to combine several
the organization has to cope with this dynamics; an IPS2 company individual processes into one flexible network
provider is characterized by a flexible and dynamical process including every part of the service delivery chain
structure. [57, 58]. Task-oriented ad hoc cooperation of IPS2
With respect to the intangible service shares, which providers and network partners demands for a cooperative
provide a value to the customer via the complete life cycle, organizational and operational structure alongside with
the planning of service processes along the entire life cycle service business models and a modular service system
gains importance. [59].
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Thus, the delivery organization of an IPS2 is always a IPS2 provider The IPS2 provider bears the business
network organization. Minimum, the customer and the IPS2 relationship with the customer, and every communication
provider are working together to achieve the most value is between the customer and the provider. The delivery
from the IPS2. Additional suppliers can be used to compete flow from the IPS2 provider goes directly to the customer
with the problems of limited resources and the need for and includes the main parts of the IPS2. The IPS2 provider
high competences of the IPS2 technology. takes all risk of the IPS2. Therefore, all necessary
The supply chains of IPS 2 describe the extra- coordination is demanded from the IPS2 provider. Parts
organizational structure to manage the delivery of IPS2 of the IPS2 can be outsourced to IPS2 module, component,
during its life cycle. The supplier of the IPS2 has to manage or service suppliers.
many different and complex processes during a long period
of time. The characteristic of the IPS2 to provide a problem IPS2 module supplier The IPS2 module supplier is respon-
solution and not a given functionality in the form of a sible for a specific part of the IPS2. Therefore, he delivers the
product leads to the demand that more than one company processes himself, or optional with offering parts of it to sub-
has to join the network to fulfill all necessities (Fig. 9). suppliers, over the life cycle. The components or the services
Interviews with possible customers have shown that the can be either delivered to the IPS2 provider or the customer.
outsourcing of IPS2 components is not of particular The IPS2 module supplier shares a part of the risk, and he
importance, provided that one contact person is constantly can manage all necessary processes without coordination by
available for the customer [60]. Thus, the supply chain in the IPS2 provider.
the meaning of an IPS2 organizational structure can
implement a flexible using of suppliers for the processes Component supplier The component supplier delivers a
in the delivery phase. tangible part, a component of IPS2, to the IPS2 provider.
This approach shows the typology of the service supply This supplier does not have the prefix IPS2 and is therefore
chain with the context of delivery and communication not responsible for delivering the component over the life
flows. Figure 10 shows the relations and the main elements cycle.
of the IPS2 supply chain. It consists of the customer of the
IPS2 and hence the IPS2 itself, the IPS2 provider, IPS2 Service supplier This supplier delivers service-related parts
module suppliers, component suppliers, and service suppli- of IPS2. This could be a service share for which the service
ers [61]. In the following, the different elements will be supplier has technological expertise. Thus, the character-
detailed. istics of services and IPS2 make it necessary that the service
flows directly to the customer.
Customer The customer is the receiver of the IPS2. He buys
the IPS2 from the IPS2 provider, and his requirements have The problems have shown that there is a need for a new
to be recognized in the IPS2 development and organization. kind of organizational structure. The high dynamic of the
Depending on the optimal solution for the IPS2, the IPS2 in the supply phase and the necessary flexibility have
customer pays for the delivered function or the availability to be considered. Traditional organizational structures are
or the output. The resources of the customer can be influenced by hierarchic structures. Within an organization-
embedded in the delivery processes. al structure, the tasks of the company are divided in partial

Fig. 9 Network decisions for Substitution Core Competence Customer


IPS2 organizations Supplier A
Core Competence Supplier A
Core Competence IPS 2 Provider
IPS 2 Provider
Supplier A

Customer

Substitution between
Supplier A or B

Supplier B IPS 2 Product Model


Substitution
Core Competence Supplier B Supplier B
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

IPS2 Module Customer service Share A modular organization unit is described with its name, the
responsible process, the necessary resources, and attributes.
IPS2 The process is part of the IPS2 model and has to be
product IPS2 module/ generated out of it. Therefore, all processes are divided up
share component/service to manageable size, and afterwards, they have to be
assigned to the organizational units. Figure 11 shows the
IPS2 structure of a modular organization unit for IPS2.
Provider Every organizational unit needs necessary resources and
attributes out of their process description. Afterwards, a
product suitable organization unit owner out of the network partners
share has to be found. This can either be the customer, the IPS2
IPS≤
IPS2 provider, or a supplier out of the IPS2 network. If more than
Component Service one organization unit owner are possible, a pool with all
Module
Supplier Supplier options is generated.
Supplier
In addition to the linking of the IPS2 product model with
Legend: the organization unit, there is also a linking with the IPS2
Delivery flow Communication metainformation model to get access to the delivery and
Network boundary usage knowledge. The IPS2 metainformation model is a
Fig. 10 Typology IPS2 network organization central product data management system for all IPS2 life
cycle data. To work with the organization units and to
create an organizational structure, two layers are imple-
tasks that are allocated in different organizational units. In mented. The event layer is for the process control and all
their granular form, the organizational units are called jobs. actions belonging to workflows during the delivery phase.
Every job has its tasks and is filled by one person. The The information gateway is implemented for supporting the
hierarchic structures are influenced by a clear task process owner with required information. In this gateway,
assignment und defined managerial authority. In contrast the process will be scanned for missing information to
to that, there are efforts to break out of these structures in execute the process. Every process and every organization
order to enable organization by self-organization. unit needs special knowledge for the right decision. The
The hierarchic organization and the self-organization are missing information will be requested from the IPS2
not appropriate for IPS2 organizations. The hierarchic
organization is suitable for an efficient supply of products
Customer IPS 2 Provider Supplier
and services and for an optimization concerning costs, time,
Organization Organization Organization
and quality during the supply phase. However, this
Unit Unit Unit
organizational structure is inflexible regarding changes. In
the section above, the dynamic of IPS2 is described that
happens anyway because of long-term contracts. This assigned
dynamic cannot be handled efficiently by a hierarchic Modular Organization Unit
system. An approach for the IPS2 organizational structure is (MOU)
described as follows. Because of the modular configuration Prior Subsequent
of the IPS2, a modular organization needs to be considered MOU Identifier MOU
[62]. It is based on modular organization units that can Process (Attributes)
handle changes and influences autonomously. Resources (Attributes)
There are existing approaches for a modular organization
linked

linked

design especially for product development [62, 63]. Event Layer


However, a modular organization for the delivery phase
for a collaboration network for Industrial Product-Service Information Gateway
Systems was not invented yet.

5.3 Organization unit IPS 2 Delivery and


product usage
model Interacting MOU knowledge
To create a modular organization, basic elements are
Legend: Synchronization Interfaces
needed. These elements are the smallest part in the
organizational structure—normally the organizational unit. Fig. 11 Concept of a modular organization unit
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

metainformation model, and after the process execution, it whereas flexibility and real-time capability can be reached
will provide the new information back to the IPS2 while allowing high work load (Fig. 12).
metainformation model. Due to the life cycle spanning contact to the customer,
The event layer has five different subjects: high quality statistics about machine history, customer
history, and the related service executions are available.
& Initiation of the delivery process (continuous stand-by)
Combined with the integrated development of products and
& Update of resources, attributes, and processes
services, this enables effective prediction of service
& Substitution
processes (stochastic/statistic) instead of reacting on ma-
& Monitoring of resource availability
chine failures. Furthermore, the IPS2 business models with
& Execution of the delivery process.
their specific variances (see next section) provide the
Workflows can be created with the synchronization possibility to plan service processes for a specific date, as
points of the modular organization units. Therefore, every long as the customer value (e.g., an agreed availability) is
unit has three different kinds of synchronization points. One kept on the required level.
synchronization point is for connecting with prior organi- Another great impact of IPS2 on the planning's com-
zation units, one for the following units, and one for plexity is their dynamic behavior over the life cycle: Within
parallel acting units. So, a process orientation in the the designed solution space (see Section 4), the occurrence
organizational structure is generated. of an IPS2 can change over time due to changing customer
demands and provider abilities, what of cause also changes
5.4 Resource planning instead of process planning the processes to be executed during the use phase.
All required resources for all these processes have to be
Due to the integrated development of an Industrial Product- analyzed, planned, and optimized. A process in this context
Service System, the product core as well as further products means every action to be done by the provider, e.g., the
and services are designed in advance. Concerning the execution of a service process as well as the delivery of a
service planning for Industrial Product-Service Systems, it spare part or sending a software update. A resource means
was shown that characteristic service scenarios improve the all required machines, material, personnel, tools, etc.
predictability of services within value-generating networks In the first planning step, all the single resource needs
[64]. The continuous optimization of service processes are analyzed and combined the best way, e.g., regarding
during their repeated execution (ramp up) allows faster and transition times. Combining the resource needs means not
cheaper service execution overall; depending on the only simple summing: All customer-specific restraints of all
number of installed IPS2, also the knowledge increases processes as well as their relevant data have to be carried
over the use phase. Based on this operating experience, the along [65]. Furthermore, the IPS2 specifics (see next
service delivery can evolve from randomness to planning, section) have to be considered.

Fig. 12 From randomness to


planning Decision based Process 3
on certainty Process 2
(deterministic)
Process 1
time
2
IPS business models

Decision based Process 3


on uncertainty Process 2
(stochastic/statistic)
Process 1
time
Optimization
Machine during IPS 2 Customer
history delivery history
phase
Unscheduled Request Delivery
Decision based Process 2 Delay
on incalculability Unscheduled
Process 1
(unexpected)
Reserve
time
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

The scheduling at this step is based on several travelling The allocation time can be varied by making the
salesman problems, and the transition times can be reduced technician or the spare part use different means of
by using algorithms specialized therefore. However, there transportation, i.e. drive by car or use a plane.
are several resources and several processes at several Service distribution is the outsourcing of certain service
places, what implies inner constraints due to the structure processes within the network; it is a specific variance, as
of all Industrial Product-Service Systems to be planned. Industrial Product-Service Systems are highly complex and
will be offerable in networks only.
5.4.1 Specific variances of IPS2's usable within planning The partial substitution of product and service shares
is a major characteristic of Industrial Product-Service
Industrial Product-Service Systems are especially characterized Systems, as the only aim is to fulfill the customers'
by delivering value and fulfilling customer demands without requests independent from a certain combination of
stating clearly with exactly what combination of products and products and services; from the planning's point of view,
services this is done. Thus, Industrial Product-Service Systems this variance is only a special type of the variance in
imply some specific variances [66]; the main ones are processes, as the processes to be planned as well as the
required resources vary with the chosen product-service
& Variance in time,
combination.
& Variance of resources,
Another degree of freedom is the possibility of using
& Variance of processes,
customer's resources, e.g., maintenance personnel; this
& Variance of allocation time,
appears due to the high level of collaboration associated
& Service distribution,
with Industrial Product-Service Systems.
& Partial substitution of product and service shares, and
When starting the planning, all process-resource
& Integration of customers’ resources.
combinations are chosen best regarding costs etc., so
The variance in time describes the possibility to reducing transition times is the main possibility of
reschedule a process, e.g., a regular maintenance, within a optimization. However, when there are delayed processes
certain time span. For example, if a process cannot be or additional processes to be executed in short time, the
executed in time, the variance in time is used by postponing operational resource planning can make use of the
another process using the critical resource. specific variances to solve this problem under real-time
The variance of resources characterizes the opportunity conditions (Fig. 13). As there are many variances, there
to perform a process with several resources optionally, such are many possibilities to solve or optimize the problem by
as maintenance processes can be rapidly executed by an using one or more of these variances or using a special
expert or more slowly by a lower skilled worker. combination.
The variance of processes specifies the availability of
several different processes requiring different resources to 5.4.2 Optimization strategy for the IPS2 resource planning
reach the same aim of customer satisfaction, e.g., repeated
replacement of a weak part or substitution by an improved To balance between calculation time and performance of
part one time. the optimization result, at first, an existing solution for the

Fig. 13 Strategic and operative


resource planning
Market Strategic capacity planning
prognosis Resource R
R1
Delivery processes R2
R3
P S
Time t during
delivery phase
IPS2-condition current
P S Resource demand

P S Operative resource planning


R1, R2 P1 P2 P3 E1
P S

R2, R4, R5 P1 P4 P5 E1
Resource R Process P Result E
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

planning problem is needed, as a planning problem in most complex impact on the whole planning that its deep
cases means the dissatisfaction of a customer what should analysis would cause extremely long calculation times,
be avoided as possible. Afterwards, or for example during independent from the calculation's effectiveness. There-
an overnight replanning run, the more complex variances' after, the critical resource and its direct alternative are
applications can be examined for further optimization. requested to the network; requesting more resources less
As the optimization can make use of several degrees of related to the critical one would need too much coordina-
freedom, at first, all the possible variances have to be tion effort while being too slow to achieve the required
structured regarding their purposeful effect. solution in the short run. Finally, the adjustment of the
An overall metaheuristic [67] for the IPS2 resource allocation speed is executed for a reasonable calculation
planning's optimization may be structured as follows: time. If a solution has not been found in the end, the
metaheuristic is started again, while evaluating the next
& Use of variance in time
stages of deepness in the variances' application.
& Use of alternative resources
As all variances' applications are large-scale optimiza-
& Use of alternative processes
tion problems themselves (see Fig. 14), also the search
& Request to the network (service distribution and/or
within each step will apply individual metaheuristics [68];
integration of customer's resources)
a combination of several algorithms or (meta) heuristics,
& Adjustment of allocation speed.
e.g., genetic algorithms or tabu search, seems to be
The variances are primarily ordered according to the purposeful.
direct costs they cause. The application of the variance in
time (i.e., postponement of processes) does not cause any 5.5 Conclusion and outlook
direct costs. The use of alternative resources in most
cases also causes no direct costs, if only unemployed Industrial Product-Service Systems are a paradigm shift for
resources are used; however, that will cause some the future business between companies. A new definition
indirect costs if, e.g., an alternative worker is less for the combination of products and services into IPS2 and
familiar with a machine to be maintained and thus new business models are described. This paper has shown
requires more time. The use of alternative processes that traditional product and service methods cannot be
might cause some direct and indirect costs, as during the easily assumed for the development and delivery of IPS2.
development, already the most cost-effective process was Especially, the opposed characteristics of products and
chosen for each task. To request necessary resources to services have shown that new methods for IPS2 need to be
the network will cause direct costs, as external partners
have to be included, coordinated, and supported; thus, it
is a time-consuming way to replace a necessary resource.
At least, the adjustment of the allocation speed is
considered; it mostly causes direct costs by using faster
but more expensive means of transportation.
According to the complexity of the variances' appli-
cation, it is considered how broad and how deep one
variance should be used: Up to which degree of relation-
ship to the optimization potential a variance is applied on
the resources and processes, how many applications of
this variance are done consecutively until this search for a
solution seems to be no longer targeting, and up to which
level of complexity (range of alterations) a variance's
application is functional.
At first, the variance in time is considered in depth,
until the delivery reliability or the overall efficiency
become unacceptably bad. Afterwards, the use of
alternative resources is examined, but not totally in
depth; if the substituted resource is only loosely related
to the critical resource, its replacement has only a
minimal chance to solve the problem. The use of
alternative processes is applied then only up to a
second-degree relationship; it has such a wide and Fig. 14 Illustration of the optimization by variances' application
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

developed. Especially, the planning and development phase how likely are they to develop and be extensively tilized? J Clean
Prod 11(8):829–837
results not only in one defined solution but also in a
8. Cunha PF, Caldeira Duarte JA (2004) Development of a
solution space that can be used to counter the problem of productive service module based on a life cycle perspective of
limited resources for IPS2 delivery processes. The solution maintenance issues. Annals of the CIRP 53(1):13–16, ISSN:
space can be varied between different options and specifi- 0007-8506
9. Slater SF, Narver JC (1994) Market orientation, customer value,
cations. Additional advantages of IPS2 are the long-term
and superior performance. Bus Horiz 37:22–28
contracts with the chance to minimize uncertainties for the 10. Guiltinan et al (1996) Marketing management: strategies and
delivery planning. An IPS2 provider does not merely sell a programs. McGraw Hill, Irwin
machine and wait for the customer to order services. 11. Vargo SL, Lusch RF (2004) Evolving to a new dominant logic for
marketing. J Mark 68:1–17
Therefore, new methods for the delivery of IPS2 are 12. Aitken R et al (2006) Special issue on service-dominant logic of
necessary. An approach for a modular organization struc- marketing: insights from the Otago forum. Marketing Theory 6
ture with the extension of modular organization units is (3):275–392
described. This structure is supporting the flexible use of 13. Baines TS, Lightfoot HW, Evans S et al (2007) State-of-the-art in
product-service systems. Proc Inst Mech Eng B J Eng Manuf 221
resources of networking companies. Planning the resources
(10):1543–1552. doi:10.1243/09544054JEM858
for the IPS2 delivery is a complex problem that also needs 14. Brissaud D, Zwolinski P, Maussang N (2007) Common represen-
new planning methods. The metaheuristic optimization tation of products and services: a necessity for engineering
strategy is an approach to establish a real-time planning designers to develop Product Service Systems. In: Kraus FL (ed)
The future of product development. Proceedings of the 17th CIRP
and control.
Design Conference, Springer, Berlin, pp 463–471. ISBN: 978-3-
The presented approaches represent only some parts of 540-69819-7
the research project SFB/TR 29. The project comprises the 15. Shehab EM, Roy R (2006) Product service-systems: issues and
whole IPS2 life cycle starting from marketing and ending challenges. Fourth International Conference on Manufacturing
research (ICMR 2006). John Moores University, Liverpool, pp
by life cycle data management. The next steps concern the 5th–7th
design of additional necessary methods from marketing, 16. Matzen D, McAloone TC (2006) A tool for conceptualising in
development, delivery, supporting tools, controlling, and PSS development. 17. Symposium “Design For X”, Erlangen, pp
life cycle data management. All these methods provide a 131–140. ISBN: 3-9808539-4-2
17. Komoto H, Tomiyama T, Nagel M, Silvester S, Brezet H (2005)
basis for a general IPS2 theory that has to be used by future
Life cycle simulation for analyzing product service systems.
industrial projects. The industrial projects will help to Fourth International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious
improve the methods and to show customer values. Design and Inverse Manufacturing, Eco Design, 12–14 Dec 2005,
pp 386–393
18. Aurich J, Fuchs C, Barbian P (2004) An approach to the design of
Acknowledgments We express our sincere thanks to the Deutsche technical product service systems. Industrie Management 20
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for financing this research within the (5):13–16
Collaborative Research Project SFB/TR29 on “Industrial Product- 19. Vandermerwe S, Rada J (1988) Servitization of business: adding
Service Systems—dynamic interdependency of products and services value by adding services. Eur Manag J 6:4, ISBN 978-1-84628-
in the production area.” 934-7
20. Schmitt R, Hatfield S (2008) Strategic servicification—a quality
based approach beyond service-engineering. Manufacturing sys-
tems and technologies for the new frontier. The 41st CIRP
References Conference on Manufacturing Systems 26–28 May 2008, Tokyo,
Japan, pp 511–514. ISBN 978-1-84800-266-1
1. Aurich JC, Fuchs C (2004) An approach to life cycle oriented 21. Sakao T, Shimomura Y (2007) Service CAD system to support
technical service design. Annals of the CIRP 53(1):151–154, servicification of manufactures. In: Advances in Life Cycle
ISSN: 0007-8506 Engineering for Sustainable Manufacturing Businesses. Proceed-
2. Stahel WR (2008) The performance economy: business models ings of the 14th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering,
for the functional service economy. In: Krisna KB (ed) Handbook Tokyo, Japan
of performability engineering. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 127– 22. Sundin E, Lindahl M, Öhrwall Rönnbäck A, Ölundh Sandström
138. ISBN:978-1848001305 G, Östlin J (2006) Integrated product and service engineering
3. Aurich JC, Fuchs C, Wagenknecht C (2006) Life cycle oriented methodology. In: Proceedings of 11th International Conference of
design of technical product-service systems. J Clean Prod 14 Sustainable Innovation, Chicago, USA, 23–24 October
(17):1480–1494 23. Lindahl M, Sundin E, Shimomura Y, Sakao T (2006) An
4. Mont OK (2002) Clarifying the concept of product-service interactive design model for service engineering of functional
systems. J Clean Prod 10(3):237–245 sales offers. Proceedings of the International Design Conference,
5. Baines TS et al (2007) State-of-the-art in product-service systems. Dubrovnik, Croatia
Proc Inst Mech Eng B J Eng Manuf 221:1543–1552, ISSN 0954- 24. Sundin E, Bras B (2005) Making functional sales environmentally
4054 and economically beneficial through product remanufacturing. J
6. Levitt T (1969) The marketing mode, pathways to corporate Clean Prod 13(9):913–925
growth. McGraw-Hill, New York 25. Arai T, Shimomura Y (2005) Service CAD system—evalua-
7. Bartolomeo M et al (2003) Eco-efficient producer services—what tion and quantification. CIRP Annals Manuf Technol 54
are they, how do they benefit customers and the environment and (1):463–466
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

26. Lindahl M, Ölundh G (2001) The meaning of functional sales. fert H (eds) Handbuch Dienstleistungsmanagement, 2. Auflage,
Proceedings of the 8th International CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp 751–780
Engineering, Varna, Bulgaria 50. Berry LL, Parasuraman A (1999) Dienstleistungsmarketing fängt
27. Seliger G, Kim HJ, Kernbaum S, Zettl M (2008) Approaches to beim Mitarbeiter an. In: Bruhn M (ed) Internes marketing.
sustainable manufacturing. Int J Sustain Manuf 1:58–77 integration der kunden- und mitarbeiterorientierung. Grundlagen
28. Abele E, Anderl R, Birkhofer H, Rüttinger B (2008) EcoDesign— – Implementierung – Praxisbeispiele. 2. Auflage, Gabler Verlag,
Von der Theorie in die Praxis. ISBN: 978-3-540-75437-4 Wiesbaden, pp 69–92
29. Kara S, Manmek S, Kaebernick H (2007) An integrated 51. Meier H, Lanza, G. (Ed.) (2009) Projekt-Abschlussbuch: Kooper-
methodology to estimate the external environmental costs of ative Geschäftsmodelle zur Integration von Sach- und Dienstleis-
products. CIRP Annals Manuf Technol 56(1):9–12 tungen. VDMA Verlag. ISBN: 978-3-8163-0569-9
30. Janz D, Sihn W, Warnecke HJ (2005) Product redesign using value- 52. Meier H, Kroll M (2009) From products to solutions—IPS2 as a
oriented life cycle costing. CIRP Annals Manuf Technol 54(1):9–12 means for creating customer value. 16th CIRP International
31. Ölundh G, Ritzén S (2001) Functional sales as a further approach Conference on Life Cycle Engineering Kairo, 2009
to environmental product development. Proceedings of EcoDesign 53. Meier H (Ed.) (2004) Dienstleistungsorientierte Geschäftsmodelle
Conference, Tokyo, Japan im Maschinen- und Anlagenbau: Vom Basisangebot bis zum
32. Meier H, Kaiser U (2007) Integration of service providers in SME Betreibermodell. Springer Verlag. ISBN: 3540408169
product service systems. Proceedings of the 20th Conference on 54. Meier H, Kortmann D (2007) Leadership—from technology to
Computer-Aided Production Engineering (CAPE), Glasgow use. CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering., pp 159–163
33. Hermeier B, Platzköster C (2006) Ergebnisse der ersten bundes- 55. Braun J (1996) Aufgaben und Ziele der Organisationsgestaltung.
weiten Marktstudie “Industrie-Dienstleistungen”Arbeitspapiere In: Bullinger H-J, Warnecke HJ (eds) Neue Organisationsformen
der FOM, Nr. 2, Essen, 2006 im Unternehmen. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, New York, pp 7–27
34. Service-Trends (2005) Wohin entwickelt sich der After-Sales- 56. Schuh G, Friedli F, Gebauer H (2004) Fit for service: Industrie als
Service, Verlagsgruppe Handelsblatt Dienstleister. Hanser Verlag, München Wien
35. Meier H, Kaiser U, Krings R (2008) Service as enabler for lifecycle- 57. Meier H, Krings R, Kaiser U (2008) Analysis and design
oriented business models. Proceedings of the 15th CIRP International optimization of service delivery processes in cooperative value
Conference on Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) 2008, Sydney generating manufacturing networks. Proceedings of the CIRP
36. Meier H, Kaiser U, Kroll M (2008) Structuring of service Design Conference 2008, Enschede
packages along the machine life cycle. Proceedings of the 6th 58. Meier H, Krings R, Kaiser U (2008) Standardization within the
International Conference in Manufacturing Engineering (ICME) service creation process in value generating networks. Advances
2008, Neapel in manufacturing technology XXII. Proceedings of the 6th
37. Meier H (ed) (2004) Embedded online service. VDMA Verlag, International Conference on Manufacturing Research (ICMR)
Frankfurt 2008, London, pp 531–538. ISBN: 978-1-902-31660-4
38. Meier H, Uhlmann E, Kortmann D (2005) Hybride Leistungsbündel 59. Meier H, Gu R, Kaiser U, Kroll M (2008) Design of a cooperative
– Nutzenorientiertes Produktverständnis Durch Interferierende sach- organization for a machine's life cycle based service provision.
und Dienstleistungen. Wt Werkstattstechnik online 7/8:528-532 Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Service
39. Arai T, Shimomura Y (2005) Service CAD system—evaluation Operations and Logistics, and Informatics (SOLI), 2008, Beijing
and quantification. Annals of the CIRP 54(1):463–466 60. Stremersch S, Wuyt S, Frambach RT (2001) The purchasing of
40. Tan AR, McAloone TC (2006) Charateristics of strategies in full-service contracts: an exploratory study within the industrial
product/service-system development. International Design Con- maintenance market. Ind Mark Manage 30:1–12
ference, Dubrovnik, Croatia 61. Meier H, Völker O (2008) Industrial Product-Service Systems—
41. Matzen D, Tan AR, Myrup Andreasen M (2005) Product/service- typology of service supply chain for IPS2 providing. In: Mitsuishi
systems: proposal for models and terminology. 16. Symposium M, Ueda K, Kimura F (eds) Manufacturing systems and
“Design For X”, Neukirchen, 13–15 October technologies for the new frontier, 41st CIRP conference on
42. Stähler P (2002) Geschäftsmodelle in der digitalen Ökonomie. manufacturing systems. Tokyo, Japan, pp 485–488
Josef Eul Verlag, Lohmar 62. Sanchez R, Mahoney JT (1996) Modularity, flexibility and
43. Rüegg-Stürm J (2004) Das neue St. Galler Management-Modell. knowledge management in product and organization design.
In: Dubs R et al (eds) Einführung in die Managementlehre, 1st Strateg Manage J 17:63–76
edn. Haupt-Verlag, Bern, ISBN 978-3-258-06999-9 63. Göpfert J (1996) Modulare Produktentwicklung – Zur gemeinsa-
44. Tucker A, Tischner U (2005) New business for old Europe— men Gestaltung von Technik und organisation. Deutscher Uni-
product-service development, competiveness and sustainability. versitätsverlag, Germany
Greanleaf Publishing, Sheffield 64. Meier H, Funke B, Krings R, Krug C (2008) Case study based
45. Johansson JE, Krishnamrurthy C, Schlissberg HE (2003) Solving service process library supporting the ressource planning for
the solutions problem. McKinsey Q 3:117–125 Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2). Proceedings of the 6th
46. Rese M, Otte HO, Strotmann WC (2007) Industrial Product Service International Conference in Manufacturing Engineering (ICME)
Systems as a problem solution to meet future challenges in B-to-B 2008, Neapel
markets—a value based approach. Proceedings of the international 65. Meier H, Krug CM (2008) System for planning of resources in
Conference on Business Market Management at the TU Delft IPS2-Delivery. 41st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems.
47. Abramovici M, Schulte S (2006) Lifecycle management für Tokyo, Japan
hybride Leistungsbündel. Wt Werkstattstechnik online Jahrgang 66. Meier H, Krug CM (2006) strategische kapazitätsplanung
96 H.7/8:467-471 hybrider leistungsbündel. PPS Management 11:48–51
48. Kortmann D (2007) Dienstleistungsgestaltung innerhalb hybrider 67. Blum C, Roli A (2003) Metaheuristics in combinatorial optimi-
Leistungsbündel. Dissertation, Shaker-Verlag. ISBN 978- zation: overview and conceptual comparison. ACM Comput Surv
3832266226 35(3):268–308
49. Becker F, Günther S (2001) Personalentwicklung als Führung- 68. Reeves CR (1995) Modern heuristic techniques for combinatorial
saufgabe in Dienstleistungsunternehmungen. In: Bruhn M, Mef- problems. McGraw-Hill, New York

Вам также может понравиться