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Chapter Two
Application of Compressed Air 2.1 Why use compressed air?
2.2 Keep the pressure on!
2.3 Uses of compressed air
2.3.1 Clamping with compressed air
2.3.2 Pneumatic drive tools
2.3.3 Conveying
2.3.4 Spraying
2.3.5 Blowing and flushing with air
2.3.6 Testing and inspection
2.3.7 Process control with air
2.4 Other applications
Chapter Three
Compressed Air Terminology 3.1 The language of compressed air
Chapter Four
Types of Compressors 4.1 Dynamic compressors (Centac)
4.2 Displacement compressors
4.3 Types of compressors
4.3.1 Standard compressors
4.3.2 Reciprocating
4.3.3 Rotary vane compressors
4.3.4 Screw compressors
4.3.5 Root compressor (Blower)
4.3.6 Centrifugal
4.4 Piston compressors
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Suction capacity
4.4.3 Cooling
4.4.4 Coolant
4.4.5 Control
4.4.6 Advantages
Chapter Five
Compressor Control 5.1 Definitions
5.2.1 On-line / Off-Line
5.2.2 Auto start and stop
5.3 Modulation
5.4 Variable Speed
5.5 Control mode efficiency
5.6 Controlling multiple compressors
Chapter Six
Compressed Air Treatment 6.1 Why treat compressed air?
6.1.1 consequences
6.1.2 Impurities of air
6.2 Water in compressed air
6.2.1 Humidity
6.2.2 Dew Point
6.2.3 Moisture content
6.2.4 Condensate during compression
6.2.5 Determining pressure dew point
6.3 Air quality classes
6.3.1 ISO 8573-1
6.4 Methods of drying
6.4.1 Operating conditions
6.4.2 Adsorption
6.4.3 Vacuum regeneration
6.4.4 Cold regeneration
6.4.5 Thermal mass
6.5 Compressed Air Filtration
6.5.1 Terminology of filters
6.5.2 Pressure drop
6.5.3 Operating pressure
6.5.4 Pre-filtration
6.5.5 High Efficiency filtration
6.5.6 Activated carbon filters
Chapter Eight
Dynamics of Compressed Air 8.1 Consumption of air
8.1.1 Consumption of nozzles
8.1.2 Consumption of cylinders
8.1.3 Consumption of paint spraying
8.1.4 Consumption of air tools
8.2 Sizing compressors
8.2.1 Time of operating/usage factor
8.2.2 Simultaneity factor
8.2.3 Compressed air requirement
8.2.4 Allowances for losses/reserves
8.3 Compressed air loss
8.3.1 Calculate cost of air loss
8.3.2 Quantifying leakage
8.3.3 Leakage limits
8.4 Minimisation of air loss
Chapter Nine
Compressed Air Systems 9.1 Design of installation
9.1.1 Dryer before the receiver
9.1.2 Dryer after the receiver
9.2 Sizing the Air Receiver
9.2.1 Under sizing the receiver
9.2.2 Does piping make a difference?
9.3 Controlling rate of change
9.3.1 Compressor cycle intervals
9.3.2 Idle times
9.3.2 Running times
9.4 Demand side pressure
9.4.1 Maximum pressure (Pmax)
9.4.2 Minimum pressure (Pmin)
9.4.3 Useful differential
9.5 Multiple compressor systems
9.5.1 Compressor train
9.6 Capacitance
Chapter Ten
Pneumatic System 10.0 Precise pressure control
10.1 Performance and working pressure
10.1.2 Role of the IntelliFlow
10.1.3 Life without the IntelliFlow
10.1.4 Calculating IntelliFlow savings
10.1.5 IntelliFlow operation
10.2 System control
10.2.1 Calculating system control savings
10.3 Demand side piping design
10.3.1 Structure of a compressed air circuit
10.3.2 Main branch
10.3.3 Distribution ring main
10.3.4 Distribution drop
10.3.5 Branch connection lines
10.3.6 Multiple entry points
10.4 Tips for planning pipe systems
10.4 Piping without a dryer
10.5 Piping with a dryer
10.6 Calculating pressure drop
10.6.1 Velocity in piping systems
10.7 Choosing the material of pipelines
10.7.1 Threaded galvanised steel
10.7.2 Plastic pipes
10.8 Simplair
10.8.1 Easyline
10.9 Marking pipelines
Chapter Eleven
Compressor Room 11.0 Cooling the compressor room
11.0.1 Admissible room temperature
11.0.2 Space requirement
11.0.3 Layout
11.1 Ventilation of a compressor room
11.1.1 Factors influencing cooling air
11.1.2 Natural ventilation
11.1.3 Artificial ventilation
11.1.4 Calculating inlet louvers
11.1.5 Sizing duct work
11.1.6 Extraction of air through ducting
Chapter Thirteen
Auditing 13.0 IntelliSurvey
13.0.1 Advantage of IntelliSurvey
13.0.2 Understanding results
13.0.3 How the numbers are calculated
13.0.4 Raw data analysis
13.0.5 IntelliSurvey report question
Chapter Fourteen
Appendix 14.0 Symbols
14.1 Answers to questions
14.2 Useful calculations
14.3 Discharge of air through an orifice.
14.4 Industrial users classifications
14.5 IntelliFlow workpad
14.6 Connection sizes
For example if you were asked “what is the purpose of a capacitor in an electrical system?” your reply
would be to store energy. However would you have an answer for “what is the capacitor within a
compressed air system?” See appendix if you don’t know the answer.
Within this workbook we will go some way to explain the behaviour of compressed air. There are several
examples with solutions as well as questions that need to be solved. The products shown are subject to
change.
As time evolved then so did the creation of compressed air. The human lung
to fan a flame was to be replaced by a simple bellows, considered the first
mechanical air compressor. In fact people have been using mechanical
compression since the third millennium BC. The generation of compressed
air using a foot operated bellows pump, within the production of bronze
alloy during the Egyptian dynasty was the birth of compressed air as we find
it today. There were to be many other uses in history that has give rise to
compressed air applications still used today, such as:
• Greek Ktesibos developed a hydraulic organ that used compressed air for the storage and reduction
of vibration. (Storage and suppression of pulsation.)
• Ktesibos also used compressed air to power a catapult. The Greek’s catapult generated enough
tension to propel the missile. (Storage of energy)
• First century BC, Heron in Alexandria found a way to open the doors of a temple automatically by
keeping the flame at the altar inside the building permanently alight. The expansion of hot air to
force water out of one container into another. Heron found that if by changing the condition of the
air you could perform work. (expansion and the performance of work)
• In the 17th century people began to study the physical laws applicable to compressed air. Pascal
wrote that if one man exerted energy at one end of a closed container of water it was equivalent of
100 men at the other end. (increasing energy)
• A French physicist Papin described a method in the 17th century to transport objects through pipes.
He exploited the slight difference of pressure within the pipe. What he found was that energy was
generated at an object inside the pipe. This laid the foundation of pneumatic conveyance.
(transportation)
By the late 19th century experience was gained using networks of pneumatic lines and the development of
more powerful compressors led to a pneumatic network being installed in the sewage canals of Paris.
Basic units
If we take the basic bicycle pump compressed air is compressed atmospheric air. Compressed air is a carrier
of heat energy. If you put your finger at over the end of the pump you will feel the heat as you compressor
the air. Compressed air can be carried certain distances in pipelines and be stored in compressed air
receivers as a platform to perform work as it decompresses.
Fig 1
Simple air compression
Boyle and Mariotte conducted experiments and discovered the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure.
T = temperature
V = Volume
p = Pressure
p x V = constant
T
Constant volume is isochore compression. Constant temperature is isotherme compression and constant
pressure is isobar compression.
If we combine the charles and boyles laws we find the following equation.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
T1 T2
1.3.1 Temperature
The temperature indicates the heat of a body and is read in degC on thermometers or converted to Kelvin
(K)
1.3.2 Volume
Volume V (l, m3)
Compressed air in expanded state, open air d
The volume is determined, for example, by the size of a cylinder. It is measured in l or m3 and
relative to 20 degC and 1 bar. The volume declared by any compressor manufacturer will be
in its expanded state.
h
2
V cyl = d x 3.142 x h
4
Volume (V)
The normal colume refers to the physical normal state as specified bn DIN 1343. It is ~8% less than the
volume at 20degC .
The volume in operating state refers to the actual condition. The temperature, air presssure and air humidity
must be taken into account as reference points. When specifying the operating volume the pressure must be
1.3.3 Pressure
According to the SI system pressure should be given in Pascal (Pa). However in practice pressure is mostly
given in barg. Pressure is still referered to in some places as psig. (pounds per square inch).
Piston displacemnt
This is calculable on piston compressors. Is is defined as the product cylinder (piston capacity), compressor
speed (number of stokes) and the number of cylinders working. This is normally expressed in l/min.
V l/min = A x s x n x c
V = Flow l/min
A = Area or cylinder (dm²)
s = stroke (dm)
n = number of strokes (1/min)
c = Number of cylinders
Every day people ask this question. To the point that compressed air faces competition from hydraulic,
mechanical and electrical appliances. There are fundamental reasons why compressed air is used over these
other technologies. Let us explore the reasons why compressed air is the 4th utility:
Safe to use
Compressed air works well even if there are extreme temperature changes. It can also be used where there
are very high temperatures such as operating a forge press or a blast furnace. Pneumatic devices and air
lines that are not tight are no risk to the safety of the user or the serviceability of the system. A pneumatic
system and its components will wear little and therefore will have a long working life and low failure rate.
Pneumatic elements are exceedingly safe with respect to fire, explosion and electrical hazards. Pneumatics
can be used within hazardous areas without large and expensive safety apparatus. Unlike electricity air can
safely be used in damp environments and outdoors.
No risk of overload.
Compressed air devices can be loaded until that stop without being damaged. This cannot be said for an
electrical system where there is a risk of danger with an overload. If the pressure fails the work cannot be
done but there is no damages to the network or its elements.
Cleanliness
Unlike hydraulics compressed air will not cause soiling or leave puddles of oil if pipelines are defective.
This is very important in many business sectors such as food, textiles, electronics and packaging.
Storable
Compressed air can be stored within a purpose built air receiver. The receiver is an integrated part of a
compressed air system. The air compressor will only run when the pressure drops below a set level. Due to
Weight
Pneumatic devices tend to be much lighter that the comparable electrical power units. This makes a
difference with pneumatic screwdrivers, nut runners and hammers.
Economical
Pneumatic components are less expensive when compared to hydraulic equivalents and need far less
maintenance.
Basic
Keep it simple stupid or KISS. The design and operation of a pneumatic system is very simple. This makes
for a much more robust and reliable system. Components are far easier to install and can be re-used without
any particular difficulty. Installation times are shorter due to the simplicity. Straight-line movements can be
accomplished within extra mechanical parts.
Adjustable
Compressed air is easily regulated to control the movement, force, torque and speed of the application
without the difficulty of using throttles.
It is not unusual to combine a lower pressure compressor and a use a high-pressure compressor as a booster.
"load shaping" or "peak shaving", and is typically a smaller high pressure compressor trickle charging a
bank of huge receiver tanks. This will satisfy a large volume demand for a short duration.
Pneumatic tools are found in all areas of industry. They perform a rotary
and linear movement. Pneumatic machinery and tools covert the energy
within compressed air to a kinetic energy for moving the pistion.
Vibrators, pneumatic hammers and jolting devices belong within this
category. Pneumatic power is also used by a multitude of vlaves and
slides, tools, adjustment devices, feed system and vehicles.
Dense phase installations have grown rapidly in the market because of the
cost savings for the producers of the products and materials that we
consume. The producers of foods, plastics, pharmaceuticals, building
materials, and dry chemicals are all global suppliers. The material
handling systems that are necessary to move these products are designed
2.3.4 Spraying
Spraying applications use the energy of expanding compressed air to
force the material or liquid through the spray nozzle onto the particular
product. Surface treatment processes, such as sand or gravel blasting
also appear in this category. Another application of spraying is snow
making or the atomisation of liquids through a spray nozzle.
• Agriculture & forestry – Plant protection and weed control, transportation of feed and grain to
and from silos, dispensing equipment, ventilation systems in greenhouses
• Chemicals industry – raw material for oxidation processes, process
control and instrumentation, remote-controlled valves, and slides within
the process circuits.
• Construction trade – Drill and demolition hammers, concrete
compactors, conveyor systems for brick works.
• Crafts – staplers and nail guns, paint spraying guns, drills and
screwdrivers, angle grinders.
• Energy industry – inserting and withdrawing reactor rods, controlled
valves and slides in steam and coolant circuits, ventilation systems for
boiler houses.
Actuator - Any pneumatic device which applies power, for example a cylinder or motor.
Actual Delivery- is the piston displacement minus the losses in the cylinder. It is the air available to do
work, expressed in cfm, l/min or m³/min of free air, and is the real measure of flow.
Aftercooling – The removal of heat from the air after compression is complete.
Ambient temperature – The temperature of the environment in which the equipment is to work in.
Capacitance - Defined as P4 - P3 with respect to the amount of compressed air storage. Capacitance will
increase as the difference between P4 and P3 decreases.
Closed loop system – A system in which air exhausted from the actuators is returned as closed pressurised
circuit to the compressor inlet.
Coincidental Events- Multiple events firing at the same time that can lead to more compressors on line
than required.
Compressor – A device which causes a gas to flow against a pressure; it converts mechanical force and
motion into pneumatic fluid power.
Compressed air audit - Audit is designed to provide an inexpensive but effective method to capture the
best methods of maximising compressed air system efficiency from the supply-side. The audit will provide
a solution that will minimise the energy required producing compressed air while delivering the air to the
system at a consistent lower pressure with adequate storage.
Compressor capacity – The actual volume rate of flow compressed and delivered at the standard discharge
point, at stated inlet conditions, usually expressed in terms of Free Air Delivered.
Compressor regulator – A device fitted to the compressor to control the output of the machine.
Compressor Trains - A compressor system that has a single compressor coupled with its own air treatment
equipment.
Condensate – The liquid formed from water vapour in the air because of a drop in the air temperature
and/or an increase in pressure.
Constituents of Demand- The compilation of the aspects in a system that consume compressed air. Leaks,
drainage, dryer purge, production
Cubic Metre- is the common measure of air volume, it is the amount of air that fills a cube,
one-metre by one-metre.
Cubic Metre per Minute - (m³/min) is the number of cubic metre of air per minute flowing through a
system.
Demand Expander - separates air supply from demand to allow for production to receive consistent air
pressure. In IR language this is an IntelliFlow. Production receives consistent air pressure while high-
pressure storage is used to meet demand fluctuations. Serving these demand events from storage reduces the
likelihood of bringing additional compressors on-line. Results include improved compressor utilisation, less
air lost to leaks, reduced dewpoint, energy savings, and stable system pressure for increased production
efficiency.
• Maintains demand-side pressure at desired levels for production requirements.
• Controls supply pressure at higher levels, allowing compressors to operate at their most
efficient pressures.
• Improves efficiency of compressor control and storage management.
• Ensures consistent air quality at constant pressure, temperature and dew point.
• Enables effective leak management.
• Designed for low pressure drop, high turn down and high expansion coefficient
Dew Point - is the temperature at which water vapor in air starts to condense into water droplets.
Displacement – The volume displaced by the compression element of the first stage per unit of time.
Dryer – A device, which reduces the water vapour content of the compressed air.
Duty Cycle: - The Duty cycle is the amount of time that the compressor will need to run in order to deliver
the required amount of air to the customers system.
Light Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 50% of the working time and no more
than 1/2 of the working day. This is the task for aluminium construction (Merlin) compressors.
Medium Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 50% of the working time but can be
run for the full working day. (continuous duty ). This is the task for the larger BD Merlin compressors.
Heavy Duty - The compressor should not need to run for more than 75% of the working time but can be run
for the full working day. (continuous duty ) This is the task for T30 Cast iron Compressors
Constant Duty - The compressor needs to run all the time it is switched on and all of the working day.
Normally rotary screw compressors would be offered for these applications.
Filter. A device, which removes foreign matter from the working medium.
Free air – Air at the atmospheric conditions at the inlet point unaffected by the compressor . It is usual for
the output of an air compressor to be refereed to the stated atmospheric conditions at the inlet, and the
consumption of a tool or pneumatic cylinder to be expressed in terms of a standard reference atmosphere.
Gauge Pressure - The pressure everyone knows and commonly refers to. What we see on a gauge at
atmospheric pressure.
Intercooling – The removal of heat from the air between stages in multi stage compression.
Kilowatt Power - is the power required at the compressor-input shaft for a specific speed, capacity, and
pressure condition.
Lubricator – A device, which introduces a controlled quantity of lubricant into the working medium.
Motor Kilowatt power - is the nominal rating of the motor. Service Factor is the additional power built into
an electric motor above the nominal rating expressed as a percent. Within the service factor the brake
horsepower of the compressor can operate above the nominal Kilowatt power of the motor.
Multi-stage compression - Compression from initial to final pressure in two or more stages (steps) with
cooling between each stage.
Piston Displacement - is expressed in cfm, l/min or m³/min, and represents the volume of air swept through
the cylinder by the piston with each stroke.
Pressure ratio – The ratio between the absolute discharge pressure and the absolute inlet pressure.
Pressure regulator (pressure reducing valve) – A device, which reduces the line pressure and maintains it
relatively constant despite changes in inlet pressure and outlet flow rate.
Pressure relief valve (safety valve) – A device, which limits the maximum system pressure by exhausting
the compressed air to atmosphere when the required back pressure is exceeded.
PSIA - When we add atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure we have absolute pressure,
pounds per square inch absolute .
Pulsation dampener – A chamber fitted at the inlet or discharge of a reciprocating compressor to remove
the pulsation’s and prevent resonance.
Relative Humidity – The ratio of the amount of water vapour actually in a volume of air at a specific
temperature and pressure, to the maximum amount possible under these conditions. This is normally
expressed as a percentage.
Ring main – An air main, which begins and ends at the compressor so that every outlet has two possible
sources or routes of supply.
Separator – A device, which removes liquids from the compressed air. Also known as a moisture separator.
Single stage compression – Compression from initial to final pressure in a single stage or step.
Standard reference atmosphere – The agreed atmosphere to which specification values and test results
determined in other atmospheres are corrected.
Supply Event: An event on the supply side of the compressed air system that changes the supply of
compressed air to the production process.
The Power Efficiency - is the ratio between the amount of air delivered by the compressor and its electrical
requirements. Usually, this is expressed in Kilowatts (kW) per m³ of delivered air. This is also known as the
specific power consumption.
Volumetric efficiency – The ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of a compressor. This ration is
normally expressed as a percentage. Condensate may also be taken into account.
4.0 Compressors are divided according to their operating principle. Will all compressors they could be sub
divided into contact cooled (lubricated) and oil free (non-lubricated).
4.1 Dynamic compressors are commonly known as Turbo compressors or continuous flow, by nature of
running wheels equipped with blades that accelerate the air to be compressed. Fixed direction gear on the
blades converts speeds energy into pressure energy. These compressors are generally applied where medium
to large volumes of compressed air is required at low to medium pressures.
4.2 Displacement compressors the compression chamber closes completely after taking in the air. The
volume is re-introduced and the air is compressed by force. These compressors are generally applied where
quantities are relatively small and the pressure is medium to high.
Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement machines, meaning that they increase the pressure
of the air by reducing its volume. This means they are taking in successive volumes of air which is confined
within a closed space and elevating this air to a higher pressure. The reciprocating air compressor
accomplishes this by a piston within a cylinder as the
Outlet Valve compressing and displacing element.
Intake Valve
Single-stage and two-stage reciprocating compressors
are commercially available. Single-stage compressors
are generally used for pressures in the range of 4.8-
barg (70-psig) to 7-barg (100-psig). Two-stage
compressors are generally used for higher pressures in
Piston the range of 7-barg (100-psig) to 17-barg (250-psig).
Centrifugal compressors provide a uniform output and are 100% oil free. The down side is that they are
sensitive to changes in load and minimum output quantities. Atmospheric changes will impact the
performance of the compressor.
4.4.1 General
Piston compressors operate according too the displacement principle. The piston intakes air through the
intake valve during the downward stroke. It closes at the start of the downward stroke and then the air is
compressed and forced out of the pressure valve. The piston is drive by a crank drive with a crankshaft and
conrods.
Single acting compressors are based on one compressor action with one
rotation of the crankshaft. Where as double acting compressors have two
compressor actions with one rotation of the crankshaft.
Clearance area
This is the area located between the top dead centre of the
piston and the bottom edge of the valve. The clearance area Intake Valve Outlet Valve
will include; design tolerances, cavities in the valves and
valve seats, individual design considerations. During the
downward stroke of the piston the air in the compression
chamber expands to atmospheric pressure. At this stage and
during the down-stroke of the piston air is sucked in from the
outside of the compressor. The difference between suction
rate and output occurs because during suction the pressure of Piston
the air is already dropped across the filter, leaks will occur
and the air that is sucked in will heat up in the chamber and
re-expansion occurs in the compression space.
Many small recip compressor providers will declare the ‘Piston displacement’ figure in their literature. This
is not the FAD of the compressor.
4.4.3 Cooling
Heat is generated in all compression processes. The amount of heat is dependent upon the final air pressure
that is being generated. Basically the higher the pressure the higher the temperature. The largest part of the
compression heat must be expelled. High compression air temperatures can be considered a danger, as small
amount of lubrication oil is absorbed into the compressed air during the compression, this could become
flammable. A flame out inside the compressor is the least danger, explosion is potentially greater because
the ratio of oxygen contained is far greater than atmospheric air. Each compressor stage therefore has to
have an intercooler and an aftercooler installed in order to cool the compressed air.
The amount of heat that is to be removed by cooling depends on the FAD and the pressure. High-pressure
compressors with multiple cylinders will ensure that the cylinders are located within the cooling airflow
The diagram below shows the typical small reciprocating compressor arrangement. The flywheel would
provide the cooling airflow across the finned coolers and the ribbed cylinders.
Finned
Centrifugal Intercooler
unloader Runs cool, even
saves motor in the most
life demanding
conditions
4.4.4 Coolant
Reciprocating piston compressors are mostly air-cooled. Cool air has the advantage that it is
almost everywhere and unlimited. During the cooling phase condensate will form inside the
cooler. This is taken out of the cooler with the airflow into the piping and compressed air
tank. It is normal to have a drain on the tank, which is vented periodically. Alternately an
automatic drain valve is included within the supply.
The lubricant used inside lubricated reciprocating compressors is either a mineral oil or a
synthetic based lubricant like ‘All Seasons Select‘ coolant. All Seasons is blended for 2000-
hour operation or 2 years. This is 4 times longer compared to a mineral oil. This lubrication has a much
higher flash point and eliminates carbon build up that reduces the life of the valves. The result is extended
working life.
4.4.5 Control
• C.S.C. (constant speed control) controlled by adjustable auxiliary valve on all models 10 HP and
larger (recommended for continuous load operation).
• DUAL CONTROL available as an option (ASS+CSC) allows the compressor to be used at all
times.
4.4.6 Advantages
4.5.1 General
Compared to the reciprocating compressor, the screw compressor is relatively new in construction. The
design was perfected for commercial application by a Swedish company called “Svenska Rotar Maskiner”
(SRM). The screw compressors are in the positive displacement family. Two parallel rotors with different
profiles work in opposite direction inside a housing.
The inlet air is compressed to the final pressure within the rotor housing, which continuously decreases the
size through the rotartion of the screw rotors. When the final pressure is reached the air is forced out
through the discharge orifice. The compression chamber is formed by the walls of the rotor housing and the
meshing of the profiles of the screw elements. Think of the housing being the cylinder and the sliding action
of the rotor elements being the piston.
Step one. Intake air though an aperture into the opening of the screw profiles of the rotors. This is the intake
phase.
Male rotor
Female Rotor
Step three. The final phase is the discharge of the air. The final pressure is reached when the discharge
begins. This pressure will drop slightly through to the discharge of the compressor package.
Below is a typical lubrication circuit for an Ingersoll Rand SSR rotary screw air compressor.
Machine
Oil
Cooler Cool water in
Machine
thermostatic
valve
Cool water out
Isolation
Oil from Sep. Valve
Tank
Oil piping
Water Piping
4.5.10 Components
Typical rotary screw compressor – Nirvana Oil Free
HPMR motor
VSD Blower. High added static
pressure
The type of control depends upon the construction type, size and area of the application. Controlling the
final pressure is the most important of all control tasks.
P4 Ring main pressure. P4 and P3 could be the same if there is no IntelliFlow or PacE controller. P4 would
then be the furthest distance away from the compressor in the ring main or distribution pipe work.
P5 Point of application pressure. This is the most critical of pressures within the system. Pressure that is too
low is obviously unacceptable. Likewise pressure that is too high can lead to excessive wear, increased
demand and lower productivity. The P5 will vary within the plant. Controlling at the lowest pressure is best.
The use of boosters to amplify the pressure or dedicated point of application compressors is recommended
so that the main part of the production can operate at the lowest pressure.
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Typically the system pressure is measured at the outlet of the compressor package, after the moisture
separator (19).
Once the pressure reaches the Pload point the 1SV load solenoid valve receives a single to open. At this
time the 3SV blowdown valve will receive a signal to close. The inlet valve opens and the compressor will
load. Once the pressure within the separator is greater that 4-barg the MPVCV opens and the pressure starts
to rise within the compressed air system. The pressure can rise quite quickly dependent on the differential
across the clean up equipment. The pressure rise is then to the Punload set point of the compressors control
panel. This rate of change in the pressure is dependent upon the system demand and the system volume. The
system volume is the size of the air receiver and the piping loop.
Punload
P2
Pload
kW 100%
30%
0%
Electrical power behaviour
Once the pressure reaches the Punload set point the compressor will unload. At this point a single is set to
3SV to open and 1SV to close. Pressure is fed to the inlet control valve to close and the sump is pressure
reduces through the 3SV blowdown valve back to the inlet. The sump pressure lowers to around 2-barg in
order to maintain sufficient internal pressure to circulate the coolant. Whilst operating in the unloaded or
Punload
P2
Pload
Pressure (t)
kW 100%
30%
0%
Electrical power
5.3 Modulation control
Below is a typical schematic that includes modulation control. When the compressor is modulating the 3SV
and 6SV solenoids are closed. 1SV and 2SV are open and providing different pressures to either side of the
valve dependent on the systems pressure rate of change.
The modulating pressure range is about 4-psig (0.3 BAR) and the modulator normally should be set to
straddle the compressor rated pressure. Modulation begins when the line pressure reaches about 99 percent
of the compressor rated pressure and continues as/if the line pressure rises. Modulation becomes stable
when the compressor output equals the plant air demand. When the modulation is at the factory setting, the
maximum capacity reduction will be approximately 60 percent of the compressor rated capacity (as
indicated below).
For compressors supplied with Intellisys control and modulation option, ACS control will allow the
compressor to automatically switch between on–line/off–line and modulation control, depending on air
demand. If the air demand has decreased to a level below the 60 percent modulated output, the line pressure
will increase slightly to actuate the Intellisys. The compressor will then shift to the off line control position,
and operate unloaded with the compressor vented.
If later, the plant demand decreases, and even under modulate control the line pressure reaches the setting of
the Intellisys controller, and the control shifts to the off line mode, the time in this mode will still be
monitored. A long off line time period indicates a low plant air demand, indicating the desirability of
operating in the on line/off line mode. The Intellisys then does this, and does it automatically if the
compressor operates unloaded for more than 3 minutes.
Modulation Only
If MODULATION ONLY is turned on in the set-point routine, the unit will shift to Modulation control
mode immediately when the unit is running. The 3 cycles within 3 minutes time period required for ACS to
change to Modulation mode is bypassed. The unit will stay in Modulation mode until the unit runs unloaded
for 3 minutes (the unit then returns to ACS control) or MODULATION ONLY is turned off via the set
routine.
Simply put, the inverter modulates the frequency dependant upon the pressure rate of decay or increase. As
the pressure falls the motor speeds up and as the pressure
increases the motor slows down. The amount of turn down
depends upon the critical speed of the airend. In the case of
Ingersoll Rand Nirvana true variable speed compressors
variable speed drive performance is enhanced by:
• To save energy
• Minimisation of wear.
The amount of energy savings will vary. The graph below is a good representation of the control efficiency.
The OL/OL curve is basis an air receiver that is 10% of the compressor volume. If the receiver was say
100% of the compressor rated volume, i.e 1m³ of receiver storage for 1m³ o f compressed air the OL/OL
curve would be more representative to the following control curve. This curve was widely used in the past
but misrepresented, as typically the receiver is no where near 1 to 1.
Organisations that are dependent on compressed air can provide some guarantee that there supply with a
combined compressor system. If one compressor fails or servicing work is necessary the others will
continue with the supply.
Several small compressors can be adjusted more easily to compressed air consumption than one large
compressor. The unloaded running costs of a large compressor are higher than those of small, stand-by
compressors. This provides greater economy.
A combined compressor system needs to be controlled from a system controller. This provides:
Multiple compressors without a system controller will need to be control from their own pressure switches
or transducers in a cascade arrangement. See below.
The disadvantage of this system is that the system needs to operate at a much higher pressure. If we
consider for each 1-barg pressure the power increases or decreases by 7.25% you can calculate the
corresponding effect to the input power. If this rule of thumb is questioned refer to chapter 14 for the
calculation to support this value. In fact the true value is higher than this conservative figure.
With the example below the pressure could rise by 1.4-barg (8.2-6.8 = 1.4). This would result in 12.8%
increase in consumed power.
Local cascade control is a good indication of acceptable minimum plant pressure. The P4 pressure is the
Pload pressure of the last compressor in the system. If there is a system controller you can map the Pload
pressures of each compressor in the system to find out the P4 minimum.
Example: Your system has 3 compressors that are individually controlled. The set points are shown in the
diagram below. Each compressor is nominally rated for 75 kW. On the basis of a demand of more than one
compressor but less than two what savings could be achieved by the introduction of a system controller?
The compressors are in a common manifold and feed into a wet air receiver. There is only one set of clean
up equipment.
The first compressor will load when the pressure falls in the system to 7 barg. As this
compressor cannot satisfy the demand the pressure continues to fall to the cut in
pressure of the second compressor (6.5-barg). This will effect the pressure positively as
the system delivers more air than the demand. The compressor then unloads at 7.5-barg.
Minimum pressure is 6.0-barg, which is the cut in pressure of the next and final unit.
In addition to these savings will be the lower pressure entering the demand side of the factory. This will be
further explained in chapter nine of the workbook.
The following is the pressure diagram basis system control. You will notice that the pressure band is greatly
Compressor 1 only
8.2
Compressor 1 at full load
Compressor 2 controlling
Compressor 1 and 2 at full load
Compressor 3 controlling
DP DP
6.8
Each compressor requires a pressure band (DP1) for its load and unload set points, shown as 0.5 bar. This
band is sufficient to avoid excessive cycling. The offset DP2 should be at a minimum but avoid two or more
compressors loading and unloading
reduced with system control. You should note that system control works best if the system can work in local
control as well. The air receiver should be adequately sized to allow time to control rate of change in the
system. If you install a system controller with short load and unload delay times and a small air receiver you
DP
Weekday
Weekend
Air Demand
• Adaptation of FAD to the compressed air demand by infinite output control by the peak load
compressor. The Nirvana will trim the base load compressor. If the demand can be satisfied by
the Nirvana the base load compressor will stop and the Nirvana will satisfy the variable
demand.
• Can control up to 8 Nirvana compressors from one transducer.
• Single transducer control eliminates the inefficient system cascade effect. Avoids the issue of
transducer drift.
•MAINTENANCE COSTS
•SPOILT PRODUCT
•DOWN-TIME
PRODUCTION
EFFICIENCY
Atmospheric air contains many impurities that cannot be seen. These can be potentially damaging to the
pneumatic system and air-using device and could have an advice effect on the quality of the product that is
to be produced. The reliability of the system is impaired. 1m³ of atmospheric air can contain impurities such
as:
• Up to 180 million particles of dirt between 0.01 and 100 micron in size
• 5-40 g/m³ water in the form of humidity in the atmosphere
• 0.01 to 0.03 mg/m³ of oil in the form of aerosols of mineral oil and unburned hydrocarbons
• Traces of metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury, iron.
• Possible traces of sulphur oxide
6.1.1 consequences
Should the impurities and water remain within the compressed air the result could be intolerable. This can
apply to both the piping distribution system as well as the point of application equipment. The quality of the
product being produced could deteriorate and the amounts of scrap will increase. This will impact the
productivity of the company and as such have a direct impact on the profits.
6.2.1 Humidity
Humidity is the quantity of moisture that air can hold at a given temperature. This is not
pressure dependent. Relative humidity is the ratio of absolute to maximum humidity.
Refer to back of this chapter for the full air moisture content chart.
Q = condensate (g)
V1 = Volume at 0 barg (m³)
V2 = Volume at 10 barg (m³)
HUmax = Max humidity at 28 °C (g/m³)
RH1 = Relative humidity of V1 (%)
RH2 = Relative humidity of V2 (%)
V1 = 6 (m³)
V2 = 0.54 (m³) (6-m³ / 11 bara)
HUmax = 26.970 (g/m³)
RH1 = 70 (%)
RH2 = 100 (%) [saturated when compressed]
Q = 98.71 g
When compressing 6 m³ of air to 10 bar pressure at a constant temperature 98.71 g of water will precipitate
in the form of condensate.
The following example shows the amount of condensate that actually will occur when the air is compressed.
You will see that condensate will occur at several points within the compressor installation and at different
times. We will calculate the rate of condensate on a compressor with an output of 1800 m³/hr and a final
delivery pressure of 8-barg. This compressor is connected to a wet compressed air receiver and a
refrigerated air dryer.
The atmosphere contains a certain amount of water under the following conditions.
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 20 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 17.148 (g/m³)
P2 = 9-bara
T2 = 28°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 26.970 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 9) = 200 m³/hr
This is 19.3 l/hr of water, which in 24 hours is 463.18 l per day. Over a month this is potentially 14,358
litres of water passed into the air stream. Do you think a dryer is needed?
After the air is cooled down in the refrigerated air dryer to the corresponding pressure dew point, which is
normally 3°C the condensate that precipitates in the dryer is then drained out. Provided the compressed air
temperature does not fall below 3°c no more condensate will form.
P2 = 9-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 200 m³/hr
Recalculate the condensate stream on the basis of the same inlet capacity and
ambient conditions. The only change is the pressure is increased to 10-barg.
This is a considerable amount of condensate. If the condensate contains traces of mineral oils then the
condensate treatment equipment must treat this condensate.
On a hot and humid summers day the quantity of the condensate will be even higher even if the PDP is
unchanged at +3°C.
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 33 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 35,317 (g/m³)
P2 = 9-bara
T2 = 45°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 64,848 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 9) = 200 m³/hr
P2 = 9-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 200 m³/hr
DIN ISO8573-1:2001 defines the quality classes from the compressed air according to:
Oil content
Residual quantity of aerosols and hydrocarbons in the compressed air measured in mg/m³. Use this class
with your customer to determine the level of oil including vapour, which is acceptable in his system.
ISO8573-1 : 2001
Solid Particles Water Oil
3
Class Maximium number of particles per m Pressure Incl Vapour
0.1 - 0.5 micron 0.5 -1.0 micron 1.0 - 5.0 micron Dewpoint C Mg/m3
1 100 1 0 -70 0.01
2 100,000 1,000 10 -40 0.1
3 - 10,000 500 -20 1
4 - - 1000 3 5
5 - - 20,000 7 -
6 - - - 10 -
Shown are the main six air quality classes we work with today. The ISO standard was revised in 2001 where
the solid particles now include a number of particles at a given size.
A system requires: less than 1 micron solids, less than +3°C Pressure Dewpoint and less
than .01 mg/m3 oil carryover
Once each point is known, then the system is defined in a common language. From here, you and the
customer will know what the parameters are at each of the five points in the system. Changes to any point
in the system now has a baseline.
S = Solid Particles
W = Water Pressure dew point
O = Oil content (including Vapour)
A1
P1
A2
A3 P1
A4 P3
P4
A5
P5
Air quality S W O
A1 5 6 5
A2 3 6 3
A3 2 4 1
A4 2 4 1
A5 2 4 1
Ingersoll Rand industrial air clarifications, shown in Chapter 14 is a good guide for the compressed air user.
• Condensation, which is the separation of the water by going below the dew point.
(Refrigeration)
• Adsorption, which is the drying by removal of the moisture, like a sponge. (Desiccant)
• Diffusion, the drying by molecular transfer. (Membrane dryer)
Thermal Mass
Over compression TMS
The drying equipment is designed according to ISO 7183 for operating conditions. This is referred to as an
inlet operating pressure of 7 barg, ambient of 25°C and an inlet temperature to the dryer of 35°C.
The dryer may operate under different operating conditions. Therefore appropriate conversions can be taken
into consideration when sizing the dryer. These conversion factors will vary dependant on the drying
processes.
The following example is the conversion factors for the Ingersoll Rand TMS dryer straight from the
brochure.
The customer has a flow rate requirement of 5 m³/min with a required PDP of 4°C. The operating conditions
are 6-barg inlet to the dryer, ambient temperature 35°C & inlet temperature 45°C to the dryer.
One important consideration should be made when make corrections. If you are doing this to lower the size
of the dryer then consider the pressure drop of a smaller frame dryer. The higher the pressure drop then the
lower the useful differential of the compressor. This could result in increased compressor cycles.
Useful Differential is the air pressure variation after the clean-up equipment, which is defined as:
Useful Differential = Compressor Pressure Control Band – Pressure Drop Across Clean-Up Equipment
6.4.2 Adsorption
The properties of the adsorption material changes with the pressure and
the temperature of the gas to be dried.
There are different types of desiccant materials readily available that are
used either singularly or as a combination dependent on the application.
Adsorption material
Silicagel (SiO2) raw
Silicagel (SiO2) spherical
Activated Aluminium oxide (Al2O2)
Molecular Sieves (Na, AlO2, SIO2)
The moist compressed air flows into the adsorption vessel. The moisture is the bound to the adsorption
material, which dries the compressed air. The adsorption material must be regenerated when the water
droplets balance the adhesive forces. This means that the water must be removed from the absorption
material. For this reason there are two parallel drying tanks with continual operation. Whilst one tank
adsorbs under pressure the other regenerates at atmospheric pressure.
• Heatless regeneration
• Internal hot regeneration
• External heat regeneration either by vacuum or by blower
There are some negative factors that will effect the adsorption process:
Capacity – The flow across the dryer is higher than that of the dryer rating.
Operating pressure – The pressure across the dryer is too low and the capacity of the air is too high.
Inlet temperature – Inlet temperature of the dryer is too high.
6.4.3Vacuum regeneration
The vacuum regenerative dryer is a externally heat regenerative dryer. The regeneration time is 6 hours (can
be longer with EMS so that the heater is not applied so often consequently saving). During this time the
moisture within the compressed air deposits itself on to the inner and outer surfaces of the adsorption
material. To reverse this process heat must be brought in from the outside. If the heat load being applied
exceeds the regeneration temperature of the drying material then the water is evaporated off the surface of
the adsorption material. On some competitive externally heated dryers a small amount of compressed air
(nominally 2.2%) would be used to purge off the moisture.
This is not the case with a Vacuum regenerative dryer. Atmospheric air is drawn in the regeneration tower
with a partial vacuum. This achieves the highest heat yield at the lowest energy. However water evaporates
at a lower pressure under a vacuum.
These dryers are extremely economical especially with high volume flows above 7m³/min. But this
is dependant on how much the customer pays for electricity.
• No additional compressed air is taken from the system for regeneration. This means that all the air
that is generated is available for the production process. This could avoid the up sizing of the
compressor.
• Long utility time on the drying agent compared to internally heated desiccant dryers that can bake
the agent
• Energy savings through lower regeneration temperature compared to an externally heated dryer or
a blower purge dryer.
• Like the heatless desiccant dryer a suitable pre-filtration is essential in order to remove the oil, bulk
liquid and particulate before entrapment on the desiccant bed.
• You would also need to allow for a dust filter.
• EMS will prolong the cycle further. This is useful if the load across the dryer is not 100% and there
is extra drying capacity. If the adsorption cycle is still maintaining the desired dew-point then there
is no need to change the cycle.
• The only disadvantages are that the ambient air must be of a high quality so that the desiccant does
not get contaminated, as this can be expensive.
A. Loading
Air enters vessel & distributed by self cleaning wedge screen. Leaves by distributor.
B. Regeneration
When loading is complete, vessel switches over.
Loaded vessel is depressurised and regenerated
V3
1. Expansion.
Expansion valve opened.
2. Heating phase
RV / V3 opened
Vacuum fan switches on
Heater switches on
3. Cooling phase
Heater switches off
Vacuum continues to draw
4. Pressure build up
V4 opens
RV / V3 close
RV
V4
We have learnt that when the temperature falls air losses its ability to retain water. Knowing this, if we want
to reduce the moisture content compressed air can be cooled by a refrigeration dryer. The refrigeration
drying process is cooling the air down within a heat exchanger. The moisture contained in the air
precipitates in the form of condensate. The quantity of condensate rises with the difference between the
entry and exit temperatures of the compressed air.
Around 90% of all air drying applications use a refrigerated dryer. They are highly economical. Pressure
drop across the dryers vary. The total differential of the clean-up equipment changes as a function of the
individual compressor’s flow. Since the differential changes as a square function of flow change, any high
differential is seen by the compressors controller, and may unload the compressor prematurely.
Refrigeration system works due to a fundamental fact that if any liquid is pressurised, its boiling point is
raised and conversely, if the pressure is lowered, its boiling point is reduced. We know that at atmospheric
pressure 1 bar water boils at 100°C. If the pressure then raised to 1.38 bar the boiling point is raised to
approximately 110°C If the pressure is lowered to 0.7 bar, the boiling point is lowered to approx. 90°C.
All liquids act in this way and the liquid used in a refrigeration system is continually having its pressure
changed by the refrigeration compressor in order to vary its boiling point. The low temperature at which
refrigerant boils enables cooling to be carried out. Thus by simply reducing the pressure i.e., the suction
effect of the compressor combined with the capillary tube, the liquid in the evaporator has its boiling point
reduced and when the liquid evaporates, it must draw heat inwards. If this low-pressure vapour is now
compressed its boiling point is raised, which when cooled below its boiling point at this higher pressure will
cause condensation, thus producing high-pressure liquid.
Compressor (A)
It reduces the pressure in the evaporator until the liquid refrigerant evaporates at the
correct, low, temperature. It compresses the refrigerant vapour in order to reach its
boiling point. Refrigerant exits the compressors as a high-pressure gas.
Condenser (C)
The condenser receives the hot, high-pressure vapour from the compressor and
cools it. This cools the high-pressure gas to a high-pressure liquid.
Compressed air heat is rejected to the cooling airflow within the evaporator. This
changes the state of the refrigerant from a low-pressure liquid to a low-pressure
gas. Condensation occurs as the refrigerant passes through the condenser and the
result is high-pressure liquid, which feeds the capillary expander.
The valve adjusts the gas to the correct pressure of the refrigerant, which
leaves the evaporator, it reverts the hot gas from the compressor back to
the suction line.
As the air passes through the main exchanger the temperature is reduced to the same level as the thermal
mass (normally 2º C), and in so doing more water is removed from the air which is removed by the separator
and trap connected to the outlet of the main exchanger.
Refrigeration circuit
Water Separator
Thermal Mass
Heat Exchanger
Precooler/
Reheater
Refrigerant
Compressor Air Inlet
Air Outlet
The compressor will compress the refrigerant to a high-pressure gas. This is the passed through the
condenser, which will change the state of the refrigerant to a high-pressure liquid. Dependent on the size of
the TMS dryer the refrigerant is then allowed to expand through a thermostatic control valve. Here the
refrigerant changes its state once more and becomes a low pressure liquid.
In the thermal mass heat exchanger, as well as the air coils, is a coil of pipe known as the evaporator, which
is filled with liquid refrigerant held at low pressure by the suction effect of the compressor. The heat load
from the compressed air is exchanged to the refrigerant and boils off to a low-pressure gas, which is
returned to the suction side of the refrigerant compressor. If there is a low compressed air heat load
(machine is off load) the thermostatic valves restrict the flow of refrigerant through the evaporator.
Ultimately this reflects in the shutdown of the complete unit until the heat load is reapplied by the creation
of more compressed air. The end result is saving energy whilst maintaining the dew point within the thermal
mass.
Pre-cooler:
Lowers incoming air temperatures. This reduces the load on the refrigeration unit
reducing energy consumption
Re-heater:
Raises the temp. of the outgoing dry air. The benefit is that this lowers relative humidity
protecting downstream piping from corrosion and external sweating.
The thermal mass dryers maintain constant PDP under no load conditions. The result is
no PDP peaks. With direct expansion dryers the refrigerant flow is constantly being adjusted. PDP peaks
may occur with this type of dyer.
If the flow is constant, 100% continuous loaded than the TMS offers no advantage. However there are other
advantages such as, adjustable thermostat for the dew point (some models).
6.5.1 Terminology
This is a typical Ingersoll Rand filter. The air flows from the inside of the
filter to the outside
The delta P with a clean and new filter is around 0.07 bar dry to 0.14 bar
wet depending on the type of filter. The economical acceptable limit for
pressure drop is around 0.35-barg. However one should calculate the cost
of the pressure drop compared to the cost of the replacement element. For
every 0.5-barg the kW consumed would increase by approx. 3.6 %. For a
75 kW compressor this would result in an extra cost of:
The maximum flow through the filter is referred to a normal working pressure of 7-barg. When the pressure
changes the flow rate through the filter also changes. This change can be calculated using the conversion
factor below. It should be noted that filters sized for the nominal bore of the pipe work offer least resistance.
Even if the filters rate flow is sized according to the compressors rated flow.
Example: An Ingersoll Rand MH75 has a nominal performance of 11.0 m³/min. The appropriate pre-filter
for this compressor basis a working pressure of 7-barg would be GP481, which is rated for 13.46 m³/min.
The next size of filter down from the GP481 is the GP350, which is rated for 9.8m³/min. Basis the higher
working pressure could this filter handle the increased air flow?
R10 = R7 x f
R10 = 9.8 x 1.13
R10 = 11.07 m³/min
An Ingersoll-Rand MH45 has a nominal performance of 6.5 m³/min. What filter would
you offer with this compressor basis a working pressure of 9 barg?
The pre-filters operate according to the principle of impingement. They purely have a sifting effect to the
compressed air supply. The size of the pore within the element depends upon the size of the particles to be
removed. The impurities will remain on the inside surface of the filter elements. Therefore once the pressure
drop is excessive the elements need to be replaced rather than cleaned.
Coalescing
Minute liquids are trapped on the filter fibre.
All “coalesce”(collect) to form larger
droplets. Fall to the bottom and are drained
away.
High efficiency filters are used when high quality compressed air is needed. Particle removal down to 0.01
micron including water and oil aerosols, providing a maximum remaining oil aerosol content of 0.01 mg/m3
(<0.01 ppm) @ 21°C. (Precede with Grade GP filter).
Air passes through the deep-bedded element from the inside to the outside. The liquid
phase from oil and water droplets deposit on the fibrous web when passing through the
filter. The flow of the air drives the condensate and growing droplets further through the
filter towards the outside of the element. Following the laws of gravity the condensate
forms at the bottom of the filter housing. A float drain will open and dispose of the
condensate. The working life of the filter is enhanced as the condensate that is filtered out
will no longer be a burden to the element.
The material used with these filters is designed to repel water and oil.
Can you always achieve pure oil-free air from an oil-lubricated compressor with in-line filters?
Compressor rooms are hot. Filters are designed to remove oil carry-over when the inlet temperature is
around 21°C. So the compressor room ambient air must be around 10-12 °C to deliver air at this
temperature. But, it is more likely that the temperature is above 20°C, delivering at over 30°C.
More heat means more carry-over. As the air temperature rises, oil carry-over increases exponentially, so
the amount of oil pumped into the air net exceeds the filter capability and there is air supply contamination.
If 100% oil free air is essential then 100% oil free compressors (Sierra, Centac or Nirvana Oil Free) need to
be offered.
Extra filters won’t help. Even a combination of filters cannot guarantee 100% air purity. Some say a three-
stage filtration system with a final stage, activated carbon filter will eliminate the oil content (Those that
don’t offer oil free compressors). This arrangement is only efficient at 21 °C so you are back to the
beginning once more. Don’t forget that the more filters will equate to a high-pressure drop. This means a
higher applied input kW.
Is the risk worth it? For pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electronics, automotive, textiles, chemical &
medical industries nearly always need and specify a clean, dry and 100% oil free compressed air system.
Oil that is carried over in vapour form will condense when the air is expanded and cooled.
Ingersoll Rand filter elements use a patented end cap with a swept bend.
This lowers the pressure drop of the filter. The moulded seal ensures perfect
alignment.
An activated carbon filter must always be connected up stream of a high performance filter and dryer.
Unfiltered compressor air will destroy the absorbing material and reduce the filtration effect. Once the
absorbing material is beyond its service life the material must be disposed of, as it cannot be reused.
Typically the life of an activated carbon filter is 1000 hours. AC filters do not have any differential pressure
indicators and should be replaced on operating hours.
It is the compressed air users responsibility to ensure that the condensate is disposed of as it can be
potentially harmful. Mineral oils in the condensate are hard to biodegrade and are detrimental to oxygen
enrichment and material disintegration in the water treatment works. The result is that the entire water
treatment efficiency is worsened. There is a hazard to the environment and the human health.
The condensate from a pneumatic system can differ and this depends on the environment and the
compressor type.
Where condensate occurs within a compressed air system it has to be drained. If the condensate is not
drained it will flow with the compressed air and enter the pipeline. Condensate must be drained off at the
lowest possible pressure loss otherwise the draining off will create a demand event that will result in more
compressors starting or an unacceptable production pressure down stream. This will be calculated within the
next section.
On must also take not that condensate does not occur on a continued basis. We have already shown that the
amount of condensate changes with temperature and moisture that is drawn in by the compressor. (Chapter
Manual Automatic
It is important that when you select the type of drain you consider the conditions in which the drain itself is
to operate in. For example a PNLD will operate better outside or where the compressor room is damp.
Compared to the electrically operated ENLD. You should also consider:
• Aggressive condensate. Air containing SO2 (sulphur oxide) will when mixed with water create H2SO4,
which is sulphuric acid.
• Explosive (zone 1,2) areas
• High and very high pressure networks.
• Condensate drains that will need to operate when the ambient temperature is below 0°C. The water will
freeze in the drain our within the condensate drain line.
This type of drain is highly reliable. Electrical connection is required yet on dryers and certain compressors
this is provided within the scope of supply. There is no external malfunction signal but it is rare that they
fail. The down side is that this type of drain will open even if there is no compressed air demand. This will
vent compressed air from the system and lower the pressure. Multiple drains firing off could result in the
false loading of a compressor.
This shows a solenoid operated drain mounted within a dryer. Most modern refrigerated air dryers are now
supplied with moisture sensing drains.
Due to the high water content it is worth treating the oily condensate on site. With consent properly treated
water can be disposed of into a public wastewater drainage system. The separated oil should be disposed of
in an environmentally safe way.
This type of separator separates the oil from the water by “passive”
gravitation and activated carbon. The carbon bag is a consumable
item and must be replaced to ensure correct operation of the
separator.
1. Condensate and air enters the centrifugal inlet chamber under pressure and is
allowed to expand.
2. Liquid drops out as it impinges on the chamber walls and vortex generator,
draining into the primary settlement chamber below.
3. Dirt particles suspended in the condensate will settle to the bottom of the
primary settlement chamber.
Feature / Benefits.
• Extended filter life: up to 1 year or 8000 hours
• Adsorption module contains a special ‘Zeolite’ adsorbent
& hold’s 4 times more than standard activated carbon filters.
The Polysep helps to protect & maintain the environment by efficiently separating oil from water on-site.
After separation, the condensate can be passed down the foul sewers. Meeting trade effluent regulations!
Condensate
Diffuser Chamber
Pump Compressed Air Line
Oil
Weir Zeolite Filter
Main Ball
Reservoir Valve Float
Pick-up
Tube
• For use with Mineral Oil, Diesters, Polyol Ester (Ultra Plus), PAO
• Separates oil by “passive” gravitation and activated carbon.
• Carbon Filtration
PolySep™:
• For use with Mineral Oil, Diesters, Polyol Ester (Ultra Plus), PAO, Ultra Coolant & Polyglycols
(PolySep can handle emulsions). The process can work with multi-unit separation.
• However, it will not work with Food Grade & Silicone Lubricants.
• Zeolite element filter
The procedure for compressor sizing is comparable to the determining of the size of pipelines.
Determination of the type and number of consumer devices on a certain section of pipe comes first. The
consumption of the individual devices can be added together and then adjusted by any multiplication
factors.
Leakage must also be taken into account when determining the expected consumption of the compressed
air. One should also make allowances for any plant expansion.
This process is not always easy. This is due to the lack of information given by the OEM for the individual
components. Within the chapter we provide guideline values for the requirement of individual components.
These are average values and the OEM should provide the exact figures.
• Larger diameter nozzles will have a greater consumption (see chapter 14)
• Operating pressure will effect the flow through the nozzle. The higher the pressure the greater the flow.
• A simple, cylindrical through a hole consumes less air compared to a conical nozzle. Therefore the
shape of the nozzle effects the flow.
• If the surface quality of the aperture is very good (smooth, no grooves or roughness) more air can flow
through.
• Usage of compressed air rises if the air is being used as a medium for paint, sand etc.
Nozzles that have a simple cylindrical bore, such as blowguns create a strong turbulent flow. This will
reduce the speed of the flow and hence lower the consumption. The following table provides a reference for
compressed air consumption of such cylindrical nozzles. This is dependent upon the pressure and nozzle
diameter. Health and Safety bodies will state the safe working pressure of a blowgun is 2-barg.
Single action cylinders use compressed air to generate the movement of the working stroke. The return
stroke is performed by a spring or from the outside. Where as the double action cylinder will use
compressed air to generate the movement with both strokes. The result is that the double action cylinder will
consume twice as much compressed air as the single action.
C = d²x π x S x P x A x B
4
Example: A double action cylinder with a piston diameter 50mm is required to work at an operating
pressure of 6-barg. The working stroke is 150mm at 30 work cycles per minute.
There is a difference between flat, broad and round spray nozzles. The type of spray will have an influence
of the application of the paint. The following tabulation gives reference values for the compressed air
consumption of a spray nozzle depending upon the operating pressure, the nozzle type and diameter of the
nozzle or orifice.
Air Consumption values are shown in l/min and are for flat and broad spray nozzles
Diameter 2-bar 3-bar 4-bar 5-bar 6-bar
(mm)
0.5 100 115 135 160 185
1.0 125 150 175 200 240
1.5 160 180 200 225 260
2.0 185 210 235 265 295
2.5 210 230 260 300 340
3.0 230 250 290 330 375
Consumption values are shown in l/min and are for round spray nozzles
Diameter 2-bar 3-bar 4-bar
(mm)
0.5 75 90 105
1.0 95 115 135
1.5 120 140 155
We can see that increasing the pressure will increase the air consumption. This may also impact the
coverage of the paint.
UR will be expressed as a %.
An example of this is a screwdriver that is in use for 30 min in the course of a one-hour period.
UR = 30 x 100%
60
UR = 50%
Calculate the usage rate for the following tools within a one-hour period:
Screwdriver 15 min
Grinding machine 40 min
Blow gun 10 min
Tooling machine 55 min
Shot blasting 9 min
Usage rates of some widely used pneumatic devices are given in the table below. These are general figures
and may deviate. Therefore the UR is always a question that should be asked.
Tool Average UR %
Drill 30
Grinder 40
Mortise hammer 30
Forming machine 20
Blow gun 10
Tooling machine 75
The following tabulation shows simultaneity factors that are generally recognised in industry.
You would normally apply the simultaneity factor to cylinders, pneumatic tools, machine tools &
production machinery.
The second specific user or consumer of compressed air is the general user. The average usage rate can be
calculated for this type of user as they tend not to be in use all at the same time. The UR and simultaneity
factors are reducing factors and used when determining the overall consumption.
Therefore the total air consumption (T) is the addition of the automatic devices and the general air users. In
this example this would equate to 10 + 0.9 = T 10.9 m³/min (10900 l/min)
This is not the final figure for the sizing of the piping and compressor system, as allowances need to made
for losses, reserves and margin of error.
When it comes to sizing the piping distribution system and the compressed air storage (receiver) being over
size will only improve the operational efficiency of the system Where as being undersized will have a great
effect to the efficiency and the delivered pressure to the application.
In our example we have determined a compressed air requirement of 10.9 m³/min at a minimum pressure of
6-barg. Now we must factor in the allowances for losses and reserves.
In our example the FAD required to give the air consumer an adequate supply of air at the desired working
pressure is 14.17 m³/min. All equipment and piping distribution system should be based on this value.
Condensate traps
If you use automatic drain traps, you should check whether they are functioning correctly. Some types of
drain traps are not reliable and in practice they are often bypassed so that condensate can be released from
the system. Doing this can lose large amounts of compressed air. Bypassed drain traps are often found at
remote parts of the system, where condensate collects. Float drains stuck open is a common source for air
wastage.
The electronically operated condensate traps available and very reliable. By fitting these you can remove the
need for bypassing. Liquid sensing low loss drains will return a quick return on investment.
Pipework
Ageing piping is a prime source of leaks. Replacing any leaking and corroded pipework sections will not
only improve the system but will also improve safety.
Manifolds
The connection to a usage point is often made using snap connections with flexible hoses. Sometimes
several are used together, forming a manifold arrangement. Such manifolds can leak due to worn
connections and poorly jointed pipework. Take off hoses are fitted to snap connections via push on fittings
and secured with a hose clip. Such fittings often leak, especially after being in service for some time.
Flexible hoses
Where flexible hoses are used to make connections between the piping network and usage points, leaks can
be caused by:
• Damage to hose, due to abrasion by surrounding objects.
• Deterioration of the hose material, where the wrong material is used for a surrounding aggressive, oily
or hot atmosphere.
• Strain on the joint because the hose is too long or too short.
If a large flexible hose bursts or breaks free, not only will you lose a lot of compressed air, but you
could also have a dangerous open ended hose lashing around. Fit such hoses with burst sensitive valves
that can cut the air supply off in the event of sudden air loss.
Very small connections are sometimes made using flexible nylon tubing with push in connections.
Leaks are often found where the tubing has worn due to contact with its surroundings or where it has
split at bends due to cyclical movement. Although leaks are typically small, they can be numerous and
add up.
Instrumentation
Check connections to pneumatic instruments, such as regulators, lubricators, valve blocks and sensors.
Regulators often leak due to worn diaphragms.
Pneumatic cylinders
Check pneumatic cylinders for worn internal air seals, which can cause large leaks.
Filters
When taken collectively, filters are often found to be the source of quite large leaks. Leaks can be found at.
• Drainage points
• Poorly sealing automatic drains
• Badly fitted bowls
Where possible, isolate these machines from the compressed air supply when the machine is not in use.
8.3.1 Calculate cost of air loss
The following tabulation demonstrates the cost of air leakage. This is basis 7-barg air pressure, €0.045
kW/hr electrical cost & 8760 hours per year.
The simplest method to quantify the leakage is by the emptying of the compressed air receiver. The supply
line to the compressed air receiver should be isolated and all the consumer devices should be switched off.
The receiver pressure (P3) drops as a result so of the leakage to the pressure (P4). The time is then
measured.
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
Example: A compressed air receiver and the piping distribution system has a volume of 3.5m³ (3500l).
Within a 3-minute period the receiver pressure drops from 7-barg to 5-barg.
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
L = 2.33 (m³/min)
V = 3.5 (m³)
P1 = 7 (bar)
P2 =25 (bar)
Compressed Air Science – issue Page 8 of 11
March 05 T = 3 (min)
The leakage volume in this theoretical system is 2.33 m³ (2330l)
A compressed air receiver with a large piping distribution system has a total volume of 10m³. Within a
2-minute period the pressure drops from 7-barg to 6-barg. Calculate the approximate amount of
compressed air that would be lost through leakage.
This method of measuring is only suitable for systems where the piping distribution system is less than 10%
of the volume of the compressed air receiver. Otherwise the results are in accurate.
The second method of quantifying the volume of leakage is by measuring the operating time of the
compressor. This method can only be used with compressors having intermittent and idling operation
modes. The consumer devices should be switched off. Leakage in the system will consume the compressed
air demand and then the compressor needs to load and replace the volume.
The total time running is measured over the period of time. To obtain a realistic result the measuring time
should last for at least 5-cycle intervals of the compressor.
L = C x T1 x 1000
T2
Example: A compressor with an effective FAD (c) of 5 m³/min has five actuation’s with a measuring time
of 180 seconds (T2). Its total loaded running time during the measuring time is 30 seconds (T1)
L = C x T1 x 1000
T2
L = 833 (l/min)
C = 5 (m³/min)
T1 = 30 (s)
T2 = 180 (s)
Within the UK the Carbon Trust (Government funded body charged to lower carbon emissions) consider
5% leakage as an acceptable limit.
When leaks are repaired, the pressure will rise in the vicinity of the repairs. The higher pressure increases
the flow through any remaining smaller leaks. The velocity through the leaks increases exponentially to the
increase in flow. The result is dramatically increased propagation of the remaining leaks, which in a short
period of time, returns leaks to the original level. The long-term solution to these problems requires
controlling the demand pressure with extraordinary resolution so that decreases in leak load will not cause
increases in localised pressure. Response to less than 0.05 of a bar change is required. Compressor controls
and sequencers, even PLC based systems, can not possibly provide this type of resolution. The only devices
we are aware of that can respond in this manner is a demand expander or in Ingersoll-Rand speak an
IntelliFlow valve. Refer to Chapter 10 for details on the IntelliFlow valve.
Leakage will increase the higher the working pressure. Therefore it is essential that the system pressure is
no higher than the desired minimum P5 operating pressure. As compressed air systems operates within a
pressure control band, and the differential across the clean up will vary dependant on flow and condition of
the filters, the system operating pressure is generally much higher than necessary.
m³/min
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
3mm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
bar g
ONE OFF LEAK DETECTION SURVEY WITH NO SYSTEM PRESSURE CONTROLLER, YOU ARE
WASTING YOUR MONEY.
When leaks are repaired the pressure will rise in the surrounding area of the repair. As the pressure rises the
flow though the leaks that are not repaired increases. Therefore relativity small leaks before could become
larger leaks, which means that in a short period of time the leakage could return to the original level.
The long-term solution is to control the demand pressure to such a resolution that this decreases the leak
load and will not cause increases in localised pressure. Response to less than 0.05 bar (0.75 psi) change is
required. Compressor controls and system controllers, even PLC or microprocessor-based systems cannot
possibly provide this type of constant pressure resolution. Recommended is a demand side pressure
controller that is set to the plants minimum desired pressure. Your compressed air audit should determine
this minimum pressure. In addition to precise pressure control a continuing leak detection program should
be introduced.
First one needs to determine the type of compressor that should be installed.
Reciprocating compressors tend to be applied within light industrial type or special applications. They can
often supplement the screw compressor.
• Intermittent requirements. These compressors are
suitable for a fluctuating consumption of compressed air.
They can be used as peak shaping machines in a
compressor system.
• Small FAD. They are ideal compressors where the FAD
is small and in frequent.
• The differential pressure is normally wide on these
compressors in order to lower the compress cycles.
(Punload –20%)
• Piston compressors can compress to a high pressure.
Normal working pressure is 8, 10, 14, 30 and 35-bar.
The next step when determining the size of a compressor with the associated compressed air receiver and air
treatment products would be to establish the compressor Punload. The basis the maximum pressure
(Punload) is the cycle difference (Punload-Pload) of the compressor control and the maximum operating
pressure of the consumer devices. The total pressure loss of the air system needs to also be considered.
The wet compressed air receiver (receiver before the dryer) will always fluctuate between the Pload and
Punload. The Pload must be higher than the operating pressure of the down stream consumer devices. There
will always be pressure loss within the compressed air system and the pressure loss of the various
components must be taken into consideration. The following values should typically be considered when
defining the Punload pressure (compressor cut out pressure).
Change in Pressure
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
Pressure
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005 18/01/2005
14:52 15:00 15:07 15:14 15:21 15:28 15:36 15:43
• Compressed air treatment by filters and separators – Filters in general could see a pressure
drop of 0.6-bar. When new the filter pressure drop is at least 0.14-bar. Dust filters will tend to
have a slightly lower pressure drop of around 0.07-bar. Over time the pressure drop will rise
through the filter as a result of soiling.
• Compressor set points – This will vary as the wider the set points the more potential stored
energy. Ingersoll Rand compressors that operate in on-line/off-line control will have a
minimum differential of 0.7-bar. This can be increased by 0.1-bar increments on the IntelliSys
control panel. Reciprocating compressors tend to have set points basis Punload less 20%.
• Reserves – Pressure loss that could occur over time within the pneumatic system. This is more
like a contingency reserve in order to avoid a loss in performance. This reserve should be
made basis the Unload point of the set points and not the load point.
The most critical pressure within the pneumatic system is the P5 consumer pressure. If this pressure is
lower than acceptable production will be effected and in variably it is the compressor service provider who
will be blamed. The normal fix by the responsible compressor plant operator would be to turn on additional
compressors.
Below is a typical schematic of a single compressor system. The size of the compressed air receiver is
normally 10% of the compressor volume. This rule of thumb has been handed down from generation to
generation of compressor sales people. Any CAS attendee would normally confirm this.
75kW Pmin……….7.0
P3
Pmax………..7.3
Useful Diff……..0.3
1.5m³
P2
P5 = 6-bar
During the Compressed Air Science course the attendees would be asked what would you set the
compressor set points at basis the end users P5 being stated as 6-bar? Nearly every one would state the
Pload point 1-bar higher than the requested P5 pressure. The Punload point will often create some debate
but this is often stated as being 0.7 to 1-barg higher than the Pload pressure.
The Pmin pressure is in fact the same pressure as the Pload set pressure. The Pmax pressure is the Punload
pressure minus the differential. This leaves the useful differential, which is the Pmax-Pmin. If we consider
the compressor being loaded the differential is the square root of the flow. The pressure up stream of the air
treatment (P2) will always be higher compared to the down stream (P3) and the differential pressure is a
function of the flow. Therefore in this example the pressure needs to be 7.6-bar upstream before the down
stream pressure starts to rise. If the demand is as much as the delivered pressure the down stream pressure
will not rise. However if the demand is less than the delivered pressure the down stream pressure will rise.
This is where the compressor is delivering more air into the system than what the consumer is using so the
system pressure increases. As the system pressure rises the up stream and down stream pressures will rise at
the same rate. The pressure will rise to 7.3-bar on the down stream side and 7.9 on the up stream and then
the compressor will unload.
The P2 pressure will fall to almost the same pressure as the P3 and then the pressure will fall to the Pload
point and the compressor will load once more. The rate of decay in the pressure will depend upon the
system volume and the useful differential.
Pmin……….
P3 Pmax………..
75kW
Useful Diff……..
1.5
m³
P2
P5 = 5-bar
7.9 bar Punload
0.5 bar
P2 P4
Pmin……………….
Pmax………………
Useful differential…
For many years the debate has raged with respect to the location of the compressed air receiver. In fact both
locations are acceptable and it really depends upon the application. Ingersoll Rand recommends Dry storage
or stored volume at the Air Quality the customer requires for the majority of applications.
P2
Advantages:
• The dryer can be sized according to the actual consumption of the compressed air, or for a partial flow
of compressed air that needs to be dried.
• Slightly lower compressed air entry temperature. The compressed air has a limited opportunity to cool
down within the compressed air receiver.
• Low quantities of condensate will collect in the receiver and not burden the rest of the system.
Disadvantages
• Condensate within the compressed air receiver will lead to corrosion.
• The dryer will be overloaded if there is any abrupt heavy withdrawal of compressed air. This will rise
the pressure dew point in the compressed air lines and could result in loss of productivity.
P3
P2
• Dried air within the compressed air receiver results in stored compressed air at the air quality the user
requires.
• No possibility of rust in the receiver, longer life.
• Consistent compressed air quality even if there are any unexpected large volume demand events.
• Common sensing point for multiple compressed air trains or multiple compressors.
Disadvantages
• Dryer must be sized for 100% of the compressor rating. All the air needs to be dried.
The installation of a wet air receiver is very emotional and comes from the days of reciprocating
compressors. Is the installation of the wet receiver truly justified?
• Takes out moisture before it his the dryer – This is minimal as the air is not in the tank for loang with a
small receiver. Some cooling as there is moisture
• Lowers compressor cycles. This is true however irrelevant if the control point is at the dry receiver,
which is more efficient as you can narrow the pressure band in multiple machine installations.
• Dryer manufacturers will not honour warranty if there is no dry storage. Not the case with refrigerated
air dryers. We offer dryers inside the compressor enclosure. In the case of desiccant dryers our
recommendation to retain the small receiver as the wet receiver.
• Pre-longs the life of the pre-filter. Not true. Water does not effect element life it is particulate.
• Acts as a cooler. Not as effective as you think and the receiver can also be hot.
75kW Pmin……….7.0
P3
Pmax………..7.3
Useful Diff……..0.3
1.5m³
P2
P5 = 6-bar
Here we have a compressed air receiver that is sized for approximately 10% of the compressor volume. Let
us consider a demand of 10 m³/min and the compressor’s rated flow is 12.6 m³/min. Using the following
formula we can calculate the time the time unloaded and the time loaded.
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
T = 0.045 (mins)
V = 1.5 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
To calculate the time to elevate the pressure to the cut out pressure you would use the following formula.
T = V x (P1-P2)
RC-C x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
RC = Rated flow of compressor (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)
T = V x (P1-P2)
RC-C x Pabs
T = 0.17 (mins)
V = 1.5 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.3 (bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
RC = 12.6 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
The time to elevate the pressure from point of loading (Pload) to point of unloading (Punload) would be
0.17 mins (10.38 seconds). This would manifest itself as a frequently cycling compressor.
Recalculate the load and unload times on the basis of a 4m³ air receiver and a useful differential
of 0.4-bar.
Load time……
Unload time….
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
To control this demand event the receiver would need to be 16.66 m³ (16,660 litres). This calculation is
particularly of use when determining the required storage for large demand event protection.
What is becoming very apparent is that stored volume and pressure differential as a big effect on the rate of
change within the compressed air system. A limited amount of storage and a small useful differential will
result in increased cycling of a compressor or the loading of additional compressors to satisfy the demand
events.
Ingersoll Rand recommend that the receiver should be sized to protect the largest system event. If this is not
known then the loss of a base load compressor and the time to start up a stand-by compressor is considered
the largest event the system will see. Typically it will take around 15 seconds (0.25 min) to start up a stand-
by compressor. During this time we want to limit the fall of the pressure in the system. We would
recommend a drop in pressure of 0.3-bar. So the demand side pressure (P4 or Pmin) should be at least 0.3-
bar above the minimum acceptable production pressure (P5). We have to consider worst case when is the
full output capacity of the base compressor.
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
To protect the system integrity the receiver needs to be at least 10 m³ (10,000l). If you accept a 0.6-bar drop
in pressure the size of the receiver would be reduced by 50%. However this will cost an additional 3.6%
input kW for the extra 0.3-bar.
P5 = 5-bar
0.5 bar
P4
P2
In the above example the base load compressor fails and the pressure starts to fall. Once the pressure
reaches 5.3-barg the second compressor will see the signal to start and then load. Within this 15-second
cycle the pressure will drop by a further 0.3-barg and then the pressure will start to rise as the machine
loads.
You will notice that the differential between the Pload on the first machine and the Pload on the second is
0.3-bar. This should be considered as the minimum differential between the local set points of the
compressors. The reason for this is transducer inaccuracies and drift. Typically a pressure transducer will
have a sensitivity of 1% of full span. Therefore a 13.8-bar rated transducer will be 0.138-bar accurate. If the
set points are too close you will end up loading and unloading the compressors together.
The small wet air receiver in the example is the existing receiver on site. This could be moved down stream
of the clean up equipment so that the additional receiver is smaller. It most cases it is less expensive to leave
the small receiver in its existing position rather than move it.
(P1-P2) = T x C x Pabs
V
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)
You have visited a site that has two compressors. This customer primarily operates on one compressor with
the second compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 7m³/min and there is 750l of storage.
If there were a failure to the lead compressor the system pressure could fall by 2.33-bar.
(P1-P2) = T x C x Pabs
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 0.75 (m³)
P1-P2 = 2.33 (bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
You have visited a site that has multiple compressors. This customer primarily operates on two
compressors with the third compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 15m³/min
and there are 2000l of storage. If there were a failure to the lead compressor how far will the
pressure fall?
V2 = π r2 x L
The total length of the piping system shown in this example is 350m. The system volume can be calculated
to be:
6.6 bar Punload Diameter 50mm
75m
5.6 bar Pload
1.5m³
P3 Pmin……….5.6
Pmax………..6.1
Useful Diff…0.5
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
P5 = 5-bar
P4
P2
75m
6.3 bar Punload
You can see that this is relatively insignificant compared to the volume of the air receiver. Often this is so
low that it is not worth consideration. However this can be calculated should this become an issue.
Your customer has a system that includes 2 x 5000l air receivers as well as a ring main that is
200mx200m with an internal diameter of 75mm. Calculate the total system volume.
Then calculate the drop in pressure should a 30-m³/min base load compressor fail.
The forth and final iteration of this formula is the calculation of the flow. If you measure the drop in
pressure over time and you know the system volume you can calculate fairly accurately the flow
consumption during this cycle.
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = Time (mins)
V = Receiver volume (m³)
P1-P2 = Acceptable drop in pressure (bar)
C = Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = Atmospheric pressure (bar)
You have measured a drop in pressure of 0.5-bar over a 10-second period. The total system volume is 8-
m³/min. Basis this known information the calculated demand event is 25 m³/min.
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = 0.16 (mins)
V = 8 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.5 (bar)
C = 25 Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
You have measured a drop in pressure of 0.6-bar over a 20-second period. The total system
volume is 20-m³/min. Basis this known information the calculated demand event.
T I M E
Storage costs nothing to run and nothing to maintain and would result in operating fewer compressors
within the air system.
T = V x (Pload-Punload)
C x Pabs
T = V x (Pload-Punload)
C x Pabs
T = 3 (min)
V = 3 (m³)
Pload = 8 (bar)
Punload = 10 (bar)
C = 2 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Tr = V x (Pload-Punload)
Cr-C x Pabs
Example:
Size of the receiver 3000L (3m³)
Pload is 8 barg
Punload is 10 barg
FAD is 2 m³/min
FAD required is 3.65 m³/min
Tr = V x (Pload-Punload)
Cr-C x Pabs
Tr = 3.64 (min)
V = 3 (m³)
Pload = 8 (bar)
Punload = 10 (bar)
C = 2 (m³/min)
Cr = 3.65 (m³)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
By installing an IR intensifier, it is possible to boost your air pressure by a 2:1 ratio. For example, an
incoming pressure to the booster of 5.5-bar, an output pressure of up to 11-bar can be achieved.
Running your entire compressed air system at the lowest pressure possible is the most efficient and cost-
effective way to produce and use compressed air. Incorporating point-of-use intensifiers, and boosting
pressure only at specific points in your system that require high pressure, helps to achieve this.
When the intensifier reaches the set pressure the unit simply stalls and no air or energy is consumed. When
pressure drops, the booster will automatically re-start.
The air consumption used to drive an intensifier is between ½ to 1 times the amount of pressure-boosted air.
If 0.57 m3min of air is required, between 0.85 to 1.13 m3min of compressed air will be used. Between 0.28
to 0.57 m3min will be vented through the units exhaust muffler.
The individual set points of the system should be assessed and adjusted accordingly otherwise chaos could
prevail!
Dryer
8.2
7.5
0.4 bar
Dryer
Pmax:…
7.7
7.0 Pmin:…
0.5 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.6 bar
Let's say that in the system demand is equivalent to 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and
maximum pressure seen by the users (demand side)?
Explanation: when 2 compressors are loaded, the system pressure falls due to the demand > 2.5
compressors. The clean-up equipment builds the pressure only when the compressor is loaded (in other
words, only when there is a flow across the equipment). Hence, when this pressure reaches 6.5-barg at the
demand side, the pressure on the supply side will be: 6.9-barg (6.5+0.4) for the first compressor, 7.0
(6.5+0.5)-barg for the second compressor and 6.5-barg (unloaded compressor -> no clean-up equipment
differential) for the third compressor. This compressor loads as 6.5-barg is its on-line set pressure. As soon
as this compressor loads, the clean-up equipment differential appears on the third compressor.
With 3 compressors loaded, the pressure builds up in the system. When the pressure reaches 6.6-barg at the
demand side, the respective supply side pressures are 7.0 for the first compressor, 7.1 for the second and 7.2
for the third compressor. This pressure corresponds to the off-line pressure of the third compressor, which
goes then unloaded.
Conclusion: in this configuration, this system leads to a quick cycling of the third compressor.
In the case the demand is 1.5 compressors, what would be the minimum/maximum demand side pressure?
Second example
Dryer
7.6
6.9
0.4 bar
Pmax:…
Dryer
7.4 Pmin:…
6.7
0.6 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.3 bar
Take this example, with a system demand of 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and
maximum pressure seen by the users (demand side)?
Dryer
8.2
7.4
0.8 bar
Dryer
8.2
7.2
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.8
7.0
0.3 bar
If the demand equals 2.5 compressors, what is the minimal and maximal pressure seen by the demand side?
Conclusions: in this example, the first compressor is cycling and not the third as it was probably planned
originally. Moreover, this compressor is cycling very rapidly: when it goes unloaded, the clean-up
equipment differential disappears very quickly and the pressure sensor sees soon 7.4-barg…which is the on-
line pressure of the compressor! If you push a bit further and consider a pressure differential of 0.9 bar for
the first compressor, a rapid calculation shows that the maximum system pressure would be 7.3-barg. This
pressure is below the on-line pressure of the first compressor and this situation means a very quick cycling
of the first compressor.
Consider a demand of 2.5 compressors to determine the minimum and maximum demand side pressure. The
answer is:
However, consider that the 3 compressors are loaded and the demand pressure reaches 7.4-barg, the
compressor N°1 & N°3 see respectively the following pressure: 8.2-barg and 7.7-barg…which is the off-line
pressure of each compressor. The two compressors go offloaded at the same time and are cycling together!
Dryer
8.2
7.4
0.8 bar
Dryer
8.0
7.2
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.7
7.0
0.3 bar
European air systems tend to be configured with the compressors piped into a common manifold and then
piped to the wet air receiver or straight into a single dryer with filters. This will be sized for 100% flow of
all the compressors or alternatively sized for two compressors knowing the third is a stand-by.
The differential across the air treatment is a function of the flow. Therefore the pressure drop across the air
treatment can be low if the dryer is sized for 100% of all compressors installed. The system pressure on the
demand side can be variable due to this differential changing. The compressors are often sized as 50/50/50.
This means that the compressors are of the same size and two compressors would equal 100% of the desired
capacity. One unit would be base load, the second would trim and the third would be stand-by.
The diagram shown on page 19 is a typical compressed air system arrangement. Yet there is plenty of scope
for improving the efficiency, reliability and productivity of the system.
You can see the typical Pmin, Pmax and useful differential within the demand side piping. This is basis a
load of less than one compressor, less than two compressors and less than 3 compressors. Note that the
pressure on the demand side can be much higher than the desired P5 pressure of 5-barg.
What is also common is the load pressure of the first compressor being set to the same load pressure of the
second machine. This can happen if the first compressor is always operating fully loaded.
P3
1 2m³
P5 – 5 bar
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
2
P4
1
7.6 bar Punload
2 75m
7.3 bar Punload
3
6.6 bar Pload 7 bar Punload
6.3 bar Pload
3
6 bar Pload 55kW
9.6 Capacitance
Defined as the amount of air needed (over what is already being supplied) to raise (or lower) the system
pressure by 1 bar. Expressed in terms of m3/bar or m³/kpa. The following formula is used to calculate the
capacitance in the system.
M³/bar = M³ x 1
Pabs
M³/bar = capacitance
M³ = size of the air receiver
Pabs = atmospheric pressure
In the above system the receiver size is 2m³. There for the capacitance can be calculated as follows:
M³/bar = 2 x 1
1
M³/bar = 2
M³ = 2
Pabs = 1
Therefore if there was a demand event of 2m³ this will see the pressure fall by 1-bar. (2m² event / 2m³/bar =
1-bar)
Within a compressed air system there are two typical supply side events that can occur. The first is the
occurrence of solenoid operated drains opening at the same time and dropping the pressure. The second is
the loss of the base load compressor.
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 3.82 (bar)
M³/bar = 2 (m³/bar)
C = 3 (m³/min)
N = 15
T = 10 seconds / 60 = 0.17 (min)
Should this event occur the pressure could fall by 3.82-bar. The obvious solution would be to replace these
drains with ENLD’s or PNLD’s.
You need to demonstrate to an air user the effect of little capacitance in their compressor
installation. Calculate the drop in pressure should all their drains fire off together. The customer has
7 drains with a 6mm orifice. They are set to open for 8 seconds. The size of the air receiver is 1500
litres.
Let us consider the example on page 19 where there is a 2m³-air receiver and the capacitance in the system
is 2m³/bar. The compressor capacity is 10 m³/min. We can calculate the drop in pressure as follows:
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.25 (bar)
M³/bar = 2 (m³/bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
There is a much higher probability of this occurring than possibly the drains. Many customers may not see
this drop in pressure as the P4 pressure is much higher than the P5 pressure anyway. To lower the system
energy we must lower the pressure so if the capacitance is not increased the air user could experience loss of
production due to lower P5 pressure.
You have demonstrated loss in pressure due to drains now demonstrate the drop in pressure due to a
base load compressor failure. In your system the compressor capacity is 7 m³/min. Duration to start
the stand-by unit is 15 seconds.
The solution is to increase the system capacitance. Or alternatively run the system at a much higher pressure
to make provision for unexpected demand events. The latter would result in increased on-line kW’s .
If we size the air receiver for the largest event this would allow for increased capacitance and minimum
drop in pressure. Using the calculation shown earlier in this chapter:
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
Therefore the capacitance would become 8.3m³/bar. If we calculate the largest system event using an 8m³
receiver the drop in pressure would be as follows:
DP = 0.31 (bar)
M³/bar = 8 (m³/bar)
C = 10 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
This means that the P4 pressure should be at least 0.31-bar above the P5 pressure.
Increase the capacitance to ensure the pressure never drops lower than 0.3-bar basis the largest
system event. The base load compressor is 7m³/min. Round up the receiver size and calculate the
drop in pressure using the capacitance formula.
The following diagram now includes our solution of increased capacitance. However there is still an issue
over the variable P3/P4 pressures. We have lowered the compressor set points from the previous set points.
# compressors running
1 2 3
Pmin……… 5.9 5.6 5.3
Pmax…… 6.6 6.2 5.8 Diameter 50mm
75m
Useful Diff…… 0.7 0.6 0.5
P3
8m³
1 2m³
55kW P5 – 5 bar
P2
100m 100m
0.5 bar
2
55kW P4
1
6.9 bar Punload
2 75m
6.6 bar Punload
3
5.9 bar Pload 6.3 bar Punload
5.6 bar Pload
3
55kW 5.3 bar Pload
With one compressor running the pressure could rise to 6.9-bar compared to 3 compressors running which
would be 6.3-bar. One could lower the unload pressures on compressors one and low due to the differential
across the clean up but an increase in filter contamination could be problematic.
Typically with the compressors operating on local control the pressure will vary between 5.6 and 6.6-bar on
the demand side of the system. This is basis a demand of less than the capacity of two compressors (10-
20m²/min). Therefore the pressure is at least 0.6-bar more than the desired P5 minimum pressure stated by
the air consumer.
This does not make for an efficient system. The increase in pressure will have an impact on the artificial
demand.
Using the flow through an orifice chart one can demonstrate that the higher the pressure the greater the flow
through an orifice. Therefore operating the pressure above the P5 minimum pressure will result in an
increased consumption of compressed air. This will cause the compressors to operate for longer.
Demonstration of the artificial demand is critical in order to highlight the total opportunity in lowering the
costs associated with compressed air.
The amount of poorly regulated or non-regulated air users will also vary. Ingersoll Rand’s compressed air
auditors and Plant Air Technology (North America’s largest independent compressed air audit company)
would advise that 50% of the compressed air consumers are either poorly or unregulated. This is not to be
confused with 50% of the compressed air generated.
Consider the flow through a 6.3-mm orifice. At 5.5-bar the flow would be 40.45 l/s. Where as the flow at
6.9-bar is 49.09 l/s..
Therefore if we controlled the pressure at 5-bar the reduction of flow through the leaks at the poorly
regulated users would be 18.4% lower. If the leakage rate is say 28% and the artificial demand was 50% the
reduction in flow would be as follows:
The production demand is around 14m³/min and two compressors are operating. Lowering the artificial
demand by 14.35% would result in a new demand of 12m³/min. The flow reduction directly correlates to a
Ideally the pressure going into the plant must be constant. Within the next chapter we will review how we
can achieve the Nirvana or the compressed air system.
100m
100m
0.5 bar
2
1 75m
6.9 bar Punload
6.6 bar
2
Punload
3
5.9 bar Pload 6.3 bar Punload
5.6 bar Pload
3
5.3 bar Pload
The next opportunity would be to remove the cascade effect of the compressor control. Here the pressure
band is between 5.3 and 6.9-bar. When one compressor runs the pressure is between 5.9 and 6.9 at P2 and
5.9 and say 6.6 at P3 locations.
The installation of a system controller (IEO) would narrow this pressure band. Here the pressure on the
supply side would reduce by around 1-bar, which is 7% energy reduction. Basis the original compressor set
points the reduction is 12%.
So at this point even without the discussion of a Nirvana compressor we have lowered the energy by
26.35%. We have improved the system integrity by installing a receiver with stored air at the air quality
needed by the air user. Productivity is improved by the provision of a more constant pressure.
Paper breaks in a paper mill. When the paper on a paper mill breaks, it is essential to rethread the paper
tailing onto the final roll as quickly as possible. In order to do this, air is used to hold down the paper on the
rolls and to thread the paper tailing to the final roll. This can be done manually, with one or more paper
showers, and two to four operators with 20 to 25mm hand held air lances. This can also be done with
automatic tail threading equipment. The intention is to do this as quickly as possible to avoid lost
production. The typical break occurs 1-3 times per shift per paper machine, it is unscheduled and quite a
panic. The amount of air required can range from 14-70 m³/min for 3-15 minutes. The method of tail
threading will determine the approximate amount of air required and the time involved. In other words, the
total volume can be determined and is relatively predictable per application. The number of paper machines
and the chances of a short reoccurring break determines the recovery time. Virtually all paper mills run
between 450-900 kW of unnecessary energy blowing off or wasted 100% of the time to support 30-60
minutes a day of usage. Although most mills accept the inevitability of breaks, every effort is made
technically to avoid the problem.
Dense Phase Transport. There are dense phase transporters, which are referred to as “plug and push”. This
is a relatively low volume application, where you drop a batch or plug into the transport piping and inject air
behind it. The next plug then drops behind the air batch and when you drop a plug into the system, another
plug comes out the other end of the system. There are also batch transfer dense phase systems. In this
application, the batch is transferred from the transporter the entire distance to the receiving hopper. The air
requirement can range from 10-35 m³/min per transport cycle and can take from 20 seconds to 3 minutes. It
would not be unusual to have dozens of transporter in the same system. Scheduling multiple transports is the
first action that limits the coincidence of air usage; next would be the applications of peak shaving or tank
farm applications. You would use a microprocessor to limit the transport cycles to a maximum of say 3-4 at
any one time, and use peak shaving to support more than two at a time. Most dense phase applications
require between 2-3 barg article pressures. The amount of storage capacitance determines the required
starting pressure. In most cases, the OEM transport manufacturer applies a small tank (a few hundred litres)
and depends largely on supply energy.
The IntelliSurvey below shows how input energy is being used to satisfy dense phase transportation
application. You can see 250kW two stage compressors loading for short duration’s to satisfy the
transportation events.
IntelliFlow set
pressure 5.6 bar >16m³ receiver per application
4Logic controller Master signal set at
6.5 to 6.9 barg 16.32m³/bar
5.6 – 3.1
Lead 0.66 m³/min Transportation for 1 x every hour
30kW 5.6 40m³/min, 1 min per start
0.24 to 0.34 bard 40
m³/min
Control m³/min
7.2 –7.6 barg - 0.66
storage 5.6 bar m³/min
Lag/ready Clean up 4.6m³/bar
40 m³/min Transportation for 1 x every hour
30kW 5.6 m³/min Filter / Dryer 40m³/min, 1 min per start
6.7 –7.4 barg
Back up with 15 sec 16.32m³/bar
control permissive >4.6 m³ receiver 5.6 – 3.1
to support a base
unit failure
16.32m³/bar
40 m³/min = 0.66 m³/min pilot feed 5.6 – 3.1 Transportation for 1 x every hour
60
0.66 m³/min 40m³/min, 1 min per start
40 m³/min
Capacitance m³/bar = V(m³) x ___1___
P1 (bara)
A 16m³ air receiver can support a 40-m³/min demand event provided the differential is 2.45-bar. If the event
occurred every 30 minutes the pilot feed to the receivers would need to be increased to 1m³/min.
Note: Remember that the intention of this application is to keep a continuous and intermittent supply
system’s energy to a minimum or to avoid adding one or more large compressors to the supply to support
the intermittent or transient event (s). These applications are relatively expensive in terms of capital, but can
save so much energy, operating cost, and attendant maintenance that the return on investments are much
less than one year and often measured in a few months.
Lowering the pressure will do two things for the compressed air consumer?
Artificial demand is the excess volume of compressed air created for unregulated users as a result of
supplying higher line pressure than necessary. It includes all unregulated consumption, including
appropriate and inappropriate production usage, open blowing, leaks, and points of use with regulators
adjusted to their maximum setting. These applications track the supply pressure as though there were no
regulators being used.
As the supply pressure fluctuates, artificial demand changes from a minimum to a maximum waste level.
When real production demands decreases and pressure rises, artificial demand increases. Eliminating leaks
causes the pressure to rise and all unregulated demand increases in proportion to the pressure rise, including
remaining leads.
Many systems have as much as 80% of their total volume uncontrolled. This condition results from
regulator use based on the recommendations of equipment manufacturers. Most plants have regulators on
50% of their use points, which normally represent only a small portion of the total volume. Since little care
is used in the selection of regulators and filters, they frequently have high-pressure drops and require high
settings.
Operators increase pressure to improve equipment performance. When an operator can no longer elevate
the pressure, the supply pressure limit of the system has been reached. At this point, the application follows
supply pressure. The volume required is artificial demand and can represent 10% to 25% of total
compressed air used.
Expanders maximise air compressor and system efficiency by separating the supply side (compressors)
from the demand side (users). They are designed to provide for the expansion of compressed air from
storage to the system with a minimum loss of energy; results are a consistently lower plant air pressure. As
pressure is lowered in the piping system, all unregulated flows and leads are reduced. The pressure dew
point is also lowered as a result of expansion.
Central or sector control of maximum demand pressures is far more reliable than hoping that all production
and maintenance personnel are diligent in the installation and use of air operated equipment. If there are a
number of use sectors that need different pressures, an expander can be used for each area to minimise the
system’s energy requirements.
When a new use of air comes on line (demand event), it can elevate operating pressures and generate a
great deal of artificial demand. The excess of demand over supply energy is expressed as negative m³/min.
Until the supply system responds to the event, the air required is taken from the demand piping system.
This action causes pressure to drop.
The effect of pressure decay is greater at the point of use and diminishes moving toward the supply. See
below.
The supply never sees the pressure drop that occurs at the point of application, but users in the vicinity of
the event do. The magnitude of the differential is a function of the size of the event, distance from the
supply or transmission speed, amount of storage in the system, and response time of the supply equipment
controls.
The usual way of dealing with this problem is to raise production pressure at the point of use so it never
drops below an acceptable level. This approach involves adding compressors to achieve this elevated
pressure, and significantly increases the artificial demand volume in the system. The compressor room only
knows it has to run the system at a higher pressure to avoid phone calls from production.
This problem is usually rationalised as pressure losses in the piping. If the piping system is reworked, it
does not improve the situation other than provide a minimal increase in storage. If the compressor controls
must see a 1-psig (0.07b-barg) drop to respond, pressure at the point of use can drop more than 5-psig
(0.34-barg). If the supply must drop 2-psig (0.14-barg) for a supply control response, the demand event
may see between 5 and 10-psig (0.34 – 0.7-barg) drop.
If an expander has a 0.1-psig (0.07-barg)-response range, the event would only drop between 0.1 and 0.5-
psig (0.007 and 0.03-barg). An expander would see the initiation of the event and allow control storage to
stop system decay. Control storage should be large enough to limit upstream pressure drop while a
compressor is started up and to prevent it from loading, if the event duration is short. Responsiveness of an
expander determines production side pressure fluctuations.
Demand expanders are designed to maintain small pressure range differentials, typically 0.075-psig (0.05-
barg). Many systems, prior to using an expander, fluctuated more than 15-psig (1-barg) at the point of use.
Because of this response, demand can always be operated at the lowest required pressure. This figure
requires less power and provides support for the largest system events with minimum artificial demand and
the tightest possible control of pressure to production. Supply corrects to a neutral rate of change to events
that occur and production sees no change in pressure.
Aside from the accuracy maintained in the production piping system, operating costs should drop. In a
supply-controlled system, support of an event diminishes volume in the system until a compressor responds.
The compressor must not only match the added demand event, it must also replace the lost storage in the
system. The time between the event beginning and the response occurring determines how much volume
must be replaced.
Typical pressure-only controls on compressors respond as fast as they can. The next available compressor or
compressors bring the system back to the unload pressure. If the supply capacity is twice that of the event,
response is fast.
An electrical peak is created and rapid cycling of the compressors begins. A typical solution is to turn too
many compressors on and put them in modulation. This approach stabilises system pressure but increases
operating costs. Automated operation in conjunction with an expander can use a pressure, rate of change,
and time protocol to limit the response to an event volume and not require any added compressor capacity.
Example:
The existing pressure in the plant is 7.5-bar. You have determined the minimum P5 plant pressure to be 6.2-
barg. Basis your plant walk through you have noticed a large amount of unregulated air consumers and you
have ascertained through interviews no leak detection policy. Therefore you have estimated the leakage to
be 30% and poorly regulated is 50%. Average kW consumption basis the 3 x 150KW compressors installed
is 265kW. This plant operates 8760 hours per year and the blended electrical costs is €0.06. The calculated
IntelliFlow savings are as follows:
The existing pressure in the plant is 7.0-bar. You have determined the minimum P5 plant pressure to
be 6-barg. Basis your plant walk through you have noticed a large amount of unregulated air
consumers and you have ascertained through interviews no leak detection policy. Therefore you have
estimated the leakage to be 25% and poorly regulated is 50%. Average kW consumption basis the 3 x
75KW compressors installed is 132kW. This plant operates 6000 hours per year and the blended
electrical cost is €0.08. The calculate the IntelliFlow savings
A pressure transducer on the down stream leg of the valve senses the pressure rate of decay or increase. The
PID (proportional, integral, derivative) control compares the pressure transducers reading to the IntelliFlow
pressure set point.
The PID controller actuates at butterfly valve in order to stabilise the system pressure. As the system
pressure increases the IntelliFlow decreases the amount of airflow. If the system pressure decreases the
IntelliFlow will increase the amount of airflow.
It is imperative that the IntelliFlow is installed down stream of an adequately sized air receiver. The pilot
regulator needs a dry 5.5-barg supply. If the pressure is lower the valve response is not as good. The
IntelliFlow is rated for the following flow rates. If the flow is too high or too low the ability to hold the
0.05-barg-pressure control deteriorates. At minimum flow this should not be an issue as it is likely at this
flow there is not much production and demand is mostly leak loading.
The use the IntelliFlow calculator or IntelliFlow workpad to define the opportunity. By carrying out an
IntelliSurvey audit you will quantify the opportunity. This will provide the average pressure existing as will
as the average kW’s.
The method for selective rate-of-change would result in a more reliably maintained Pressure band of
operation, as well as allowing the natural selection of the most efficient set of machines for operation. The
selection algorithm basically uses the largest compressors to drive the air system into the band and the
smaller compressors to maintain pressure inside the band. Once the system is in a steady state of operation
inside the target band, the IEO will periodically check the set of compressors used to maintain the operating
band and adjust the set of compressors where possible to select a more efficient set in more complex
systems. To assist with appropriate values in critical set-points, a “learning” mode checks certain critical
values and automatically set those values to recommended values when certain criteria are not met.
To maximise on the system controller opportunities it is best to size the receiver in accordance with the
recommendations outlined earlier within this work book.
System controls have advanced over the years from simple sequencing to system optimisation. Tighter
control of the pressure can be achieved within a pressure band of 0.2-barg using a single pressure
The first compressor will load when the pressure falls in the system to 7 barg. As this
compressor cannot satisfy the demand the pressure continues to fall to the cut in
pressure of the second compressor (6.5-barg). This will effect the pressure positively as
the system delivers more air than the demand. The compressor then unloads at 7.5-barg.
Minimum pressure is 6.0-barg, which is the cut in pressure of the next and final unit.
• Adequate volume flow. Each device in the circuit must be supplied with the required volume
flow at all times.
• The necessary working pressure. Each device must have the necessary air pressure at all times.
• Quality of compressed air. Each device in the system must have compressed air of the required
air quality.
• Low pressure loss. The pressure within the air net should be as low as possible in order to
maximise the energy savings.
• Secure operation. The supply of compressed air should consider 100% up time as much as
possible. If there are repairs to be made these should be done without putting the entire system
out of use.
• Safety rules. The relevant safety rules must apply at all times in order to prevent accidents.
P2
P3
1 2m³
Main
line
0.5 bar
2
1
6.9 bar Punload
6.6 bar
2
Punload
3
5.9 bar Pload 6.3 bar Punload
5.6 bar Pload
3
5.3 bar Pload
The ring main is a closed loop. It is recommended to allow for isolation valves so that branch lines or cross
headers can be isolated in time of addition of a new air user to the system or repairs to existing. This avoids
the complete venting of the system and down time for other air users.
If the compressed air is supplied through a distribution loop or rings the compressed air has a shorter route
to travel to the air consumer, when compared to a single pipe distribution system. This results in a much
lower pressure drop. When dimensioning the ring main one can calculate with half the flow pipe length and
half the volume flow.
Below is a typical graphic representation of a ring main with take off lines.
Main line
Isolation Valves
Ring Main
A single pipe distribution system should be avoided. Take off lines distributes the compressed air from a
single large diameter distribution line. The only advantage is that less material is needed when compared to
distribution ring mains. The disadvantage is that the single branch lines need to have a larger internal
diameter and frequently cause issues over excessive drop in pressure. These lines tend to have non-return
valves that isolate them from the main system. This makes for easier servicing and repair work.
Main line
Isolation Valves
Connection line
Consider sizing the filters for the size of the piping rather that the rate of the flow. This can lower the
pressure drop as well as increase the life of the filter elements.
Where applications need a higher pressure consider a decentralised compressor system and look at point of
application compressors. This is more practical now as the compressor comes complete with integrated
dryer and filters. They are also much quieter and can be situated close to the work place. The result is lower
pressure drop.
Where pipes should be welded they should be welded with V-seams. Therefore this is less resistant and
detached particles of welded metal will not clog down stream components.
In this situation there are various steps that can be taken in order to prevent damage to the consumer devices
in the system.
1. The pipeline should be laid with a gradient of approximately 1.5-2% in the direction of the
flow. Any condensate in the pipeline will collect at the lowest point in the line. At the end of
the line you should install a water separator and drain trap.
2. A vertical main line should come out of the compressed air receiver should be vertical. This
way any condensate will flow back into the receiver and can be drained out of the bottom in
the normal way.
3. Condensate drains should be installed at the lowest point within the compressed air system
4. Drops should come off the top of the pipeline and should be as straight as possible to avoid
excessive pressure loss.
5. Where possible compressed airlines should be laid so that the air does not cool down when
flowing. The air should be heated gradually.
6. Filter, water separator and pressure regulators should be positioned at the point of application
to take out any bulk condensate.
1. The piping can be laid horizontal, as there should be no condensate in the system.
2. The condensate drains that are fitted to the filters and dryer should be sufficient. Therefore
addition drains are not needed down stream.
3. The drops can come from the bottom of the pipe and not the top. This will possibly lower the
pressure drop.
4. Water separators and in line filters at point of application can be dispensed of. This is provided
the main compressor room air treatment is adequate. Point of application regulators may still
be needed if the desired pressure is less than the P4 pressure. Lubricators may also be required
on the application.
There tends to not be much cost difference between the two installations. However you will have the
operating costs of the dryer.
Q = (P 2 + P1)* D 2
85
Q = Air flow rate l/s free air flow
D = diameter of pipe in mm
P2 = air pressure in barg
P1 = atmospheric pressure bara
Therefore basis a 50mm pipe with a pressure of 7 bar this should flow:
Q = (7+8) x 502
85
The following calculation can be used to determine the permissible flow through a pipe to avoid excessive
pressure loss.
1.85 D 5 * 1010 * dp * P max = V
1.6 * 103 * L
D = inside diameter of pipeline (m)
V = Total volume flow (m³/s)
L = effective pipe length (m)
dp = Target pressure loss (bar)
Punload = compressor cut out pressure (bara)
Therefore basis our 50mm pipe (0.05m) with a length of 200m, target pressure loss of 0.03-bar and 7.7-bar
Punload the calculated volume flow is:
1.85
0.055 * 1010 * 0.03 * 7.7 = 0.037m ³ / s
1.6 * 103 * 200
This system would flow 0.037-m³/s or 2.2 m³/min. If the piping was a ring main the flow could be doubled
or the pressure drop could be halved.
V2 = P1V1 / A
P2
Example:
40mm (1.5”) piping, 7 bar discharge pressure, flow is 4 m³/min calculate the velocity through the piping.
For galvanised steel piping the velocity should be kept below 15 m/s. Otherwise the pressure drop increases
in the piping due to turbulent flow. The noise of the flow would also be excessive. This is not the case with
aluminium tubing, as the frictional losses through the piping are much lower.
Turbulent flow is where the air is whirly and uneven. The paths of flow have an effect on each other and
form small whirls. This type of flow has two main properties:
Laminar flow is a more even layer flow. The air moves in parallel and flowing layers. This type of flow has
two properties:
• Piping materials should be resistant to corrosion. The pipes must not rust over a period of time.
Modern dryers will prevent this.
• Some materials lose tensile strength with there is excessive heat and become brittle at low
temperatures.
• The higher the internal surface quality the better. This is to reduce the loss in pressure. Think
of a down hill skier. They always polish the bottom of the ski’s prior to the down hill run.
• A multiple of pre-shaped parts, fast and easy installation and cheaper materials can reduce
installation costs.
• The maximum pressure rating of the piping is an obvious consideration.
The disadvantage is that they have a high flow resistance and the joints will leak after time. An experienced
piping fitter is needed to install these network systems. Un-galvanised treaded pipe should not be used as
these will corrode.
The nomogram below can be used to calculate the flow pressure drop through steel piping. Connect the pipe
length (A) with the air flow (B) and extend the line to (C). the intersection of line (C) is then connected with
the pipe diameter (D) and is extended to line (F). With the intersection of line F as a pivot connect the actual
working pressure (F) with scale G and read the pressure drop.
There are disadvantages with the plastic system. Low cost PVC systems have a maximum operating
pressure of 12.5-bar at 25°C. This maximum pressure reduces dramatically as the temperature rise
Plastic pipes are not resistant to certain types of condensate and types of oil. The pipes are not manufactured
in large quantities for high pressure and large diameters. This makes the initial capital cost expensive, in
particular the fittings. On large diameter piping systems an experienced plastic welder is needed to install
these parts. The rigidity of the piping is not that high and smaller bore piping needs a large amount of
supporting brackets. Otherwise the pipes will droop and look unsightly.
Moisture, that is ever present in a compressed air system even after treatment causes corrosion and
contamination to the inside of the conventional piping. Particles in the form of rust and scale reduce the
quality of the air being delivered to production equipment causing component failure and costly downtime.
Aluminium tubing that is anodised to prevent corrosion from forming in the piping guarantees a higher
quality of air delivered throughout the system.
Simplair is anodised aluminium extruded piping system that is unique to Ingersoll Rand. It is a modular
system designed for the use of distributing compressed air / vacuum or other inert gases in a dry state. The
surface finish has a low coefficient of friction and the general roughness of 0.04 micron compared to 0.19
micron for a steel tube. Smooth bore tubing experience less friction and pressure loss, which results in less
power required for air distribution. The fact that the pressure is lower greater volume of air can be
transported. The result is that small-bore tubing can be used. This will have a positive impact to the
installation costs.
SimplAir Galv
25mm flows 40% more than 1”
32mm “ 50% more than 1 1/4”
50mm “ 130% more than 2”
63mm “ 150% more than 2 1/2”
80mm “ 253% more than 3”
Diameter 7 barg (103 psig) 8 barg (118 psig) 10 barg (147 psig)
Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel
mm in. l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec l/sec
14 1/2" 16.9 8.5 19.3 9.4 22.1 10.4
25 1 35.3 26.0 40.5 35.4 52.3 40.1
32 1 1/4" 73.1 33.0 81.1 37.8 102.0 48.1
50 2 227.0 188.8 260.0 212.4 326.0 236.0
63 2 1/2" 444.0 306.8 491.0 358.7 634.0 408.3
80 3 848.0 566.4 906.0 613.6 1021.0 660.8
Flows are based on approx. 1 psig, pressure drop per 30 metres (100ft)
Simplair HBS tubing has an O’ring seal design. This is to ensure leak free operation even after extended
periods of operation. Installation is quick, easy, simple and requires no special tooling. Therefore semi-
skilled installation people can be used. Once installed it is extremely flexible and easy to modify. The main
benefits are as follows:
The question to ask is the customer is do you want the latest state of the art piping system or the old
galvanised piping?
EL piping is non-anodised tubing supplied in 3m lengths from 15mm to 28mm internal diameter. To lower
the number of fittings this piping can be bent using a tube bender. This will reduce the number of fittings
needed and hence lower the cost of the installation, which compared to galvanised steel piping.
To complete the range of Simplair piping there is the speed-line range. This is very much like the EL range
but speed-line uses heavy-duty hydraulic compression type fittings and the piping is anodised.
Tubing is available in 14, 22 and 28mm sizes. It is specially heat-treated so that it can be formed in various
shapes. You will notice from the photo above the bend in the piping. The safe working pressure of this
piping is 17-barg compared to at best 12.5 for plastic. This makes for a much more safe and versatile
system. Compared to steel, copper and plastic tubing the cost of speed-line tubing is less.
The waste heat must be extracted reliably since there could be an accumulation of heat in the compressor. If
the temperature inside the compressor is too high for too long this could lead to mechanical damage within
the compressor itself or the drive motor. Cooling the compressor can be achieved in two ways:
Air-cooling is the most common method for all types of compressors. When this is used the ventilation of
the compressor room is of paramount importance. This must be well planned for at the beginning and
implemented well. It is recommended that you follow up the order with a thank you and then state clearly
the requirements for installation. Otherwise thermal problems with the compressor and possible associated
equipment could occur. Correction would occur.
Water-cooling is normally used on larger compressors or where the heat cannot be removed by air-cooling.
With certain compressors cooling with water is the only option (Centac, large reciprocating compressors,
PET boosters). Water-cooling places fewer demands on the ventilation system inside the compressor room.
In cases where the compressor will operate in high ambient temperatures, water-cooling is recommended.
The dryer can be sized basis a lower approach temperature as the CTD of the compressor will be above the
cooling medium, which in this case would be chilled water.
The compressor room should be clean, free of duct, dry and cool. Strong sunlight must not be allowed to
enter. There should be no heat emitting pipes or assemblies in the installation room (not next to a boiler) of
the compressor. Good lighting should be provided in order to accommodate the servicing work and periodic
inspections. Ensure the compressor room is ventilated.
• Compressor and compressed air receiver should be mounted on a flat industrial floor. Special
mountings are not required for most compressors.
• Compressors should be mounted on rubber mat. This stops vibration transmitted to the floor
and the compressor noise be carried to other parts of the building.
• The air discharge of the compressor can either be connected to the fixed compressed air lines
or with a high pressure hose that is connected to the compressed air line. The latter is sometimes
more practical and compensates for in accurate piping.
• Where there is high dust the compressor would be fitted with a washable or paper package
intake filter.
11.0.3 Layout
Typical layout drawing.
IEO
P3
1. Natural ventilation. This is through inlet and outlet apertures within the side of the walls or in the roof
of the compressor room. This is without the means of any additional ventilation fan.
2. Artificial ventilation. This is like natural but uses an additional fan to support the flow of air through
the compressor room.
3. Inlet and outlet ducting. Ventilation of the air is by means of appropriate ducts. Dependent upon the
length of the ducting there is an additional ventilation fan installed. Restrictive ductwork would result
in the warm or hot air stalling in the duct and could also stall the compressor fan. This would result in
the compressor overheating.
• Part of the heat that is generated is sent out as transmission heat by the walls enclosing the installation
room. This would include the windows and the doors. The will have a considerable influence to the cooling
airflow. The best ventilation is a compressor in the middle of a field but this offers little protection to the
elements.
• Room temperature influences the cooling air. The higher the temperature the greater the cooling
airflow needed to more the heat.
The following table is the cooling airflow of Ingersoll-Rand rotary screw compressors, (37kW to 160kW).
Cooling airflow’s for other Ingersoll Rand compressors can be located on the compressor datasheets.
With artificial ventilation the exhaust extractor determines the size of the air outlet aperture. This can be
smaller when compared to the natural ventilation principle. The size of the inlet aperture depends on the
extractor output and maximum flow speed in the inlet aperture. It is recommended that to calculate the flow
speed of 1m/s. But if there are structural restrictions that do not permit the size of the aperture it is also
possible to use a flow speed of 3m/s.
Area = V m³/sec
S m/s
It should be taken into consideration that when cooling air-flows through ducts and apertures, when the flow
speed increases the dynamic pressure rises, so there is a pressure loss. A ventilator will only be able to
overcome dynamic pressure if this is below the defined surface pressure. If the dynamic pressure is higher
than the surface pressure of the ventilator no volume flow will occur. A delta P of 100Pa can be considered
for simple apertures without unfavourable ducting.
Example.
Your installation consists of a ML75 rotary screw compressor with a TS140 refrigerated air dryer. Natural
ventilation is not sufficient due to problems with the location of the outlet aperture. Therefore it is decided
to force ventilate the compressor room.
P3
If there is a louvre over the inlet aperture this will restrict the airflow. Therefore assuming 70% free area for
the louvre the size of the inlet aperture needs to be 2.41 m². (1.47/0.7 = 2.41)
Ingersoll Rand compressors are fitted with cooling fans that generate a surface pressure of approximately
62Pa (124 Pa for Nirvana). The typically means that the internal fan of the compressor can force the exhaust
cooling air 5–metres through straight ducting (10-m for Nirvana) with the recommended cross sectional
area. The cross sectional area should be twice the size of the outlet aperture of the compressors exhaust grill.
The duct will be connected to the cooling air exhaust opening. This will be directed out to the open but it is
possible to redirect cooling air to an adjacent building for heating in winter.
It is possible to supply the cooling to the compressor by inlet ducting. Be aware that the inlet duct reduces
the induction volume flow and thus has a negative effect to the compressor performance output. This is why
inlet ducting is only recommended if the environment is not clean or the temperature is high at the
compressor location.
When we say unclean environment this is resulting from a high dust or dirt presence, chemical impurities or
too much moisture (steam). Air needs to be drawn into the compressor from a cleaner location. High
temperature at the compressor location could be as a result of positioning the compressor in the same
location as other machinery that radiates a lot of heat.
C D
H H
Diagram D on page 5 depicts the hot cooling air being directed into the open. When temperatures in the
compressor room air cold the diverter panel opens and directs the warm or hot cooling air into the
compressor room. This circulatory ventilation prevents the unit from freezing, when outside temperatures
are below zero. Auxiliary heating within the compressor enclosure is recommend during periods of shut
down. This will prevent freezing during the start up of the compressor. When this method is adopted it is
recommended that the air outlet be dimensioned according to the flow of the cooling air in addition to the
outlet duct.
When the ambient temperature is cold outside it is possible to direct some cooling air into an adjacent
building for heating. There is normally a thermostatic diverter panel so that the warm or hot air is diverted
into the open in the summer months. This is shown in diagram E on page 5. Air filters or silences can be
installed in the outlet of the duct in order to lower the noise in the room that is to be heated.
When an end user buys a new compressor the capital purchase represents only the first cost factor.
Additional expendature comes in the form of electricity and after-care.
Using a ten-year depreciation period, an efficiency calculation would show those energy amounts to
approximately 70% of the total costs.
Within the global market place today the vast majority of compressed air users simply discharge the heat
generated in compressing the air straight to the atmosphere as troublesome waste!
It is in this area the user can claw back substantial savings in energy and produce heat free of charge.
If one takes as an example the power required at shaft of an air-cooled rotary compressor approximately
85% of heat is dissipated is available for recovery, the remainder stays in the re-cooled compressed air. In
the case of a 55 kW compressor 51.42 kW is total dissipated heat.
The heat given off by the electric motor must also be added. In the case of a IP55 motor having an
efficiency of 94% it means 6% of heat is lost i.e. of 55kW this represents 3.3 kW.
How does the user make use of this heat from the rotary compressor?
Another possibility would be to convey the waste heat in a duct made from sheet metal. The facility of
discharging the hot air to atmosphere must also be available as the heating required in summer differs from
the amount required in winter. This can be done by a manually-operated slide valve fitted in the duct, or if
necessary by a thermostatic control. See diagram within this chapter for ideas.
The so called hot air ventilator is designed so the hot air can be conveyed both forward and upwards and to
the right or to the left as necessary. The calculations of the discharged air channel and any additional
ventilator are very important and the formula for designing the cross section of the channel is given below:
Example: Volume of cooling air flow 10560 m³/hr for the Ingersoll-Rand ML55
A= 10560 = 0.98 m²
3 x 3600
A cross section of the channel is simply adapted to the size of the building on the discharge air side for ducts
up to approximately 5 m long.
Calculation:
A=Q
V
Q = 176 m³/min
= 2.93 m³/sec
A = 2.93
1
= 2.93 m²
Requirement = 2.93
0.7 = 4.18 m² ventilation grill opening
The inability to conduct the air over a great distance is a disadvantage of the hot air system. The radiation
would be too great. Where it concerns longer ducts, particularly with bends and ‘T’ junctions the added
static pressure created by the duct should not exceed 6mmWG. Additional ventilators in the ductwork may
be necessary to move the air.
The amount of heat recovered can be calculated using the following formula.
Where:
Q = Heat load (kW – in practice 85% of full load shaft power)
V = Volume of working air (m³/sec)
T1 = temperature in (°C)
T2 = temperature out (°C)
T2 = Q + t1
1.2 x V
For ML45
Q = 0.85 x 60 kW = 51 kW
T1 = 20 °C (or whatever ambient figure you wish to input)
V = 10560 m³/hr = 2.93 m³/sec
T2 = 51 + 20 = 34.5 (°C)
1.2 x 2.93
The possibility of storing heat would exist if it were decided to opt for a rotary compressor with a coolant to
water heat exchanger.
Hot water could be stored in a water tank the thermal insulation designed according to the operating
conditions. In fact the recovered heat may be used in a number of ways such as:
85% of the compressor shaft power can be recovered in the form of hot water to heat up, for example tap
water up to a temperature of 80°C when the plant is operated continuously.
The ERS is installed in parallel to the existing coolant cooler. This offers no additional pressure drop to the
coolant system and will not starve the compressor of its lubricant.
IR offer ERS in two options according to the water inlet temperature rise required.
Option one is basis high water flow rate giving a low temperature rise. 60°C in 70°C out.
Option two is basis a reduced water flow rate and high temperature rise. 20°C in 70°C out.
These options can either be installed at our factory or field fit kits are available through our Services
channels.
The ERS kit includes all necessary piping, thermostatic control valves, heat exchanger or isolation valves if
the ERS is purchased without the heat exchanger.
The option less heat exchanger would be offered for cases where the application requires a different heat
exchanger from our standard design, for reasons of process, materials etc.
The diagram within this chapter shows the two typical arrangements available.
Assumptions.
Annual compressor running time = 2240 hrs (280 days at 8 hours per day)
Annual savings basis these assumptions. It is likely that the savings are higher than those demonstrated due
to the rising energy costs.
If we now compare this with the cost of heating with other forms of energy, we can determine the annual
cost savings of the ERS.
From the above we can calculate the typical pay back period of an ERS costing, say €5000.
1. Electricity
2. Oil
3. Gas
It is obvious to see that the longer the compressor is run the more energy can be saved.
A B
G
F H
C D
H H
A = Natural ventilation of compressor. Supply air opening F should equal exhaust air opening G
B = Forced ventilation of compressor location. Supply air-opening H
C = Duct ventilation to the atmosphere, without recycle flap
D = Recycle flap for winter operation to prevent icing, by mixing the warm air to cold air at intake
temperatures around 0°C
E = Exhaust air for heating, waste heat recovery
Airend injection
A
Machine
Oil Cooler
Cool water in
Machine thermostatic
valve
Machine
Oil Cooler
Cool water in
Machine
thermostatic
valve
Isolation
Oil from Sep. Valve
Tank
Oil piping
Water Piping
Problems associated with operating a modern compressed air system are fairly complex and often
camouflaged to the untrained eye. At the same time, many companies have cut back the internal resources
dedicated to defining and solving those problems. That's where a professional Air Audit can help by
addressing the total process of producing compressed air... not just the compressors. It's about taking
compressed air, looking at it as the fourth utility, and making compressed air as dependable as electric,
water and gas services.
The compressed air consumer should consider the air audit part of the investment. Without the Audit the
consumer is working in the dark and could make judgements that will have an adverse effect on the
reliability, productivity and efficiency of the compressed air system.
For many years we have endeavoured to find ways of metering and monitoring compressor supply. Intrusive
devices invariably result in plant down time and are costly. Commercially available logger devices have
assisted in this process, but many were not intended for compressor monitoring and only provide half the
story. Those that are intended for compressed air provide a higher investment cost and require a
considerable amount of time to interpret the results into real savings and identified opportunities for energy
saving products. There is an element of guesswork and assumptions when using these products.
13.0 IntelliSurvey
This is an automated compressed air audit. It will provide up to 7-days of data collection pulsing every
second on up to 4 compressors in a single compressor room & 1 common system pressure point.
The report can be used to show how the compressors react to changes in demand. Typically compressed air
systems react to demand events with additional on-line kW’s. Small changes in pressure could result in
additional compressors starting. You will see clearly how amps respond to changes in pressure. Blow-down
or unloading times and unloaded run on time for each compressor can be demonstrated.
1. Enhanced demand side system pressure control with increased system storage, which will lower
artificial demand by controlling the pressure within +/-0.05barg. Creating capacitance to support
demand events and not extra on-line kW’s.
2. Supply side system control using a compressed air optimiser panel to control the pressure within the
control storage to a 0.2-barg-pressure band.
3. Using a Nirvana True Variable Speed Drive compressor as the trim machine compared to the existing
compressor with OL/OL, Modulation, or Geometry control methodology.
4. System integrity improvements that positively impact productivity.
IntelliSurvey is the starting point for anyone who wishes to improve the reliability, productivity and energy
associated with the compressed air system. Using IntelliSurvey and an IR feasibility study we can create a
justification for a more detailed and comprehensive analysis of your compressed air system. IntelliSurvey
will show the user how the compressors react to changes in demand but will not always tell you why?
Some of the competitive loggers measure the load and unload cycles from the load solenoid valve.
Measuring the load/unload cycles is a decent method to determine compressor-loading cycles on
online/offline compressors. However this method does not record the actual unloaded power as it results in
total consumed power. An example would be their method would show the demand of a 28m³/min
(1000cfm) compressor loaded for 4 hours and unloaded for 4 hours in an 8 hour shift as 14 m³/min (500cfm)
(1000*4/8). Our method of measuring the incoming power will show the demand as 14 m³/min (500cfm)
Other commercially available loggers that are not intended for monitoring compressed air measure
incoming current and not measure pressure. This is like checking the number of miles (or kilometres) a car
has travelled and then guessing the fuel efficiency (Miles/gallon or KM/litre). There are three main
components to an air system: Pressure, Volume, & Time. Checking power may lead to Volume & Time -
cfm, however without pressure the system cannot be properly identified. One can also not determine if the
amps are reducing to reduced system pressure or rising to increasing system pressure. On modulation
machines amps rise when pressure falls. Loggers that only measure amps have no way of knowing this.
Modulation, geometry and variable speed driven compressor monitor adds significant guesswork with this
type of logging. Loggers are based on the Easylog 12 bit data loggers commercially available from suppliers
like RS components. According to the RS web site the non-volatile memory stores up to 8,000 readings on
these loggers. This means that at 1-minute intervals they will store 5.55 days worth of data. It is possible to
increase the sample rate but this with reduces the sample duration. For example 5-second interval is 1600
data points or just over a one-day. In a compressed air system much can happen in 1-minute.
Energair (CMC) measure both pressure and current. However they program takes into consideration power
factor when calculating energy. Their method assumes a constant power factor. Our methodology utilises
equations that were generated from several motor manufacturer data. This curve takes into consideration
the declining power factor as the load (current) falls away from full load. The ideal method would be to
utilise expensive kW meters which actually measures the power factor and the true power of the
compressor. The downside is the costs of such meters. These loggers do not identify the opportunities with
Nirvana, IEO and IntelliFlow. Yet again one needs to spend time analysing data and graphs to make a guess.
Within Europe the most common mode of compressor control is on-line / off-line with auto-restart. The first
of the reports will be similar to many of the reports you can expect to get.
You should also ask “was production disrupted at all during the week of the measurements? “This will help
you ascertain the minimum plant pressure.
Another question would be “are you going to install more machinery that will result in the use of more
compressed air?”
Within this installation the original intention was to operate one D40 with one ML55. Over time things have
changed. You should point out to the customer that frequently three compressors operate to support the
demand. Where there are blocks of colour the compressor is cycling frequently. Logging ever second will
sequence the amp measurements together. When the compressor is fully loaded you can clearly observe this.
On-Line / Off-line compressors cycle because the supply is more than the demand. The pressure rises and
the compressors unload. High differential across the clean up equipment would result in a lower useful
differential. This can increase the cycling if there is limited system storage. You should discuss this with the
customer as increased cycling has implications on the reliability and efficiency of the compressed air
system.
What seriously effects the rate of change in the system is the system volume and the set points of the
compressors related to the differential across the clean up equipment.
You should also point out the standard deviation. This is a gauge of the variability of the data measured. A
high standard deviation would indicate a high degree of variability with the data measured. This would say
that the demand is not consistent and there is a high degree of cycling. A low standard deviation would
indicate that the compressor was fully loaded or perhaps in modulation control. With this logging the
compressors operated in on-line / off-line. With on-line / off-line compressors the amps will always follow
the direction of the pressure.
In this example we know that all compressor reached max flow and they did fully load. The total average
flow would be the 3 compressors that ran together, which is 21.2 m³/min. The total flow would be the ML55
and one D40 fully loaded plus the average flow of the second ML55, which is 23.7 m³/min.
You would also point out the yearly power costs to the customer. It is worth pointing out the average %
amps related to the average capacity. With modulating compressors the average % amps is usually very high
compared to the average capacity. You should show the customer the control curves and point out that both
OL/OL and Modulation are not efficient methods of control if the compressor is part loaded.
The flow analysis page will also confirm the minimum, maximum and average pressures. The system
integrity page can support this. Discuss how operating at a higher than desired pressure will effect the
artificial demand in the system. As systems are so dynamic it is impossible to control the pressure precisely
with the compressors local controls or even a system controller yet precise pressure controlled is important
for an efficient and reliable system.
The third of the pages would be the system integrity page. The graph shows the pressure variation in the
system. If the pressure was measured down stream of the clean up equipment the pressure band could be
narrow as you have measure the useful differential. You can compare this to the set points on the
compressors. Measuring before the clean up will show you the full range of the compressor set points. This
graph could also show how far the pressure fell if there was large demand events or simultaneous demand
events.
Finally you should support your discussions with the daily graphs. You should deep dive into the minimum
and maximum demand events to support your discussions.
People want to buy rather than be sold to. Therefore attaching a quotation for a variable speed compressor
with your IntelliSurvey report is a big NO.
So far you have not really spoken about any products but you have just presented the problems. Positioning
is extremely important and can easily go astray. You can position the report to demonstrate the value of a
variable speed driven compressor within the installation. But to differentiate from your competition you
should explore the reasons why compressors operate in the way that they do and work towards creating
more system capacitance to support the demand events.
IntelliSurvey can also be used to position you for a more comprehensive supply and/or demand side audit.
This has tremendous value for the customer as you seek out more answers and ways to reduce the amount of
compressed air that they use, improve the reliability and enhance the productivity. The result for the
• Leakage
• Poorly regulated or unregulated air
• Flow restrictions like un-wanted filtration, regulators wound fully open, restrictive pipe-work.
• Redundant piping resulting in the possibility of zoning.
• Cooling products – use fans instead or water cooling if suitable. If this can only be performed using air
use engineered nozzles.
• Drying with compressed air – possible application for a low pressure blower
• Idle equipment – install isolation solenoid valves. Compressor installations are often left on overnight,
even when there is no production. This could be for a process that needs a constant pressure feed.
• Aspirating, Atomising – use low pressure blowers
• Abandoned equipment – isolate
• Cleaning with unregulated compressed air blasts.
• Compare the actual operating pressure with the design pressure and, if appropriate install a pressure
reducing valve (Ideally the overall distribution line pressure should be reduced)
• If there is a piece of equipment that needs a higher pressure than any other piece of equipment look to
satisfy this requirement in another way. For example a dedicated system or a high-pressure amplifier.
• Install localised receivers with metered recovery for large infrequent demand events. A dedicated high
pressure total air system could be installed to shape the peak loads of the system.
• The total air drying capacity required should be calculated during the end user audit. If more air than
necessary is being dried, the possibility of having two distribution systems, wet and dry, should be
considered. Consideration should also be given to treating the higher quality air at the point of
application.
• Drainage traps should be checked to ensure that they are neither leaking nor binding.
• The location of the air intakes into the compressors should be checked to ensure that they are not
supplying warm, wet or dusty air.
• The cooling air discharge of the dryer should be ducted away from the air treatment. Elevating the
ambient air will reduce the performance of the dryer.
• Evaluate the performance and operating condition of the existing supply side components including
compressors, filters, dryers, traps, cooling system, drainage and controls. This includes profiling the
signals, differentials, and set points in the supply system. This profiling will be done to determine the
displacement of each individual piece of equipment at power as well as the total system displacement
at power and pressure.
• Record the electricity consumption of the compressors over a week using a demand logger. At the
same time also record the pressure variation.
• Calculate the air generation efficiency basis the power consumed and the flow for each compressor. A
simple calculation will then identify how much energy either maintaining the poor machines or
preferentially using the more efficient ones to satisfy the demand can save. Using VSD compressor as
trim or top up compressor helps to optimise the system and will lower your energy bill.
• Consider age and condition of the existing compressed air system and the impact this could have
longer term to the operational costs. The average life cycle of a rotary screw compressor up to 90kW is
10 years and above 90kW it extends to 13-years. (source independent EC study on compressed air
systems)
• Investigate the load profiles of each compressor with a view to deciding whether the optimum size
machines are running at any one time.
• Consider better methods of compressor control, such as selective rate of change or rotational
sequencing depending on the compressor load profiles.
• Determine the supply side capacitance (storage) or lack of. Control storage will be analysed to insure
support of control permissive of standby and trim compressors.
• Install a demand expander to ensure that the demand side pipe-work is at a constant pressure and not at
the compressors regulated pressure, if one does not exist.
It is recommended that if you are not the incumbent service provider your explore different opportunities to
gain customer trust. Trust is a fundamental component of the decision process of the purchaser.
The standard deviation on all three compressors is very low. The conclusion should not be that there was a
constant demand but there is little variance with the measured data. What appears to be happening is that
each compressor is fighting against each other on its own pressure setting. Also frequently all three
compressors operate, which has maintenance cost implications.
You will find that for the very high current you will have lower capacity. You may also find that if the
customer increased the storage and installed an IEO with an IntelliFlow they would operate one less
Point out that the average % amps on the first Rollair 100 are almost 85% for 80% flow. The second unit is
90% for approx. 90% flow and the third smaller Rollair 50 is 53% amps for 18% flow.
Indicate to the customer the drop in pressure and question if this effected production on not. Modulation
controls to a fairly close pressure band at the expense of input kW’s. Here it is highly likely that the
production would run on two of the Rollair 100’s and leaving the Rollair 50 as a stand-by compressor.
The daily graphs in this case support the high amp loading of the Rollair compressors. Question the starting
and stopping strategy on the customer and why they feel this is necessary.
There is Nirvana opportunity here which will be high. Use the control curves to show how modulation is in
efficient compared to a compressor operating in ol-ol with a correctly sized receiver or a Nirvana
compressor. However note that these are not Ingersoll Rand compressors, which could limit the success
rate.
The third IntelliSurvey example is an installation with Sierra SM110’s. The customer was concerned that
both compressors now run and there is no stand-by compressor. There should always be a reason to carry
out a Survey. Many would say the reason is to find ways of lowering energy. With climate change upon us
this is a valid justification. However improving the system reliability is high consideration as this is the
number one concern of the person responsible for compressed air. Improving productivity is also paramount
as this increases the profits of the company.
At this food processing plant there is a large amount of artificial demand. The higher the pressure the worst
the artificial demand gets. At the beginning of the survey the ISC control panel was switched off. The
compressors then operated on their own internal pressure switches. The evaluated pressure caused both
SM110’s to load and unload. The red SM110’s off load pressure is slightly higher as indicated by the
slightly high amp loading. Around a day later the ISC was switched back on. We can see that the blue
SM110 (designated lead compressor at this stage) is highly loaded with the second SM110 cycling as and
when required. Towards the end of the logging the ISC changes the sequence rotation and the red unit takes
up the load with the blue cycling. The load cycles on the blue unit is much less at the end of the logging
period.
20m³ air receiver is a seriously large storage tank. This is sized on the basis of the largest system event,
which is the loss of the base load compressor and the start up of the next unit. During this period the
pressure can only fall 0.3-bar. If the acceptable drop in pressure were 0.6-bar then size of the receiver would
be 10m³. Use the IntelliFlow workpad (See example chapter 14) to demonstrate the drop in pressure basis
the existing 3m³ storage.
The increase in pressure of 0.3-bar would result in 2% input energy. If there is no IntelliFlow this would be
more as the artificial would be higher.
With the daily graphs you should highlight unnecessary loading of the second compressor and the resulting
unloaded operation.
Deep diving into the raw data would help your positioning considerably with cases like this.
You can also use the deep dive to highlight the run on time of the motor. In this example this is 10 minutes.
We can see that the compressor loaded again before the motor had time to stop. If the load delay time on the
ISC was increased this could avoid the start up of the compressor during this period as the pressure shows a
high positive rate of change.
It would appear that the red unit is manually unloaded and the pressure falls to the cut in pressure of the blue
unit. Someone must have realised what has happened and the red unit was loaded, the blue unit then
unloaded and stopped after its period of running time.
One takeaway here is the pressure is unnecessarily high. The result is around 7% more input energy as well
as higher artificial demand.
D= C m³/min x T1 / T1+T2
D= demand event
If the pressure increases at the same rate as the pressure decreases this would signify that the compressor is
50% loaded, shown by the black lines. Therefore if the compressor is 12 m³/min this would show a + ROC
of 6 ³/min and a – ROC of 6 m³/min.
T1 min = 30 seconds
T2 min = 30 seconds
Time
The red line shows a steep + ROC and a shallow –ROC. This would signify that the user is using less air
than what the compressor delivers. Therefore the pressure will rise quickly, unload and the demand would
be supported by system volume.
The blue line shown is the opposite. The +ROC is shallow with a steep –ROC. This would tell us that the
compressor is not 100% loaded but the load is fairly high. The pressure drops of quickly as there is little
system volume and the compressor then reloads.
IntelliFlow –
The Intelliflow calculation uses the average pressure, the maximum pressure and the standard deviation of
the pressure data. Using the difference of the maximum amps and the minimum amps, as well as the
magnitude of the standard deviation, a new system pressure is calculated. From here, the lower system
pressure is subtracted from the average pressure. This pressure saving is then scaled by the % lost to leaks
and the % poorly regulated. This atmospheric pressure adjusted number is then calculated into a saving
using the average system amps and the individual characteristics of the compressors in the system. It should
be noted that if the true P5 pressure is lower than what has been measured the IntelliFlow savings should be
recalculated using the IntelliFlow workpad.
IEO –
Similar to the Intelliflow, the IEO calculation uses the average pressure, the maximum pressure and the
standard deviation of the pressure data. By creating a smaller pressure band with the IEO than the one that
currently exists (current band =
Maximum Pressure – Average Pressure) using the standard deviation and average pressure, the pressure
savings is converted to a amp savings using the average system amps.
Please note that for the IntelliFlow and the IEO, minimum pressure is not taken into consideration.
Minimum pressure could be acceptable and it could not be acceptable for your customer. It is up to you and
the customer to decide!
VFD –
The VFD savings is related to average system amps, average % kW for each compressor and the available
remaining capacity in the system. The VFD calculation will drive as many compressors as is measure to full
load (for a multiple compressor system) until the last compressor is in a part load condition. The saving is
then calculated by calculating the savings of the last compressor (now in a part load condition) as if it were
a VFD plus the savings of any compressor that would be turned off. If it were a single compressor system,
One other point of notation is, what will happen if the compressor was fully loaded and failed to meet the
production demand. You will notice that the amps will be drawn down with the pressure. This is simply
known as “draw down”. The following graph shows this. Draw down is only a problem if the pressure falls
to the point where it does not satisfy production. In many cases people experience draw down and rarely
know it as the pressure is higher than needed anyway.
Area of draw
down
Loggers that do not monitor pressure or only monitor inlet valve cycles will not be able to show draw down.
If this is a real shortfall in capacity you can calculated the additional capacity needed to meet the desired
pressure using the following formula.
(Required plant air pressure [bar] / present air pressure [bar]) x current capacity [m³/min] = required capacity
% capacity proposed
Example
Required plant pressure = 6.2 barg
Present air pressure = 5 barg
Current capacity = 10 m³/min
% capacity proposed = 90%
(6.2 / 5) x 10 = 14 m³/min
90/100
Interpret the IntelliSurvey pages and provide a solution that offers the quickest ROI.
One ML45 has Intellisys and the other is the older non-Intellisys model.
Appendix
14.0 Symbols
An air dryer may be positioned either before or after the air receiver. It is easier to
match the dryer to the compressor when the dryer is placed upstream (before) the
air receiver and cannot, therefore be overloaded by surges in demand; this is
particularly relevant in the case of refrigerant dryers. On the other hand a desiccant
dryer placed down stream (after) the receiver is less likely to be contaminated by
oil or other liquids. When adding a dryer to an existing plant it may be best to place
AIR INLET it downstream (after) of the air receiver when only part of the supply is to be dried.
Ideally an optimised system will have a wet and dry receiver and the compressor
control will be from the dry side. In the case of installations where the compressor
AIR INLET FILTER is reciprocating type a wet air receiver is mandatory.
PRESSURE GAUGE
PRESSURE SWITCH
SAFETY
WATER
t SEPARATOR
COMPRESSOR
SEPARATOR
DRIVE AIR
Chapter 1, Page 1.
What is the capacitor in a compressed air system? Of course the answer is the compressed air receiver. The
larger the air receiver the greater the amount of stored energy in the system to support a demand.
Chapter 5, Page 9.
Your customer has 4 x 45 kW compressors all operating in OL/OL control. There is no system controller
and your aim is to show the customer how they can save energy by lowering pressure and removing the
cascade control effect. Map out the compressor set points and calculate the savings on the basis 3
compressors running loaded. The load pressure of the 4 compressor is 6.3-barg.
Chapter 6, page 4
Calculate the amount of condensate basis 6- m³ air to 10 barg pressure.
Ambient temperature is 5 °C and 80% atmospheric RH. Consider this as a dull and grey Manchester day!
Q = condensate (g)
V1 = Volume at 0 barg (m³)
V2 = Volume at 10 barg (m³)
HUmax = Max humidity at 5 °C (g/m³)
RH1 = Relative humidity of V1 (%)
RH2 = Relative humidity of V2 (%)
V1 = 6 (m³)
V2 = 0.54 (m³) (6-m³ / 11 bara)
Q = 28.9254 g
You can see that the water content is less when the ambient temperature is lower. Hence the greater
precipitation in the summer months and when a dryer is needed more.
Chapter 6, page 5
Recalculate the condensate stream on the basis of the same inlet capacity and ambient conditions. The only
change is the pressure is increased to 10-barg.
The atmosphere
P1 = 1 bara
T1 = 20 °C
RH = 80%
HUmax = 17.148 (g/m³)
P2 = 11-bara
T2 = 28°C
RH = 100%
HUmax2 = 26.970 (g/m³)
V2 = V1 / P2 (1800 / 11) = 163.64 m³/hr
There is more condensate at the higher pressure. This is because more moisture is compressed with the air.
P2 = 11-bara
T3 = 3°C
RH = 100%
HUmax3 = 5.953 (g/m³)
V2 = 163.64 m³/hr
Chaper 6, page 10
Selection of dryers for change in operating conditions.
Select a refrigerated TMS dryer for a capacity of 10 m³/min, 40 °C inlet, 6 barg inlet pressure, required PDP
4 °C. Ambient temperature is 25°C.
R10 = R7 x f
R10 = 6.05 x 1.13
R10 = 6.83 m³/min
Basis the higher working pressure the GP216 filter would be adequate.
Annual compressor running time = 8736 hrs (364 days at 24 hours per day)
Compressor type is a ML160-2S
Recoverable heat = 149.6 kW
Gas boiler efficiency = 90%
Oil boiler efficiency = 80%
If we now compare this with the cost of heating with other forms of energy, we can determine the annual
cost savings of the ERS.
The amount of heat recovered can be calculated using the following formula.
Where:
Q = Heat load (kW – in practice 85% of full load shaft power)
V = Volume of working air (m³/sec)
T1 = temperature in (°C)
T2 = temperature out (°C)
T2 = Q + t1
1.2 x V
For ML160-2S
Chapter 8, page 2
A single action cylinder with a piston diameter 50mm is required to work at an operating pressure of 6-barg.
The working stroke is 150mm at 30 work cycles per minute.
C = 0.053 m³/min.
Chapter 8, page 4
Calculate the usage rate for the following tools within a one-hour period:
Screwdriver 15 min - UR = 25%
Grinding machine 40 min – UR = 66.66%
Blow gun 10 min – UR = 16.66%
Tooling machine 55 min – UR = 91.66%
Shot blasting 9 min – UR = 15%
L = V x (P1-P2)
T
L = 3.33 (m³/min)
V = 10 (m³)
P1 = 7 (bar)
P2 = 6 (bar)
T = 3 (min)
Chapter 9, page 4
Pmin……….
P3 Pmax………..
75kW
Useful Diff……..
1.5
m³
P2
P5 = 5-bar
7.9 bar Punload
0.5 bar
P2 P4
In the above example calculate the Pmin, Pmax and Useful differential.
Pmin……………….7.0-bar
Pmax………………7.4-bar
Useful differential…0.4-bar
Chapter 9, page 6
Recalculate the load and unload times on the basis of a 4m³ air receiver and a useful differential of 0.4-bar.
T = V x (P1-P2)
C x Pabs
You can see that by increasing the storage and increasing the differential the time to increase the pressure
and lower the pressure is much greater.
Chapter 9, page 9
You have visited a site that has multiple compressors. This customer primarily operates on two compressors
with the third compressor being stand-by. The compressors are rated for 15m³/min and there are 2000l of
storage. If there were a failure to the lead compressor how far will the pressure fall?
(P1-P2) = T x C x Pabs
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 2 (m³)
P1-P2 = 1.875 (bar)
C = 15 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Chapter 9, page 10
Your customer has a system that includes 2 x 5000l air receivers as well as a ring main that is 200mx200m
with an internal diameter of 75mm. Calculate the total system volume.
Then calculate the drop in pressure should a 30-m³/min base load compressor fail.
V2 = π r2 x L
(P1-P2) = T x C x Pabs
V
T = 0.25 (mins)
V = 13.5 (m³)
P1-P2 =0.56 (bar)
C = 30 (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
C = V x (P1-P2)
T x Pabs
T = 0.33 (mins)
V = 20 (m³)
P1-P2 = 0.6 (bar)
C = 36.36 Flow (m³/min)
Pabs = 1 (bar)
Chapter 9, page 16
Take this example, with a system demand of 2.5 compressors. What would be the minimum and maximum
pressure seen by the users (demand side)? Which compressor is cycling?
Dryer
7.6
6.9
0.4 bar
Dryer
7.4
6.7
0.6 bar
Dryer
7.2
6.5
0.3 bar
Have a closer look to the regulation. Which compressor is cycling? This is the second one and not the third
as it was planed in you original configuration…. beginning of the system problem!
Chapter 9, page 20
You need to demonstrate to an air user the effect of little capacitance in their compressor installation.
Calculate the drop in pressure should all their drains fire off together. The customer has 7 drains with a
6mm orifice. They are set to open for 8 seconds. The size of the air receiver is 1500 litres.
M³/bar = 1.5 x 1
1
M³/bar = 1.5
M³ = 1500l / 1000 = 1.5
Pabs = 1
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.82 (bar)
M³/bar = 1.5 (m³/bar)
C = 3 (m³/min)
N=7
T = 8 seconds / 60 = 0.13 (min)
Chapter 9, page 21
You have demonstrated loss in pressure due to drains now demonstrate the drop in pressure due to a base
load compressor failure. In your system the compressor capacity is 7 m³/min. Duration to start the stand-by
unit is 15 seconds.
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 1.17 (bar)
M³/bar = 1.5 (m³/bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
Chapter 9, page 22
Increase the capacitance to ensure the pressure never drops lower than 0.3-bar basis the largest system
event. The base load compressor is 7m³/min. Round up the receiver size and calculate the drop in pressure
using the capacitance formula.
V = T x C x Pabs
(P1-P2)
C x N x T = DP
m³/bar
DP = 0.29 (bar)
M³/bar = 6 (m³/bar)
C = 7 (m³/min)
N=1
T = 15 seconds / 60 = 0.25 (min)
1.85
0.15 * 1010 * 0.04 * 8 = 0.419m³ / s
1.6 * 103 * 100
This system would flow 25m³/min and not exceed 0.04 bar pressure drop. If the piping were a ring the
pressure drop would be halved or the flow would be double.
Interpret the IntelliSurvey pages and provide a solution that offers the quickest ROI.
One ML45 has Intellisys and the other is the older non-Intellisys model.
amps could be high separator differential and/or the pressure is set higher on this compressor. Remember
that IR is not the service provider. Increased current will not only have an impact on the energy but will
effect the reliability of this compressor. If you want it to brake quickly then wind up the pressure and the
motor overload. These are ML compressors but the pressure rose to 9.2-bar. This is another indication of the
route cause of the high amps.
The standard deviation is relatively high, showing a degree of variability with the measured data. There are
times where both compressors run. This tends to be at the beginning of the working shift. We can see that
there are times where the ML45 is fully loaded by invariably the demand is less than the supply and
compressor is responding to rate of change in the pressure.
The average % amp load is high on both compressors. The result will be a high-calculated flow.
This is good to demonstrate to the customer that solenoid drains waste energy by venting off compressed
air.
Also point out the yearly power costs. Starting the compressor before the production commences could
avoid the start up of both compressors. There is justification for a variable speed driven compressor but the
utilisation of the fixed speed compressor is high. Use the control curves to show typical efficiency of an on-
line / off-line compressor compared to a VSD.
You find that this customer operates two dryers. Differential is the square root of the flow so this should not
add to the pressure drop. However there is the energy to consider by operating the two dryers.
Basis the existing storage of 1000l should the compressor fail and the demand is that of the ML45 the
pressure will fall by:
Point out that there is insufficient volume to control the demand events, which is resulting in additional
compressor loading.
Controlling the pressure more precisely will lower the artificial demand so it is important to establish the
minimum P5. The following calculation will define the potential savings:
Deep diving into the raw data will allow you to calculate the demand event that caused both units to start
and the how increasing the storage will avoid the start up of the second compressor.
This example of IntelliSurvey shows you how the compressors react to change in pressure / demand. But
without the plant walk through you will find it hard to find the answer to WHY!
The following calculation can be used to calculate the increase in air consumption for the drop in pressure.
New flow = rated flow + (delta pressure (psig) x 0.00075 x rated flow)
Science of Compressed
Air Calculations
V m³ = Receiver volume
Cm ³ / min* T min* Pabs C m³/min = demand for air (base compressor)
V (m³) = T min = Duration of event (0.25min is time to start next
( P1 − P 2) compressor
(P1-P2) = Acceptable drop in pressure (0.3 barg)
Vrec ( P2 − P1 ) 60
m³ / min comp = ( + V pipe ) * *
Pump up formula Pabs t 2 − t1
3
m V 1
Capacitance formulas = rec *
bar Pabs
m3/bar
Vrec = volume of the receiver in m³
Pabs = atmospheric pressuren kpa
Example
C = 25 m³/min
D = 1.209
Hrs = 8000
PPM = 3
SG = 0.9901
CU = 43.96 l/year
For well rounded orifices, multiply the values by 0.97, and for sharp-edged
orifices multiply the values by 0.71.
Used to highlight that the higher the pressure the greater the discharge of air