Quality Control

Fundamentals of
Statistics

Dr. Rehman Akhtar

 Introduction
Definition of Statistics:
1. Engineers and scientists are constantly exposed to
collections of facts, or data, both in their professional
capacities and in everyday activities.
2. The discipline of statistics provides methods for organizing
and summarizing data and for drawing conclusions based
on information contained in the data.
• A collection of quantitative data pertaining to a subject or group.
Examples are blood pressure statistics etc.
 Introduction
Two phases of statistics:
❑ Descriptive Statistics:
descriptive statistics allow the researchers to get an
accurate first impression of “what the data look
like”.
❑ Inferential Statistics (Inductive):
Techniques for generalizing from a sample to a
population are gathered within the branch of our
discipline called inferential statistics
❑ Uses probability
 Collection of Data
Types of Data:
Discrete data.
Data values can only be either finite or
countably infinite.
Examples include:
❑ How many of the products are defective?
❑ How often are the machines repaired?
❑ How many people are absent each day?
 Collection of Data
Types of Data:
Continuous data. Data values are always
(uncountably) infinite.

Examples include:
❑ Number of points on a football?
❑ How long did it take to complete the task?
❑ What is the weight of the product?
❑ Length, volume, time
 Describing Data

❑ Frequency Distribution
❑ Measures of Central Tendency
❑ Measures of Dispersion
 Frequency Distribution

There are three types of frequency

distributions
❑ Categorical frequency distributions
❑ Ungrouped frequency distributions
❑ Grouped frequency distributions
 Categorical
Categorical frequency distributions
❑ Can be used for data that can be placed in specific
categories, such as nominal-level data.
❑ Examples - political affiliation, religious affiliation,
blood type etc.

Example :Blood Type Frequency Distribution

 Ungrouped
Ungrouped frequency distributions
❑ Ungrouped frequency distributions - can be
used for data that can be enumerated (listed)
and when the range of values in the data set
is not large.
❑ Examples - number of miles your instructors
have to travel from home to campus, number
of boys in a 4-child family etc.
 Ungrouped

Example :Number of Miles Traveled

 Grouped
❑ Grouped frequency distributions
❑ Can be used when the range of values in the
data set is very large. The data must be
grouped into classes that are more than one
unit in width.
❑ Examples - the life of boat batteries in hours.
 Grouped
Example: Lifetimes of Boat Batteries
Class Class Frequency Cumulativ
limit Boundaries efrequency
s - 37
24 23.5 - 4 4
37.5
38 - 37.5 - 14 18
51 51.5
52 - 51.5 - 7 25
65 65.5
 Frequency Distributions
Number non Frequency Relative Cumulative Relative
conforming Frequency Frequency Frequency
0 15 0.29 15 0.29
1 20 0.38 35 0.67
2 8 0.15 43 0.83
3 5 0.10 48 0.92
4 3 0.06 51 0.98
5 1 0.02 52 1.00

Table 4-3 Different Frequency Distributions of Data Given in Table 4-1

Frequency Histogram
Relative Frequency Histogram
Cumulative Frequency Histogram
Frequency
Relative Frequency
Use excel sheet “frequency and relative frequency”
FOR FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM
Minitab> Graph> Histogram> simple > double click on data to add it to series>
right click on histogram graph> edit bars> binning> Number of intervals= bins>

FOR RELATIVE FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM

Minitab> Graph> Histogram> simple > double click on data to add it to series>
right click on histogram graph> edit bars> binning> Number of intervals= bins>
Double click on Y-axis of frequency histogram > select “type”> choose “percentage”.
 STATISTICAL REVIEW
(Histogram)
Histograms: Histogram is a graphical representation of the probability distribution
of data.
The histogram is a basic tool of quality control.
 (Histogram)

Negative skewed or left skewed (left Positive skewed or right skewed (right
tailed) tailed)
Minitab> Graph> Histogram> simple > double click on data to add it to series>
right click on histogram graph> edit bars> binning> Number of intervals= bins>
Right click on histogram graph> add> distribution fit> select distribution> ok
 (Histogram)

Negative skewed or left skewed (left Positive skewed or right skewed (right
tailed) tailed)
 Other Types of
Frequency Distribution Graphs
❑ Bar Graph
❑ Polygon of Data
❑ Cumulative Frequency Distribution or
Ogive
Bar Graph and Polygon of Data
Cumulative Frequency
 Measures of Central Tendency
The three measures in common use are the:
❑ Average
❑ Median
❑ Mode

The Mode is the value that occurs with the

greatest frequency.
It is possible to have no modes in a series or
numbers or to have more than one mode.
Mean, Median
Median
 Measures of Dispersion
❑ Range
❑ Standard Deviation
❑ Variance
 Measures of Variability

▪The above dotplots of three samples with the same mean and median,
yet the extent of spread about the center is different for all the three
samples.

▪The simplest measure of variability in a sample is the Range, which is

the difference between the largest and smallest sample values.
 Measures of Variability
▪Our primary measures of variability involve the
deviations from the mean,
Standard Deviation

Continuity Education (HIGH

SD)
vs UET undergrad (LOW SD)
 Other Measures
There are three other measures that are
frequently used to analyze a collection of data:
❑ Skewness
❑ Kurtosis
 Skewness
Skewness is the lack of symmetry of the data.

Figure 4-11 Left (negative) and right (positive) skewness distributions

 Kurtosis
Kurtosis provides information regrading the shape of the population
distribution (the peakedness or heaviness of the tails of a distribution).

Figure 4-11 Leptokurtic and Platykurtic distributions

 Population and Sample
❑ Population
❑ Set of all items that possess a
characteristic of interest

❑ Sample
❑ Subset of a population
Probability Distributions

37
 Sometimes called a Sometimes called a
probability mass function probability density function

38
Probability Mass Function (Discrete)
Probability Density Function
(Continuous)
 Common Distributions
Common discrete distributions:
• generic discrete
• Bernoulli
• binomial
• geometric
• Poisson
• Common continuous distributions:
• uniform
• step
• triangular
• exponential
• normal
• lognormal
• gamma
• Student t
•F
• beta
• Weibull
The Binomial Distribution (Discrete)

The random variable x is the

number of successes out of n
Bernoulli trials with constant
probability of success p on each
trial

42
 The Binomial Distribution (Discrete)

Example:
If a coin is tossed 20 times. What is the probability of getting 5 heads.
Given data
n= 20, x= 5, p=0.5, q=1-0.5= 0.5
Probability of getting 5 heads = {20!/ 5! * 15!}* (0.5^5) * (0.5^15)= 0.014= 1.4%

43
 The Binomial Distribution (Discrete)

Example 2:
Suppose the probability of purchasing a defective part is 0.3. what is the
probability that 7 defective parts were found in a batch of 20 parts purchased.
Given data
n= 20, x= 7, p=0.3, q=1-0.3= 0.7
Probability of getting 7 defective parts = {20!/ 7! * 13!}* (0.3^2) * (0.7^13)=
0.1642= 16.42%

44
45
Binomial Distributions

46
Uniform Distribution (continuous)

47
Note: 1 pound= 16 oz ounce

48
 3.3 Important Continuous Distributions
The Normal Distribution

49
What are some examples of things that
follow a Normal Distribution?
• Heights of people
• Size of things produced by machines
• Errors in measurements
• Blood Pressure
• Test Scores
• It is a bell-shaped curve.
• It is symmetrical about the mean, μ.
• (The mean, the mode and the median all
have the same value).
• The total area under the curve is 1 (or
100%).

51
 68% of values
are within 1
standard
deviation of
The Standard the mean

Deviation :
95% of values
are within 2
is a standard
deviations of
measure of the mean

how spread
out numbers 99.7% of
values are
within 3
are. standard
deviations of
the mean
 Characteristics of Normal Distribution Cont’d

• Hence Mean = Median

• The total area under the curve is 1 (or 100%)

• Normal Distribution has the same shape as Standard Normal

Distribution.
54
Φ (-2.5) = 0.0062
NOTE: If negative portion is not given in table… to calculate Φ (-2.5) , first
calculate Φ (2.5) = 0.9938
Φ (-2.5) 1 - Φ (2.5) = 1-0.9938 = 0.0062 55
56
 The Exponential Distribution (continuous)

The exponential distribution is widely used in the field of

reliability engineering as a model of the time to failure of a
component or system. In these applications, the parameter λ
is called the failure rate of the system, and the mean of
the distribution “1/λ” is called the mean time to failure. 57
Exponential Distribution Example

λ=0.0001 per hr
t= 10,000 hr
λ*t= 1

58
The Central Limit Theorem

Practical interpretation – the sum of independent random

variables is approximately normally distributed regardless of
the distribution of each individual random variable in the sum

59
The Central Limit Theorem
(CLT)
The Central Limit Theorem
(CLT)

Reference: Exploring Research by Neil Salkind, seventh edition

The Central Limit Theorem
(CLT)