IADC/SPE 87198

Remediating Sustained Casing Pressure by Forming a Downhole Annular Seal with

Low-Melt-Point Eutectic Metal
Robert B. Carpenter, Manuel E. Gonzalez, and Verland Granberry, ChevronTexaco; Thomas E. Becker, Halliburton

Copyright 2004, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference

constructed of 8-in. and 5-in. diameter steel pipes. Subsequent
This paper was prepared for presentation at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Dallas, field-testing is currently being planned.
Texas, U.S.A., 2–4 March 2004.

This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE Program Committee following
review of information contained in a proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of the
Introduction
paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling This paper summarizes experimental efforts to form an
Contractors or Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s).
The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the International annular seal for the purpose of mitigating sustained casing
Association of Drilling Contractors or Society of Petroleum Engineers, their officers, or
members. Papers presented at IADC/SPE meetings are subject to publication review by
pressure, or annular gas pressure buildup. Annular pressure
Editorial Committees of the International Association of Drilling Contractors and Society of can result from numerous sources such as tubing leaks, loss of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the International Association of Drilling isolation potential within the cement column caused by poor
Contractors and Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print mud displacement, free water- induced channels, stress
is restricted to a proposal of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The
proposal must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was fractures, or failure of the cement to cover all potential sources
presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A.,
fax 01-972-952-9435. of annular pressure. In most cases, annular pressure is not
observed at the wellhead until after the well is placed on
production, making it difficult to resolve the matter, i.e.,
Proposal
isolate the zone from which formation fluid communication is
Described are proof-of-concept developments to form a seal
taking place. There is seldom a feasible means of physically
for mitigating sustained casing pressure caused by annular
reaching any of the key points of fluid communication after
pressure buildup. Annular pressure can result from numerous
the occurrence has been observed. Past efforts to remediate
sources, including tubing leaks, loss of isolation potential
have been compromised by failure to reach deeply into the
within the cement column because of poor mud displacement,
annulus and by chemical contamination of the
free water-induced channels, stress fractures, and failure of the
remedial sealant.
cement to cover all potential sources of annular pressure. In
The proposed method drops a low-melt-point alloy metal
most cases, annular pressure is not observed at the wellhead
down the backside of the casing where annular pressure has
until the well is placed on production, making it difficult to
been observed. The metal is then melted by an innovative
identify, access, or remediate the pressure source. A new and
heating process and allowed to cool and solidify. The intent is
novel approach to remediation has been tested in which a low-
to form an annular seal to stop fluid communication between
melt-point alloy metal is dropped down the backside of the
the rock formation and the wellhead as deeply within the
casing where annular pressure has been observed. The metal is
annulus as physically possible. This concept was tested using
allowed to accumulate at the top of cement or other physical
a commercial tool developed for use in artificial lift that
barrier, melted with an induction-heating tool, and allowed to
produces heat at select locations by electromagnetic induction.
cool and solidify. This process forms an annular seal to stop
The tests described are also intended to determine whether this
fluid communication between the formation and wellhead.
tool has application for the purpose described.
This method was demonstrated within a full-scale,
simulated well section. An electromagnetic induction tool
Background
provided sufficient localized heating to completely melt
A major purpose of primary cementing is to form a permanent
solder-type alloy metal placed between concentric casings.
seal between the borehole wall and the casing run into it.
Subsequent pressure-testing verified that a complete melt,
Total success in this effort implies that all nonproduced
sufficient to provide an effective seal against fluid pressure,
formation fluids remain in their respective formations for the
was achieved in both water- and synthetic-based drilling
entire productive and post-abandonment life of the well.
fluids. Shear-bond test results of various alloys were equal or
Sustained casing pressure (SCP) detected on the backside of
superior to cement, and the solid-liquid phase transitions (set
the casing can be an indication of fluid or gas movement
points) occurred at precise temperature levels. All metals
within the annulus. This movement can result from failed or
tested contained bismuth because of its unique characteristic
insufficient cement coverage, communication through tubular
of expanding upon solidification to provide enhanced
connections and seals, or thermal expansion of fluids in a
pressure-containment performance. Full-scale testing was
confined space during production operations. This discussion
conducted using 17-ft long concentric annular models
will focus on remediation of fluid movement
or communication.
2 IADC/SPE 87198
Even though a primary cementing job is performed
flawlessly and post-job analysis (fluid friction-pressure data,
shoe test, and bond log) have confirmed that all went
according to plan, the cement seal often becomes undone or
the cement itself forms internal cracks after minutes or years
of well production. Thermal and pressure cycling during well
servicing and testing, formation subsidence, and minor
tectonic activity are among the natural and man-made events
that can impair the cement seal on casing and borehole.
Recent Minerals Management Service (MMS) studies1-3
reveal the following items of note:
• Approximately 34,000 wells have been drilled on the
Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf region (GOMR)
since 1947.
• Of these, approximately 8,000 wells have SCP.
• Of these, 11,000 casing strings show SCP (production,
intermediate, or surface casing).
• Most (58.6%) of reported SCP is outside the
production annulus.
This annular pressure must be monitored constantly and its
occurrence reported.4 Many wells require costly zinc bromide
lubricate-and-bleed maintenance programs to help control and
possibly reduce annular pressure.
A potential solution to this problem involves the use of a
solder-like material dropped (or otherwise emplaced) as
pellets into the annular space of a well having SCP. The metal
is then melted by applying heat from a source located in the
well at the depth of the alloy metal. Tools currently exist for
localized heating of heavy oil at production casing
perforations. One such tool is a magnetic induction heater.
Magnetic induction directly heats the steel casing, which in
turn transfers the heat to whatever is immediately in contact
with the casing. This technology is expected to be applicable
to metal alloys having melting points within the delta T
(temperature) capabilities of the tool.
Experimental Approach
Present experiments follow initial full-scale testing5 (referred
to as Phase 1) in which heating jackets were used as the heat
source, and which verified that sufficient heat could be
transferred across a casing wall to completely melt alloy
metal. Verifying that an effective plug had been produced was
assured by pressure-testing across the plug to confirm that it
could hold 100 psi of gas pressure for 1 hr. The present Phase
2 objectives raised the pressure requirement to 1,000 psi.
Wellbore Model: First Full-Scale Melt Test
A 17-ft long wellbore model (Fig. 1) was constructed of
concentric line pipes of approximately 5 1/2-in. and 8-in.
diameter. The annular space contained a 6-ft deep bed of
water-saturated sand at bottom, atop which was 11 ft (about
600 lb) of alloy metal pellets immersed in a bentonite water-
based drilling mud. The induction heating tool (Fig. 2) was
immersed in water inside the inner casing section. The entire
model was oriented vertically and immersed in a water bath
kept at 140°F. Thermocouples were placed at selected
locations throughout the model, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
The alloy metal is referred to as “Cerro” alloy, consisting
of bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium. Its melting point was
174°F and was not eutectic, i.e., when heated in solid state, the
metal passes from a solidus (near-solid state) to a liquidus
(near-liquid state) and then becomes completely liquid. Its
actual melting point lies within that region and is difficult to
precisely identify. Bismuth, though ten times as expensive as
lead, was selected as a component because of its unique
property of expanding upon cooling during solidification. This
expansion should help make a more competent annular plug.
Bismuth comprised 50% of the alloy metal, which is marketed
as a solder product. It was shipped in 1/4-in. × 1/8-in. solid bar-
chunks, which were hand-dropped into the annular space.
Heating was applied for 3 hr using the induction-heating
tool. Fig. 3 shows the tool-in-model arrangement. The heating
portion of the 16-ft induction heating tool is 12 ft long.
Assessing when the annular plug was formed was made by
examining the temperature-vs.-time patterns from the
thermocouples placed throughout the model, as well as by
probing with a steel rod down into the annular region to
determine the location of the top of plug. A substantial amount
of heat was lost because of water boiling off the nonsealed top
of annulus. Nonetheless, thermocouple data (Fig. 5) clearly
indicated that the alloy metal had been heated to temperatures
significantly above melting point (approximately 200°F;
whereas, published melt point was 175°F) for about 2 hr.
The model was allowed to cool overnight and was
pressure-tested in the morning with city water pressure (55
psi). The water leaked through almost immediately.
Before completely cutting the model into sections, the
model was again heated as another attempt to form a
competent annular plug. First, the model and heating tool were
pulled out of the test well and the top 5.5 ft of the model was
cut off and discarded. The bottom 1 ft of that cut section had
approximately 130 lb of ratty, half-melted alloy metal, which
fell out and was placed back into the top of the remainder of
the annular region. This portion of the model was returned to
the test well along with the heating tool, and heating resumed
the day after the first attempt and continued for another 3 hr
before being shut down. Thermocouple data reveal that alloy-
metal temperatures in the annular region ranged from 180 to
190°F when heating power was shut down. We concluded that
it should have been sufficient to form a complete annular plug.
The next day, the model was pressure-tested again using
100-psi air pressure. It began leaking, showing bubbles out the
top 15 min later. One additional heating was conducted using
the same heating procedure used the day before. As before, the
model was allowed to cool overnight.
Pressure-testing was performed the next day with 55-psi
city water for 1 hr. No leaks were apparent. Then air pressure
was turned on at 100 psi. One hour later, air bubbles began
leaking out the top. It was concluded that the method needed
modification to make a successful plug.
Autopsy. The model was then cut into 1-ft long slices with a
band saw to examine the plug. At first glance, there appeared
to be a 4-ft solid plug. However, on closer inspection, weep
holes approximately 1/32-in. in diameter were evident in each
slice, mostly at the casing boundaries with a few in the middle
of the annular gap.
IADC/SPE 87198
In this test model, the bottom 6 linear ft of annular volume
was occupied by sand (20/40 frac sand), with fresh water
filling the interstitial space. Immediately above the sand, alloy
metal chunks were immersed in drilling mud. Mud weight was
10.5 lbm/gal. The purpose of the sand was to act as a platform
or barrier to exclude the molten metal from lower pressure
ports of the model. At the bottom of the sand was a port nipple
for connecting to a pressure source, which could be city water,
air supply, or pressure induced by pump. The sand was
intended to block the flow of molten alloy metal to prevent it
from percolating down to the pressure port and plugging it off.
However, the higher density molten metal had clearly
gravitated entirely through the sand and nearly plugged off the
port. This unintended and unwanted result led to the decision
to adjust the relative locations of sand and heating tool so that
the local temperatures in the sand are unlikely to exceed the
melting temperature of the alloy metal. Any molten alloy
metal then flowing down into the sand should solidify well
before reaching the pressure port at the bottom of the
test model.
Second Full-Scale Test
The goal again was to produce an annular plug by melting
(using the induction-heating tool) and subsequent atmospheric
cooling. The plug should be capable of containing 1,000 psi of
pressure for approximately 1 hr.
Experimental Parameters. The second test model was
essentially copied from the previous experiment but with
several parameters adjusted to increase the likelihood of
achieving an effective alloy-metal plug. The essential
differences in parameters for the two test models were:
First Model Second Model
Test model length 17 ft 17 ft
Length of sand: 6 linear ft 3 linear ft
Length of alloy metal: 11 linear ft 11 linear ft
Bottom of heating tool: 1 ft below 2 ft above
top of sand top of sand
Additionally, in the second test model, a 3 linear in.
column of birdshot was placed atop the sand to further impede
gravitational movement of molten alloy metal downward into
the sand.
Two heating tests were required on the second test model
to achieve a complete melt. The first heating test resulted in a
plug that appeared to hold water pressure up to 800 psi, at
which point, leaks through the plug became easily noticeable.
Rather than opening the test model to ascertain the levels of
melted and unmelted (if any) alloy metal, it was decided to
halt testing and prepare for a second melt. The second melt
would take place after several weeks. During the interim,
adjustments would be made to test parameters as well as the
means of measurement.
The Presence of Water and its Effect on
Heat Transfer
During testing, it became evident that water was excessively
absorbing, conducting, or convecting heat energy away from
the heating tool and from the alloy metal location. In each
3
melt test, the water in contact with the tool was always
brought to a boil, during which, much heat intended to be
absorbed by the alloy metal was instead lost to the
surrounding environment. The water was present to help
conduct heat to the alloy metal. The convection currents that
developed because of temperature variances were in all
likelihood not representative of actual well conditions.
Attempts were made to mitigate this effect in a way that
became a stepwise approach.
Procedure and Observations. Excessive heat dissipation
became evident the first day of melt-testing. The model was
heated for about 7 hr. The arrangement was similar to that of
the first model, with a water bath between the heating tool and
the inner casing, plus a water bath surrounding the model (Fig.
3), after which, the model was allowed to cool overnight. The
following morning, the model was pressure-tested with water,
and a leak became evident at about 200 psi of water pressure.
Surmising that one reason for this plug test failure was that too
much heat dissipated by the water boiling off between the tool
and inner casing, the water was removed and replaced by air.
Although air is an insulating medium for thermal conduction,
it was reasoned that electromagnetic induction may be
sufficient to effectively transfer and distribute heat energy to
the desired regions of the model.
Another melt test was then run with the new test setup.
However, the air proved to be insufficient in conducting or
dissipating heat away from the heating tool, and the heating
power was shut down intermittently to avoid overheating and
subsequently damaging the tool. Thermocouple readings
indicated that the heat reaching the alloy metal during the 7 hr
of heating may have been sufficient to melt enough of the
metal to form an effective plug. It was desired, however, to be
able to bring temperatures to a higher level. The model was
allowed to cool for approximately 2 hr. The next morning, it
was pressure-tested once more, this time bringing the pressure
up to 800 psi, at which point, a leak through the plug
became evident.
Radial vs. Vertical Heating
The induction-heating tool was designed so that the radial
vector of heat energy flux would be much stronger than its
axial counterpart. This purpose was served more than we
anticipated. Because of the earlier anticipation, during testing
on the second full-scale model, the bottom of the heating
portion of the heating tool was located 2 ft above the top of
sand to ensure that the sand would not get heated above the
alloy metal melt point. It was desired to avoid movement of
the molten metal into the lower density sand, as had happened
during testing on the first model, where the heating portion of
the heating tool had been 1 ft below the top of sand.
Subsequent analysis of thermocouple data in testing on the
second model indicated that the bottom of the heating portion
of the tool could be brought closer to the sand, probably just
inches above the top of sand without compromising
this precaution.
A decision point was reached. Should the model be cut
into 1-ft sections or should a re-melt be attempted, hoping to
re-form the plug so that it might hold 1,000 psi for
4 IADC/SPE 87198
approximately 1 hr? The latter alternative was selected but
with some changes in the test setup, including:
• A glycol-based heat-transfer fluid (instead of air or water)
was placed between tool and inner casing
• Water bath surrounding the model was replaced by air
and the model was covered by fiberglass insulation
• Upgrades to the data acquisition system
• Heating tool was moved downward so that bottom of 12-
ft heating section was a few inches above top of sand
(previously 2 ft above sand)
Re-Test. The melt test was initiated with an average of
approximately 5 kW supplied to the tool. Heating was
continuous and pressure on the annular space containing alloy
metal occasionally had to be relieved to keep it below 1,000
psi. Three hours later, the power was shut off. The tool
temperature was typically approximately 230°F and the model
temperature was typically 200°F, particularly in the region
where the molten alloy metal was expected to be found (from
the top of sand to approximately 5 ft above sand).
The system was allowed to cool overnight but was still
quite hot the next morning (approximately 170°F). The model
had cooled down only 40° in 12 hr in approximately 80°F
surroundings. To speed cooling, water was added to the test
chamber. After 2 1/2 hr, the model had cooled to 110 to 115°F,
and pressure was applied with a diaphragm pump to the
bottom of the annular space in the model (i.e., upward against
the metal plug). When the desired pressure was reached, the
pump was shut off and the valves closed. If pressure appeared
to be bleeding off, the diaphragm pump was powered on and
the test space recharged. Throughout this testing phase, the
annular space above the plug was opened to the atmosphere by
a 1/8-in. nipple on the cap at the top of the space, filled with
water, and observed for any fluid flow out the top. Results
were as follows:
Start: manually-set pressure = 100 psi
After 1 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
200 psi
After 2 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
300 psi
After 3 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
400 psi
After 4 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
500 psi
After 5 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
600 psi
After 6 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
700 psi
After 7 hr: No leaks detected, manually increased pressure to
800 psi
After 8 hr: No leaks detected, but pressure had dropped to 750
psi. Manually increased pressure to 900 psi.
After 9 hr: No leaks detected, but pressure had dropped to 850
psi. Manually increased pressure to 1,000 psi.
After 10 hr: No leaks detected, but pressure had dropped to
925 psi. Manually increased pressure to 1,000 psi.
This pattern continued for the next 5 hr: the pressure
would decrease from 1,000 psi and asymptotically approach
some level greater than 900 psi, after which the pressure was
manually restored to 1,000 psi with the diaphragm pump. No
leaks were evident, each pressure restoration was made
approximately 1 hr after the previous one, and each pressure
reduction was less than the previous one. After this sequence,
the pressure was manually restored to 1,000 psi, at which level
it remained for the next 24 hr, after which the apparatus was
dismantled. It was concluded that there may be narrow pores
in the plug material that require a higher than expected time
for pressure to equalize. Another explanation may have been
the continued cooling of the model, which would have had
decreasing effect on pressure with increasing time. Again, a
successful plug was attained.
After cooling off, a stiff tape was run into the top of the
annulus of the 17-ft long model until it struck something solid
and could not proceed further. The tape indicated that 85 in. of
length were free of obstruction. The obstruction below that
would be a ratty interface of re-solidified alloy metal and
drilling mud followed by clean alloy. Before heating, the
second full-scale model had alloy-metal pellets filled to the
top of the annular space.
Autopsy. The 17-ft long second test model was cut into 10-in.
long sections so that various cross sections could be observed
to judge the quality of the metal plug. Starting from the
bottom of the model were 34 in. of free sand, in which no
molten alloy metal had percolated through. Above that was
approximately 10 in. of mixed sand, birdshot, and molten
metal. Above that for 40 to 50 in. was a solid plug of solidified
molten alloy metal above which was another 30 to 40 in. of
alloy metal mixed with drilling mud that grew increasingly
ratty going upward. These results are listed in Table 1 and
illustrated in Fig. 6.
The casing collar was 6 to 7 ft above the bottom of the
model (72 to 84 in.). Solid plug was found to run from 44 in.
to at least 84 in. above the bottom of the model, indicating that
the collar was completely covered by solid plug.
Alloy Metal Formulation Change
Although the present choice of alloy metal formulation has a
suitable initial melting temperature and resulted in a
successful annular plug, a consensus had developed among the
team that a eutectic alloy would be more suitable for
developing this technology. The melting point ranged across a
near 25°F range, which made it more difficult to ensure
complete melting of the material. A eutectic alloy is a
formulation of elements whereby the melting point is at the
lowest possible temperature for that combination of metal
elements, and which has no solidus or liquidus transition
phases. The alloy is either totally solid or totally liquid. It was
decided to obtain five 50-lb samples of different eutectic
formulations and run shear-bond tests to determine which
formulation(s) would be most favorable. The alloy-metal
samples are listed in Table 2.
Experimentation was conducted using shear-bond testing
molds, which are scaled-down versions of the full-scale
models. Based on favorably high shear-bond results, two
IADC/SPE 87198
eutectic formulations were selected for forthcoming
full-scale testing:
• 50/27/13/10 (Bi/Pb/Sn/Cd) alloy, 158°F melting point
• 52.5/32/15.5 (Bi/Pb/Sn) alloy, 203°F melting point.
Third Full-Scale Model
Testing followed a similar procedure using another 17-ft long
model with the same dimensions and test setup as with the
previous model, but with three differences: (1) Synthetic-
based drilling mud was used instead of water-based mud, (2)
the alloy metal was the 203°F melting point eutectic, and (3)
the inner pipe of the model did not have a casing collar.
Thermocouple locations were the same as for the previous
model. The annular space was closed in, with a relief valve to
vent trapped pressure.
The production well model was prepared having the
following dimensions:
• Inner casing: 5-in. ID, 5.5-in. OD
• Outer casing: 7 3/4-in. ID, 8 5/8-in. OD (line pipe)
• Model length: 17 ft
• Orientation: vertical
• Annulus held (from bottom): 3 ft of sand, 2 in. of
birdshot, 13.8 ft of eutectic alloy metal
• Alloy metal was 52.5% bismuth, 32% lead, 15.5% tin
The same induction-heating tool (4 1/2-in. diameter, 16 ft long)
was also used in this model.
Test Procedure. Testing in the full-scale model was by the
following procedure:
1. When electric power was applied to the induction-
heating tool, all temperatures were approximately 75°F.
2. One-half hour later, most temperatures were
approximately 120°F. Annular pressure was 1,100 psi
and was bled back to 1,000 psi.
3. Twenty minutes later, temperatures were 150 to 180°F.
Every 10 min during this time, pressure was bled off
back to 1,000 psi.
4. After another 20 min, temperatures on the tool surface
were approximately 200 to 230°F. On the casing they
were 100 to 170°F. During this time, the heating tool
was occasionally raised and lowered slowly by
approximately 6 in. for more uniform heat distribution.
5. After another 20 min, temperatures on the casing
reached 210 to 230°F at alloy metal depths. At this
juncture, electric power to the induction-heating tool was
briefly shut off for an electronics-status check, then
powered back on.
6. Twenty minutes later, all temperature readings indicated
that the metal was completely melted. Electric power
was again shut down and the model allowed to cool for
14 hr. Ambient temperature was 70°F.
7. After 14 hr, the model temperature was still 203°F and
both casings at eutectic location. Since eutectic melt
point was 203°F, it was concluded that the alloy metal
was releasing heat of fusion. Temperatures continued to
remain at this level for another 6 hr, after which they
slowly diminished to 140°F over the next 18 hr.
5
Result. Determination of the result began with a city water
pressure test (60 psi). It held pressure for 1 hr. Then 200-psi
air pressure was applied with the diaphragm pump, which also
held for 1 hr. Pressure was then raised to 400 psi, which again
held successfully for an hour. This process continued for
subsequent pressure steps raised to 600, 700, 900, and 1,000
psi. The pump was shut off and all inlet valves closed, leaving
only the outlet valve open to any possible leakage through the
alloy-metal plug. The system was then left undisturbed for 72
hr with no leakage observed. The conclusion was reached that
a successful plug had been achieved. The apparatus was
subsequently dismantled.
Autopsy. Sectioning cut locations of Model 6 are illustrated in
Fig. 7, and a photo of the results is shown in Fig. 8. The
results show 3 1/2 to 4 ft of solid, uniform eutectic material
with ratty mixes of mud and alloy metal on either end.
Pressure-testing indicated that this length of plug was
sufficient for hydraulic isolation of at least 1,000-psi gas
pressure. In the first two models, a casing collar was included
to enhance this hydraulic isolation. This latest result indicates
that it is not necessary (though it may still be beneficial) to
emplace the plug around a collar for greater assurance that the
plug performs as intended.
Success in producing an effective plug was determined by
measured isolation potential. All tests had 1–2 ft of intermixed
mud and alloy and what appeared to be a small layer of
oxidized alloy. The difference is observable, as shown in Fig.
9. Closer inspection of these contaminated areas (Fig.10)
reveals weep holes and other possible leak paths caused by the
presence of materials such as drilling mud. In the successful
tests, a few annular feet of clean uniformly melted material
provided the targeted isolation potential. We feel that success
in the earlier non-eutectic tests was hampered by steam
formation from the fluid in the plug interval and lack of
complete melting of the alloy caused by the broad melting
point. Maintaining pressure on the eutectic annulus prevented
steam formation; use of eutectic alloys provided better
prediction of when a uniform melt (such as shown in Fig. 11)
was achieved.
Conclusions
The results of this study indicate the following:
• Full-scale laboratory results indicate that sustained casing
pressure can be mitigated by the use of low-melting-point
alloy metals.
• Results indicate that the process and sealing efficiency is
enhanced when a eutectic alloy is used instead of a non-
eutectic alloy.
• The technology is applicable for either water- or
synthetic-based muds.
• Commercial induction-heating tools successfully melted
the alloy in the model. The next test will melt the alloy in
an outer annulus of a multi-annulus model suspended in a
fluid-filled well to better evaluate heater capabilities.
• Ancillary applications such as perforation abandonment,
water shut-off within a gravel pack, formation of extreme
pressure, wireline set bridge plugs, and well abandonment
plugs are being explored.
6 IADC/SPE 87198

References
1. Nichol, J.R. and Kariyawasam, S.N.: “Risk Assessment of
Temporarily Abandoned or Shut-in Wells,” report Contract No.
1435-01-99-RP-3995, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Minerals
Management Service, October 20, 2000.
2. Bourgoyne, A.T., Jr., Scott, S.L., and Manowski, W.: “A
Review of Sustained Casing Pressure Occurring on the OCS,”
report Contract No. 1435-001-30749, U.S. Dept. of Interior,
Minerals Management Service, April 18, 2000.
3. Wojtanowicz, A.K., Nishikawa, S., and Rong, X.: “Diagnosis
and Remediation of Sustained Casing Pressure in Wells,” report
to U.S. Dept. of Interior, Minerals Management Service, Baton
Rouge, LA, July 31, 2001.
4. MMS, U.S. Dept. of Interior: “Oil and Gas and Sulfur
Operations in the Outer Continental Shelf–Procedures for
Dealing with Sustained Casing Pressure,” Federal Register 30
CFR Part 250, Vol. 66, No. 218, Nov. 9, 2001.
5. Carpenter, R.B., Gonzalez, M.E., and Griffith, J.E.: “Large-
Scale Evaluation of Alloy-Metal Plugs for Effective
Remediation of Casing Annular Gas Flow,” paper SPE 71371
presented at the 2001 Annular Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, September 30–Oct. 3.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Halliburton Energy Services and
ChevronTexaco E & P Technology Company for permission
to present this paper.

Table 1—Second Full-Scale Model Cut into Sections*

Section Section Length

Comments/Observations
No. (in.)

1 10 Mixture of alloy metal and drilling mud

2 10
3 10
4 10
5 10
6 10
7 10
8 10
9 6
2.5 to 3 ft of model
*Numbered from the top
Mixture of alloy metal and drilling mud
Top: apparent weepholes. Bottom: solid plug
Solid plug
Solid plug. Bottom 6 in. (approx): casing collar
Solid plug. Top 6 in. (approx.): casing collar
Solid plug
Solid plug at top. Bottom: alloy-metal mixed with
birdshot
Top: alloy-metal mixed with birdshot. Bottom: alloy-
metal mixed with birdshot and sand
33 in.of sand
IADC/SPE 87198 7

Table 2—Eutectic Alloy Metal Candidates

Calculation of Alloy Specific Gravity Based on Mass Composition
Basic Data
Melting Liquid Solid Density at
Density at
Metal Point Melting Melting Point
25°C (g/cc)
(°C) Point (°F) (g/cc)

Bi 271.40 520.5 10.05 9.79

Pb 327.46 621.4 10.66 11.3
Sn 231.93 449.5 6.99 7.26
Cd 321.07 609.9 7.996 8.69

Liquid Solid Melting

Alloy
% Bi % Pb % Sn % Cd Specific Specific Average Point
Metals
Gravity Gravity (°F)

MeltPt 158 50 26.7 13.3 10 09.6 09.75 09.67 158

MeltPt 203 52.5 32 15.5 0 09.77 09.88 09.83 203
MeltPt 217 54 0 26 20 08.84 08.91 08.88 216.5
MeltPt 255 55.5 44.5 0 0 10.32 10.46 10.39 255
MeltPt 281 58 0 42 0 08.76 08.73 08.75 281
Non-Eutectic 50 39 3 8 10.03 10.22 10.12 174-200
8 IADC/SPE 87198

Fig. 1—Schematic of the first test model.

IADC/SPE 87198 9

Fig. 2—Induction-heating tool. Pipe-in-pipe annular model.

10 IADC/SPE 87198

Fig. 3—Illustration of the alloy metal experiment, first full-scale test. Tool and model in heated water bath.
IADC/SPE 87198 11

Fig. 4—Locations of temperature sensors in the cross section. Thermocouple locations: 6 ft from spout.

Fig. 5—Recorded temperatures for the first full-scale model. Temperature distribution over nine thermocouple locations.
12 IADC/SPE 87198

Fig. 6—Second full-scale model, post-test autopsy. Result observed after sectioning (each section approximately 10 in. long).
IADC/SPE 87198 13

Fig. 7—Third full-scale test model, post-test autopsy. Slicing the model after heat test.
14 IADC/SPE 87198

Fig. 8—Photo of sectioned third full-scale model (metal alloy Test 6).

Fig. 9—Model No. 2, non-eutectic alloy in WBM. Left view shows partially melted alloy and mud interface. Right side shows uniform melt
and some included sand.
IADC/SPE 87198 15

Fig. 10—Top section of Model No. 3, eutectic metal in SBM.

Fig. 11— Middle sections of Model No. 3, eutectic metal in SBM.