Robert K Merton - The Role-Set Problems in Sociological Theory

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The Role-Set: Problems in Sociological Theory

Author(s): Robert K. Merton
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jun., 1957), pp. 106-120
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THE ROLE-SET:
THE PROBLEMS IN
ROLE-SET: PROBLEMS IN
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
Robert K. Merton
Robert K. Merton
N THE FIRST VOLUME of tlle first American

tIle first journaldevoted
I
r Alnericanjournal devoted
entirely to
entirely subject of sociology,
the subject
to the proper to
role proper
the role
sociology, the the sociologist
to the sociologist
was described
zwas these forthright
described in these 'Social theorists
terms: 'Social
forthright terms: need be
theorists need be
men, and
meek men,
meek should stand
and should head uncovered
with head
stand with before the
uncovered before the special
special
gifts services of the
and sernces
gifts and who are
genius who
men of genius
the men workingthe
are working the latter-day
latter-day
miracles of industry
miracles and commerce.'l
industryand announced in 1895.
was announced
This was
commerce.' 1 This I895. A
few years later,
few years Durkheim, who
Emile Durkheim,
later, ltmile who by by all accounts ssas
all accounts apt to
not apt
\vas not to
take up
take up this diffident and
this diffident position before
admiring position
and admiring anyone,least
before anyone, all
least of all
businessmen, was
businessmen, reminding his
was reminding readers that
his readers sociologywas
that sociology 'bornonly
was 'born only
yesterday',
yesterday', indeed, the fifteen
'in the
that 'in
indeed,that before1900,
yearsbefore
fifteenyears I900, it was possible
waspossible
to
to mention
mention only ten names
only ten which were
names which were truly and properly
trulyand properly the namesof
the names
sociologists'.
soaologists'.2 I
sociologistshave
Sincesociologists
Since inlleritedthe
notinllerited
plainlynot
haveplainly earth,,ve
tlleearth, suppose
cansuppose
etecan
thosewho
that those
that who came DurkheimIlave
afterDurkheim
came after unableto
been unable
also been
have also remain
to remain
meek-mannered
meek-mannered men.In
men. event,it is
anyevent,
In any is plain thatthe
plainthat ofscanty
conditionofscanty
thecondition
of sociologistshas
numbersofsociologists
numbers changed,in
greatlychanged,
hasgreatly spaceof aa half-
shortspace
theshort
in the half-
century. Sociologistsare
century.Sociologists numberedby
now numbered
areno,,, by hundreds
hundredsin Europeand
in Europe and byby
thousandsin
thousands in the
the United States.(I
UnitedStates. (I understand, incidentally,that
understand,incidentally, some
that some
Englishmen,both
Englishmen, bothwithin withoutthe
and without
withinand sociology,have
professionof sociology,
tlle profession have
been
been heard
heardto 'too many
say, 'too
to say, thousands,by
manythousands, Althoughit may
far'.) Although
by far'.) may atat
seemthat
firstseem
first numbershave
thesenumbers
that these growingin
beengrowing
have been in geometrical ratio,
geometricalratio,
and althoughthe
andalthough Literary
TimesLiterary
the Times Supplentent
Supplenzellt continuesto
continues Malthusian
urgeMalthusian
to urge
checks upon this overly-abundant
checksupon this overly-abundant population sociologists,the
population of sociologists, factisis
the fact
that there are clearly far too few to do the numerous
that there are cl~arly far too few to do the numerous jobs
jobs lshich
,vhich
sociology,
sociology,partly partly by by theoretic commitmentand
theoreiiccommitment partly by
and partly defaultof
by default
other disciplines,now includesutithin
other disciplines, now includes "rithin its
its province.
province. There
There have
have been
been
advancesof sociologicalknowledge,
advances ofsociological kno,vledge, of course,
course, but
but these
these have
have been
been sparse
sparse
proceedingin
uneven,proceeding
and uneven,
and depth at
relativedepth
in relative few places
at aa fe'''' along the
placesalong the
front,
front,but remainingthin
butremaining thinatat many others.The
manyothers. Thehistorian discipline
of ourdiscipline
historianofour
should
shouldsee this matter
see this matterof numbers comparatively.There
numberscomparatively. There are indeed
are indeed
about
about four four thousand sociologistsin
thousandsociologists in the States,aa very
United States,
the United large
rery large
number,
number,when whencompared
comparedwith withthose
thoseof generationor
of aa generation or t,vo butaa
ago, but
tuo ago,
106
I06

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
very small
very small number
number when when compared
comparedwith with thethe 80,000
80,ooo chemists,
chemists,the the
60,ooophysicists,
60,000 physicists, andand even
even the 20,000 psychologists.
the 20,000 psychologists. II do do notnot intend
intendto to
emphasizenumbers
emphasize numbers above above all, all, but
but as as hashas been remarkedof other
been remarked other
disciplines,it requires
disciplines, requiresmany many thousands
thousandsof men men working
workingmethodically
methodically
with
with improved
improved methods
methods for for aa lifetime,
lifetime,if knowledge
knowledgein a discipline
disciplineis is to
to
accumulate
accumulate rapidly,
rapidly, rather than slowly
rather than slowlyand and imperceptibly.
imperceptibly.3 3
As
As the
the numbers sociologistshave
numbers of sociologists increased,they
have increased, they have
have become,
become, in
accordwith
accord with the Spencerianthesis,
the Spencerian moredifferentiated.
thesis, more differentiated.It is is now
now pos-pos-
sible to
sible identifysome
to identify some thirty
thirty toto forty
forty fields
fields of prime specializationin
prime specialization in
sociology,and-
sociology, and· it must
must be supposedthat
be supposed this differentiation
that this diffierentiation unll con-
will con-
tinue.
tinue. Even
Even in thethe unlikely
unlikely circumstance
circumstance that self-selection
that self-selection shouldresult
should result
in an even distribution
an even distribution amongamong these specialities,there
these specialities, there would
would still still be,
be,
even among
even amongthe the large
large number
number of American sociologists,an
American sociologists, an average
averageof
only
only one
one hundred
hundred to to work eachfield-to
work each field to teach teach the mpads of students
the myriads students
who
who seek
seek some
some understanding
understanding of the socialworld
the social world they
they never made, to
never made, to
advance
advance knowledge
knowledge through disciplinedinquiry,
through disciplined inquiry,to to relate
relatewhatwhat know-know-
ledge
ledge wewe have
have toto problems of socialpolicy,
problems ofsocial and to
policy, and to withstand
withstand the the assaults
assaults
upon
upon sociology
sociology ^srhich
\vhich are are periodically
periodically mountedmounted by intelligent,anxious
by intelligent, anxious
and
and sometimes
sometimes uninformed
uninformed laymen.laymen. In the aggregate,and
the aggregate, and contrasted
contrasted
with
with what
what has has gone
gone before,
before, thethe proliferation sociologistsand
proliferation of sociologists and socio-
socio-
logical
logical specialities
specialities may seem excessive;
may seem excessive;functionally,
functionally,in relation
relation to to the
the
work
work that
that needs
needs toto be
be done,
done, the fieldof sociology
the field sociologyis is still
stillsparsely
sparselysettledsettled
and
and undermanned.
undermanned.
Just
Just asas sociology
sociology has has experienced
experienced changes changes in numbers
numbers of personnel,
personnel,
so
so it has
has experienced
experienced changes
changes in the foci and
the foci and the
the methods
methods of inquiry.inquiry.
These
These changes
changes are are registered
registered in the the changing spectrumof sociological
changing spectrum sociological
theory.
theory. OneOne of the the principal
principal changes
changes has has been
been in the the character
character of the the
tasks
tasks which
which socioloFcal
sociological theorists
theorists set set themselves.
themselves. With With aa few
few prominent
prominent
exceptions,
exceptions, suchsuch as Sorokinand
as Sorokin (thoughhe
and (though he might
might disown
disown the character-
the character-
ization)
ization) Toynbee,
Toynbee, sociologists
sociologists no no longer
longer follow
follow in thethe spacious footsteps
spacious footsteps
of a Comte,
Comte, Marx,
Marx, or or Spencer
Spencer who, who, eacheach in hishis own
own way,
way, tried
tried to to work
work
out
out an
an historical
historical sociology
sociology which
which wouldwould put put the
the entire
entire course
course of human human
society
society into
into single perspective.
single perspective.
For
For better
better oror for
for worse,
worse, and
and this
this has
has surely
surely meant
meant thatthat great
great historical
historical
erudinon
erudition has has become
become almostalmost vestipal
vestigial among sociolopts, sociological
among sociologists, sociological
theory
theory is no no longer
longer focussed
focussed on on setting
setting out out the
the historical
historical panorama
panorama of
human
human society
society in a series
series of cycles,
cycles, phases,
phases, or or stages.4
stages.'
Durkheim,
Durkheim, who who mustmust share
share uithwith Weber
Weber the the biologically
biologically improbable
improbable
but
but historically
historically possible
possible responsibility
responsibility of fatheringfatheringmodern sociology,
modem sociology,
took
took a quite
quite different
different tacktack and
and adopted
adopted a quite quite different
different theoretical
theoretical
commitment.
commitment. Rather Rather than than trying
trying to to reconstruct
reconstruct and and to to forecast
forecast the the
historical
historical patterns
patterns of humanhuman society,
society, he he developed
developed analyiical
analytical ideas ideas
designed
designed to provide
provide broad
broad theoretical
theoretical underpinnings
underpinnings for for the
the discipline
discipline
and
and tried
tried to to sharpen
sharpen thesethese ideas
ideas through
through a seriesseries of empirical
empirical mono- mono-
graphs.
graphs. His His pre-eminent
pre-eminent contribution
contribution was was toto clarify
clarify the
the functions
functions of
I077
10

ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT MERTON
social norms,
social norms, and and their
their relations
relations to distinctkinds
to distinct kindsof socialsocial structure.
structure.
Unlike
Unlike Durkheim,
Durkheim, Weber Weber drew drew upon
upon aa breadth historicalknowledge
breadth of historical knowledge
almostincomparable
almost incomparable in his his day,
day, but
but he he too
too aimed
aimed to developaa wide-
to develop wide-
ranging
ranging systematic
systematic theory theory centred
centred largely
largely on on the analysisof the
the analysis the relations
relations
of value-systems
value-systems to to the
the organization
organization of materialmaterial resources
resources and and other
other
parts
parts of thethe social
social structure.
structure.
Today,
Today, I think think it fair
fair to say, the
to say, the work
work of Talcott
Talcott Parsons
Parsons represents
represents
the
the one
one major
major effort
effort toto develop
develop a comprehensive sociologicaltheory.
comprehensive sociological theory.
This
This aims
aims to to state
state the
the fundamental
fundamental variables
variables of social systems,rather
social systems, rather
than
than to furnish
furnish substantive
substantive solutions,
solutions, all all proceeding
proceeding from from the the head
head of
one
one man,
man, to the the numerous
numerous problems
problems phrased
phrased in terms
terms of these these variables.
variables.
A general
general theory,
theory, suchsuch asas this
this one,
one, is
is intended
intended to to locate
locate other
other sociological
sociological
theories
theories as as special
special cases;
cases; it must
must therefore
therefore include
include vanables
variables of a high high
order
order of abstractness.
abstractness. As As an an avowed
avowed effort
effort to work
work towards
towards a compre- compre-
hensive
hensive theory,
theory, it is logically
logically akin
akin though
though obviously
obviously not not substantively
substantively
analogical
analogical to a theory theory such
such as as that
that of classical
classical mechanics.
mechanics. It is too too soon
soon
to say
say what
what the the outcome
outcome of this this effort
effort will
will be.
be. It has
has thethe ment,
merit, as as recent
recent
experience
experience has has shown,
shown, of prouriding
providing theoretical
theoretical gliidance
guidance for for diverse
diverse
empirical
empirical inquiry.
inquiry. It has has the
the practical
practical difficulty,
difficulty, however,
however, of being being so so
rapidly
rapidly elaborated
elaborated that that its
its development
development must must farfar outrun
outrun the the pace
pace of
systematic
systematic studies
studies designed
designed to put put the
the ideas
ideas to empirical
empirical test. test. This,
This, then,
then,
is one
one direction
direction being being taken
taken by contemporary
contemporary sociological
sociological theory. theory.
Apart
Apart fromfrom such such general
general theory,
theory, there
there have
have been
been developing
developing theones, theories,
also
also analytical
analytical and and systematic,
systematic, offar
offar more
more limited
limited scope,
scope, thesethese involving
involving
sets
sets of ideas
ideas which which cancan be described
described as as theories
theories of the the middle
middle range- range-
theories,
theories, for for example,
example, of reference
reference groups
groups and and social
social mobility,
mobility, of com- com-
munication,
munication, role-conflict
role-conflict and and thethe formation
formation of social social notms.norms. TheseThese
theories
theories also
also involve
involve abstractions,
abstractions, of course,
course, but abstractions
abstractions not not so farfar
removed
removed om from the data data of sociological
sociological observation.
observation.
The principal
principal basis basis of advancing
advancing sociological
sociological theory
theory today today consists,
consists,
I believe,
believe, in much much the the same
same modest
modest and and limited
limited development
development of ideas ideas
which
which occurred
occurred in the the early
early modeIn
modem period period of otherother sciences,
sciences, from from
natural
natural history
history to chemistry
chemistry and and physics.
physics. Such
Such theories
theories of the the middle
middle
range
range consist
consist of sets sets of relatively
relatively simple
simple ideas,
ideas, which
which link link together
together a
limited
limited number
number of facts facts about
about the the structure
structure and and functions
functions of social social
formations
formations and and suggest
suggest further
further observations.
observations. They They are are theories
theories inter-
inter-
mediate
mediate to comprehensive
comprehensive analytical
analytical schemes
schemes and and detailed
detailed workaday
workaday
hypotheses.
hypotheses. The conceptionconception of this this type
type of theory
theory is of course
course not new: new:
there
there are
are allusions
allusions to it in Plato,Plato'; Bacon
Bacon mademade much
much of 'intermediate
'intermediate or
middle
middle axioms'
axioms' as didJohn Stuart Stuart Mill.
Mill. But
But it seems
seems to me particularly
particularly
important
important to emphasizeemphasize the distinctive
distinctive value
value of suchlimited
ofsuch limited theories
theories in
a science,
science, suchsuch as ours,
ours, in which
which concept
concepts and and classification
classification play play such
such
a major
major part,part, whereas
whereas few few or no quantitadve
quantitative laws laws have have yet been been
discovered.6
discovered. 6
In emphasizing
emphasizing what what seems
seems to me the distinciivedistinctive importance
importance of
108
I08

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
theonesof the
theories the middle
middlerange,range,II wouldwouldprefer
prefernot not toto be
be misunderstood.
misunderstood.
There is,
There is, of course,
course,no no contradiction
contradictionbetweenbetweensuch such theories
theoriesand and more
more
comprehensivetheory,
comprehensive theory,such such as as that
that advanced
advancedby by Parsons.
Parsons.Nor Nor am am II
suggestingthat
suggesting that onlY theoriesof the
only theories the middle
middlerangerange merit
meritour our attention.
attention.
After all,
After all, sociology
sociologyis is aa large
large house
house of many
many mansions.
mansions.MoreoverMoreoverin in
intellectualwork
intellectual workas as in manual
manualwork, work,most
mostof us us have
have aa wayway of finding
finding
certainactivities
certain activitiescongenial,
congenial,and and it would
would be be self-deceiving
self-deceivingto to assume
assume
that our
that our tastes
tastesplay
play no
no part
partin in the
the kind
kindof theoretical
theoreticalwork workwe we prefer
prefertoto
do. To
do. To project
projectour our 'temperamental'
'temperamental'bents bents into
into aa general
generalimperative
imperative
may be
may be tempting
temptingbut but nonetheless
nonethelessill-considered.
ill-considered.There Thereis is no
no substitute
substitute
for such
for such efforts
effortsas as Parsons's
Parsons'sto to develop
developaa wide-ranging
wide-rangingand and compre-
compre-
hensivetheory
hensive theoryof the the social
socialsystem
systemas as aa whole,
whole,whichwhichwill will incorporate,
incorporate,
with successive
with successivemodifications,
modifications,more morehighly
highlydelimited
delimitedtheories.
theories.But, But, by
by
the same
the sametoken,
token,there
thereis is room
roomalso alsofor
foranother
anotherkind kindof theorizing
theorizingwhichwhich
is, at
is, at the
the outset,
outset,and and for
forsome
sometime time to
to come,
come,limited
limitedto to more
morerestricted
restricted
rangesof phenomena
ranges phenomenathan than those
thoseencompassed
encompassedby by aa system
systemof thought
thought
like that
like that of Parsons.
Parsons.The The two two kinds
kindsof inquiry
inquirycan can usefully
usefullyfollow
followtheir
their
own course,
own course,withwith periodic
periodicreconnaissances
reconnaissances to see
to see toto what
whatextent
extentspecific
specifi
theoriesof aa limited
theories limited range
range of phenomena
phenomenaare are found
found to to be
be consistent
consistent
with the
with the theory
theory of larger
largerscope.scope. On On this
this view,
view, the the consolidation
consolidationof
delimitedtheories
delimited theoriesin in sociology
sociologylargelylargelycomes
comesaboutaboutthrough
throughsuccessive
successive
convergenceof initially
convergence initiallydisparate
disparateideas,
ideas,convergences
convergences the kind
of the kindwhich
which
Parsonshimself
Parsons himselfworked
workedout out in in analysing
analysingthe the work
workof Weber Weberand and Durk-
Durk-
heim, Marshall
heim, Marshalland and Pareto.
Pareto.
Theoriesof the
Theories the middle
niiddlerangerangeare are theories
theoriesabout
aboutaa delimited
delimitedrange rangeof
socialphenomena.
social phenomena.They Theycan can be be recognized,
recognized,in in part,
part,by by their
theirvery
verylabels:
labels:
one speaks
one speaksof aa theory
theoryof reference
referencegroups,
groups,aa theory
theoryof prices,
prices,or or aa germ
germ
theoryof disease.
theory disease.The The basic
basicideas
ideasarearerelatively
relativelysimple:
simple:consider
considerGilbert
Gilbert
on magnetism,
on magnetism,Boyle Boyleon on atmospheric
atmosphencpressure,
pressure,or or Darwin
Dansin on on the
theforma-
forma-
tion of coral
tion coralatolls.
atolls.Gilbert
Gilbertbeginsbeginswithwith the
the relatively
relativelysimplesimpleideaidea that
that
the earth
the earthmay may be be conceived
conceivedas as aa magnet;
magnet;Boyle,Boyle,withunththe the simple
simpleideaidea
thatone
that one can
can conceive
conceivethe the atmosphere
atmosphereas as aa 'sea
'seaof air';
air';Darwin,
Darwin,with withthe
the
idea that
idea thatoneone can
can conceive
conceiveof the the atolls
atollsasas monuments
monumentsover overislands
islandslong
long
since subsided
since subsidedinto into the
the sea.
sea. Each
Each of these
these cases
casessetssets out
out aa relatively
relatively
simpleway
simple way of conceiving
conceivingaa delimited
delimitedrangerangeof phenomena.
phenomena.
These ideas
These ideas give
give rise
rise toto aa limited
limited number
numberof inferences
inferencesabout about the
the
phenomenain
phenomena in question.
question.To To take
take butbut one
one case:
case: if the the atmosphere
atmosphereis is
conceivedas
conceived as aa sea
sea of air,
air, then,
then, as as Pascal
Pascalinferred,
inferred,therethereshould
shouldbe be less
less
air pressure
air pressureon on aa mountain-top
mountain-topthan than atat its
its base.
base.The The initial
initialidea
idea is,
is, in
in
some measure,
some measure,put put to
to thethe test
test of obseIVation
observationby by seeing
seeingwhether
whetherthesethese
inferencesturn
inferences turnoutout to
to be
be empirically
empiricallyso, so, and
and whether
whetherthe the idea
idea suggests
suggests
other,newly
other, ilewlyobserved,
observed,characteristics
characteristics magnetism,or
of magnetism, or of atmosphere
atmosphere
pressure,as
pressure, as the
the case
case may
may be. be. As
As more
moreof thesetheseimplications
implicationsare are drawn
drawn
fromthe
from the original
originalfairly
fairlyuncomplicated
uncomplicatedidea, idea, andand areare empirically
empiricallycon- con-
firmed, there
firmed, there emerges
emergeswhat what may may fairly
fairly bebe called
called aa 'theory
'theory of the the
H log
IO9

ROBERT
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
magnetismof the
magnetism theearth'
earth'or
or 'a
'a theory
theoryof atmospheric
atmosphencpressure'.
pressure'.These
Theseareare
theoriesof
theories ofthe middlerange:
the middle range:adequate
adequateto to account
accountforforselected
selectedaspects
aspectsof
aa delimited
delimitedrange
range of phenomena,
phenomena,and arldsubject
subjecttoto being
being consolidated
consolidated
with others
with othersof likelike kind
kindinto
into aa more
morecomprehensive
comprehensive set of ideas.
set ideas.
Oncementioned,
Once mentioned,thesetheseillustrations
illustrations fromoutside
from outsidethe
thefield
fieldofsociology
of sociology
can be
can be dropped
droppedfrom fromview.
view.ForForthese
thesesimple
simpleideas
ideasdrawn
drawnfromfromthe theearly
early
daysof physical
days physicalscience
scienceinin the
theseventeenth
seventeenthcentury
centuryand
andof earth
earthscience
science
in the
in the nineteenth,
nineteenth,are are not,
not, of course,
course,being
being presented
presentedas as substantive
substantive
analogiesto
analogies to current
currentsociological ideaso~
sociologicalideas of,say,
say,attractions
attractionsandandrepulsions
repulsions
betweengroups,
between groups,or or of differing
differingdegrees
degreesof social
socialpressure.
pressure.It It isis the
the rela-
rela-
tivelysimple
tively simplelogical
logicalstructure
structurewhich
whichthey
they exhibit
exhibitthat
thatisis pertinent,
pertinent,not not
theirspecific
their specificcontent.
content.'Contemporary
Contemporary sociologicaltheories
sociological theoriesof thethe middle
middle
rangemay
range may not
not uniformly
uniformlyhavehave the the cogency
cogencyor or power
powerof suchsuch earlier
earlier
examplesof physical
examples physicaland and natural
naturalscience,
science,but
but they
theydo
do exhibit
exhibitthe the same
same
uncomplicatedlogical
uncomplicated logical structure.
structure.RatherRather than
than consider
considersociological
sociological
theoriesof the
theories the middle
middle range
range in in general,
general,II shall
shall examine
examineone one small
sma]l
examplein
example in the
the hope
hope that
that itit will
will exhibit
exhibit the
the design
designof of one
one kindkind ofof
structuraland
structural and functional
functionalanalysis.
analysis.
THE PROBLEMATICS
PROBLEMATICS OF
OF THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
However much
However much theythey may
may differ
differ inin other
other respects,
respects,contemporary
contemporary
sociologicaltheorists
sociological theoristsareare largely
largelyat at one
one in
in adopting
adoptingthe the premise
premisethatthat
social
socialstatuses
statusesandand social
socialroles
rolescomprise
comprisemajormajorbuilding
buildingblocks
blocksof social
social
structure.This
structure. Thishashasbeen
beenthethe case,
case,since
sincethe
theinfluential
influentialwritings
writingsof Ralph
Ralph
Lintonon
Linton on the
the subject,
subject,aa generation
generationago. ago.ByBystatus,
status,and
andT.
T. H.H. Marshall
Marshall
hasindicated
has indicatedthe thegreat
greatdiversity
diversityof mearlings
mealiingsattached
attachedto to this
thisterm
termsince
since
the time
the timeof Maine.Maine.6 Lintonmeanta positionin a socialsysteminvolving
6 Linton meant a position in a social system involving
designatedrights
designated rightsand
and obligations;
obligations;by by role,
role, the
the behaviour
behaviouroriented
orientedto to
thesepatterned
these patternedexpectations
expectationsof others.
others.In In these
theseterms,
terms,status
statusandand roles
roles
become concepts
become conceptsserving
servingto to connect
connect culturally
culturallydefined
definedexpectations
expectations
with the
with the patterned
patternedconduct
conductand and relationships
relationshipswhich
whichmakemakeup up aa social
social
structure.
structure.LintonLintonwent
went on on toto state
state the
the long
long recognized
recognizedand and basic
basicfact
fact
that each
that each person
personinin society
societyinevitably
inevitablwr occupiesmultiple
occupies multiplestatuses
statusesandand
that
that each
each of thesethesestatuses
statuseshashas anan associated
associatedrole.
role.
It -isis at
It at this
this point
point that
that II find
find itit useful
usefultoto depart
departfrom
fromLinton's
Linton'scon-con-
ception.
ception.The The difference
differenceisis initially
iniiiallyaa small
smallone,
one,some
somemight
mightsaysaysoso small
small
as not
as not to to deserve
deservenotice,
notice, but
but itit involves
involvesaa shift
shiftin
in the
the angle
angle of vision
vision
which
which leads,leads, II believe,
believe,to to successively
successivelygreater
greaterdifferences
diffierences of aa funda-
funda-
mentalkind.
mental kind.Unlike
UnlikeLinton,
Linton,II begin
begin,vith
^viththe
the premise
premisethat
that each
eachsocial
social
status
statusinvolves·
involvesnot not aa single
singleassociated
associatedrole,
role, but
but an
an array
arrayof roles.
roles.This
This
basic
basicfeature
featureof social
socialstructure
structurecan can be
be registered
registeredby by the
the distinctive
disiinctivebutbut
not formidable
not formidableterm, term,role-set.
role-set.To
To repeat,
repeat,then,
then, by
by role-set
role-setII mean
meanthatthat
complement
complementof role-relationslups
role-relaiionships in
in which
which persons
personsareare involved
involved by by
virtue
virtue of occupying
occupyingaa particular
particularsocial
social status.
status.Thus,
Thus, inill our
our current
current
110
I IO

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
studiesof medical
studies medicalschools,7
schools,7we we havehave begunbegun with with the the view
view thatthat thethe
statusof medical
status medicalstudentstudententails
entailsnot not only only the
the role studentvis-a-vis
role of aa student vzs-a-vzs
his teachers,
his teachers,but but also
also an an array
arrayof other otherroles rolesrelating
relatinghim him diversely
diverselyto to
otherstudents,
other students,physicians,
physicians,nurses, nurses,socialsocialworkers,
workers,medical
medicaltechnicians,
technicians,
and the
and the like.
like.Again,
Again,the the status
statusofschool
of schoolteacherteacherin in the
the United
UnitedStatesStateshas has
its distinctive
its distinctiverole-set,
role-set,in in which
whichare arefound
foundpupils,
pupils,colleagues,
colleagues,the the school
school
principaland
principal and superintendent,
superintendent,the the Board
Board of Education,
Education,professional
professional
associations,and,
associations, and, on on occasion,
occasion,local local patriotic
patrioticorganizations.
organizations.
shouldbe
It should madeplain
be made plainthatthatthe the role-set
role-setdiffers
differsfrom
fromwhatwhatsociologists
sociologists
have long
have long described
describedas as 'multiple
'muliipleroles'.roles'.By By established
establishedusage, usage,the the term
term
multiple
multiple role role refers
refers notnot toto the
the complex
complexof roles rolesassociated
associatedwith with aa single
single
socialstatus,
social status,but but with
with thethevarious socialstatuses
various social (often,in
statuses (often, in differing
differinginstitu-
institu-
iional spheres)in
tional spheres) in which
which people
people find find themselves
themselves-for for illustration,
illustration,the the
statusesof physician,
statuses physician, husband,
husband, father,father, professor, church elder,
professor, church elder, Con- Con-
servative
servative Party Party member
member and and armyarmy captain.
captain. (This(This complement
complemcntof dis- dis-
tinct
tinct statuses
statuses of a a person,
person, each each of thesethese in in turn
turn having
having its its own
own role-set,
role-set,
I would
would designate
designate as as a status-set.This
a status-set. This cencept
concept gives gives rise
rise to its own
to its own
range
range of analytical
analytical problems
problems which which cannotcannot be be considered
considered here.)here.)
The
The notion
notion of the the role-set
role-set reminds
reminds us, us, in thethe unlikely
unlikely eventevent that
that we we
need
need to to bebe reminded
reminded of this this obstinate
obstinate fact, fact, that
that even
even the seemingly
the seemingly
simple
simple social
social structure
structure is is fairly
fairly complex.
complex. All All societies
societies faceface the
the functional
functional
problem
problem of articulating
articulating the the components
components of numerous numerous role-sets,
role-sets, the the
functional
functional problem
problem of managingmanaging somehow somehow to to organize
organize these these so so that
that an an
appreciable
appreciable degree degree of socialsocial regularity
regularity obtains,
obtains, sufficient
sufficient to to enable
enable most most
people
people mostmost of the the time
time to go about about their their business
business of social
social life,
life, without
without
encountering
encountering extreme extreme conflict
conflict in their their role-sets
role-sets as as the
the normal,
normal, rather
rather
than
than thethe exceptional,
exceptional, state state of-affairs.
of -affairs.
If this
this relatively
relatively simple
simple ideaidea of role-set
role-set has has any
any theoretical
theoretical worth,worth, it
should
should at the the least
least generate
generate distinctive
distinctive problems
problems for for sociolopcal
sociological theory,
theory,
which
which comecome to our our attention
attention only only fromfrom the the perspective
perspective afforded
afforded by this this
idea,
idea, or by one one likelike it. This
This the the notion
notion of role-set
role-set does.
does. It raises
raises thc the
general
general problem
problem of identifying
identifying the the social
social mechanisms
mechanisms which which serve
serve to
articulate
articulate the the expectations
expectations of those those in the the role-set
role-set so so that
that the
the occupant
occupant
of a status
status is confronted
confronted with with lessless conflict
conflict thanthan would
would obtain
obtain if thesc these
mechanisms
mechanisms were were not not at work.
work. It is to these these social
social mechanisms
mechanisms that that I
would
would devote
devote the the rest
rest of this
this discussion.
discussion.
Before
Before doing
doing so, so, I should
should likelike to recapitulate
recapitulate the the argument
argument thus thus far.
far.
\Ve
\Ve depart
depart from from the the simple
simple idea,
idea, unlike
unlike thatthat which
which has has been
been rather
rather
widely
widely assumed,
assumed, that that a single
single status
status in society
society involves,
involves, not not a single
single role,
role,
but
but an array
array of associated
associated roles,roles, relating
relating the the status-occupant
status-occupant to diverse diverse
others.
others. Secondly,
Secondly, we note note that
that thisthis structural
structural fact, fact, expressed
expressed in the the
term
term role-set,
role-set, gives
gives rise
rise to distinctive
distinctive analytical
analytical problems
problems and and to corre-
corre-
sponding
sponding questions
questions for for empirical
empirical inquiry.
inquiry. The basic basic problem,
problem, which which I
deal
deal with
with here,here, is thatthat of identifying
identifying social social mechanisms,
mechanisms, that that is, pro- pro-
cesses
cesses having
having designated
designated effects effects for for designated
designated parts parts of the social social
II II II

ROBERT K.
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
structure,which
structure, whichserve serveto to articulate
articulatethe therole-set
role-setmore morenearly
nearlythan
thanwouldwould
be the case,
be the case, if these mechanismsdid
these mechanisms did not not operate.
operate.Third, Third,unlike
unlikethe the
problemscentred
problems centredupon upon the the notion
notion of 'multiple
'multipleroles', roles',this
thisone
one isis con-
con-
cernedwith
cerned withsocial
socialarrangements
arrangements integratingthe
integrating theexpectations
expectations ofthose
of thosein in
the role-set;
the role-set; it it isis not
not primarily
primarilyconcerned
concernedwith withthe the familiar
familiarproblem
problemof
howthe
how theoccupant
occupantofa of a status
statusmanages
managesto to cope
copewith withthe themany,
many,and andsome-some-
times conflicting, demands
times conflicting, demands made of him. made him. It It isis thus
thusaa problem
problemof of social
social
structure,not
structure, not an an exercise
exercisein in the
the nono doubt
doubt important
importantbut but different
different
problemof how
problem howindividuals
individualshappenhappento to deal
dealwith
withthe thecomplex
complexstructures
structures
of relations
relationsin in which
which theythey find
find themselves.
themselves.Finally, Finally,by by way
way of setting
setting
the analytical
the analyticalproblem,
problem,the the logic
logic of analysis
analysisexhibited
exhibitedin in this
this case
case isis
developedwholly
developed whollyin in terms
termsofthe
ofthe elements
elementsofsocial
of socialstructure,
structure,rather
ratherthan than
in terms of providing concrete
in terms providing concrete historical historicaldescription
descriptionof aa social socialsystem.
system.
All this
All this presupposes,
presupposes,of course, course,thatthat there
there is is always
alwaysaa potential for for
diffiering and sometimes conflicting
differing and sometimes conflicting expectations expectationsof the the conduct
conductappro-appro-
priate to
priate to aa status-occupant
status-occupantamong among those those in in the the role-set.
role-set.TheThe basicbasic
sourceof this
source thispotential
potentialfor forconflict,
conflict,II suggest-and
suggest and here herewewe are
are at at one
one
with
with theorists
theorists as as disparate
disparateas as Marx
Marx and andSpencer,
Spencer,Simmel Simmeland and Parsons-
is
is that
that the
the members
members of aa role-set are, to
role-set are, to some
somedegree,
degree,apt apt to
to hold
holdsocial
social
positions diffieringfrom
positions differing from that
that of the occupant the statusin question.
the occupant of the status in question.
To the
the extent
extent that
that theythey are
are diversely
diversely located
located in the the social
social structure,
structure, they they
are
are apt
apt to
to have
have interests
interests andand sentiments,
sentiments, values values and and moral
moral expectations
expectations
differing
differing fromfrom thosethose of the the status-occupant
status-occupant himself. himself: This,
This, after
after all,all, is
is
one
one of the the principal
principal assumptions
assumptions of Matxist Marxist theory, theory, as as it is is of all all
sociological
sociological theory:
theory: socialsocial diffierentiation
differentiation generates
generates distinctdistinct interests
interests
among
among thosethose variously
variously located
located in the the structure
structure of the the society.
society. To con- con-
tinue
tinue with
with oneone of our our examples:
examples: the the members
members of a school school board
board areare often
often
in social
social andand economic
economic strata strata which
which differ
differ greatly
greatly fromfrom that
that of the the
school
school teacher;
teacher; and and their
their interests,
interests, values
values and and expectations
expectations are are conse-
conse-
quently
quently apt apt to diffier,
differ, to somesome extent,
extent, fromfrom thosethose of the the teacher.
teacher. The The
teacher
teacher maymay thusthus become
become subject
subject to confliciing
conflicting role-expectations
role-expectations among among
such
such members
members of his his role-set
role-set as as professional
professional colleagues,
colleagues, influential
influential
members
members of the school school board,
board, and,and, say,
say, the
the Americanism
Americanism Committee Committee of
theAmerican
the American Legion.Legion. What What is an educationalessential
educational essential fortheonemaybe
for the one maybe
judged
judged as an education
education frill, frill, or as downright
downright subversion,
subversion, by the the other.
other.
These
These disparate
disparate and and contradictory
contradictory evaluations
evaluations by members members of the the role-
role-
set greatly
greatly complicate
complicate the task task of copingwith
ofcoping with them
them all. all. The familiar
familiar case case
of
of the
the teacher
teacher may may be be taken
taken as paradigmaiic.
paradigmatic. What What holds holds conspicuously
conspicuously
for
for this
this one
one status
status holds,
holds, in varying
varying degree,
degree, for for the occupants
occupants of aU all
other
other statuses
statuses who who are are structurally
structurally related,
related, through
through their their role-set,
role-set, to
others
others who
who themselves
themselves occupy occupy diverse
diverse positions
positions in in society.
society.
This,
This, then,
then, is is the
the basic
basic structural
structural basis
basis forfor potential
potential disturbance
disturbance of of aa
role-set.
role-set. AndAnd it it Fives
gives rise,
rise, inin turn,
turn, to to aa double
double question:
question: whichwhich social
social
mechanisms,
mechanisms, if if any,
any, operate
operate to to counteract
counteract such such instability
instability of of role-sets
role-sets
and,
and, correlatively,
correlatively, under under which
which circumstances
circumstances do do these
these social
social mechan-
mechan-
I112
I2

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
ismsfail
isms fail to
to operate,
operate,with
with resulting
resultingconfusion
confusionand
and conflict.
conflict.This
This isis not
not
to say,
to say, of course,
course,that
that role-sets
role-setsdo do invariably
invariablyoperate
operatewith
with substantial
substantial
efficiency.We
efficiency. We are
areconcerned
concernedhere,here,not
not with
withaa broad
broadhistorical
histoncalgeneral-
general-
izationto
ization to the
the effect
effectthat
that social
socialorderorderprevails,
prevails,but
but with
with an
an analytical
analytical
problemof identifying
problem identifyingsocial
social mechanisms
mechanismswhich
which produce
produceaa greater
greater
degreeof order
degree orderthan
thanwould
wouldobtain,
obtain,if these
thesemechanisms
mechanismswere
werenot
not called
called
into play.
into play. Othenvise
Otherwiseput,
put, it
it isis theoretical
theoreticalsociology,
sociology,not
not history,
history,which
which
is of interest
is interesthere.
here.
SOCIAL MECHANISMS
SOCIAL MECHANISMS ARTICULATING
ARTICULATING ROLE-SETS
ROLE-SETS
Relative
I. Relative
I. importance
importance of various
various statuses.
statuses. The first
The firstof these
thesemechanisms
mechanisms
derivesfrom
derives fromthethe oft-noticed
oft-noticedsociological
sociologicalcircumstance
circumstancethat thatsocial
socialstruc-
struc-
tures designate
tures designatecertain
certain statuses
statusesas as having
having greater
greaterimportance
importancethan than
others.Family
others. Familyand andjob
job obligations,
obligations,for for example,
example,are aredefined
definedin in Ameri-
Ameri-
can society
can societyas as having
havingpriority
priorityoverover membership
membershipin in voluntary
voluntaryassocia-
associa-
tions.8
tions. As aa result,
8 As result,aa particular
particularrole-relationship
role-relationship may be
may be of peripheral
peripheral
concernfor
concern forsome;
some;forforothers
othersit maymaybe be central.
central.Our
Ourhypothetical
hypotheticalteacher,
teacher,
for whom
for whom thisthis status
statusholds
holds primary
primarysignificance,
significance,may may byby this
this circum-
circum-
stancebe
stance be better
betterable
abletoto withstand
withstandthe the demands
demandsfor forconformity
conformitywith with thethe
differingexpectations
differing expectationsof those thosecomprising
comprisinghis his role-set.
role-set.ForForatat least
leastsome
some
these others,
of these others,the
the relationship
relationshiphas has only
only peripheral
penpheralsignificance.
significance.This This
does not
does not mean,
mean,of course,
course,that that teachers
teachersare are not
not vulnerable
vulnerableto to demands
demands
which are
which are at
at odds
oddswith
with their
theirown
own professional
professionalcommitments.
commitments.It means means
only that
only that when
when powerful membersof their
powerful members theirrole-set
rote-setareare only
only little
little con-
con-
cernedwith
cerned with this
this particular relationship,teachers
particular relationship, teachersare areless
lessvulnerable
vulnerable than than
they
they would otherwisebe
would otherwise (orsometimes
be (or sometimesare). are). Were
Wereall all those
thoseinvolved
involvedin
the
the role-set equallyconcerned
role-set equally concernedwith this relationship,
with this relationship,the the plight
plight of the the
teacher
teacher would
would be considerablymore
be considerably sorrowfulthan
more sorrowful often is.
than it often is. What
What
holds for the
holds for the particular case of the
particular case the teacher
teacher presumably
presumably holds holds forfor the
the
occupants
occupants of otherother statuses:
statuses: thethe impact
impact uponupon themthem of diverse expecta-
diverse expecta-
tions
tions among
among those
those in their
their role-set
role-set isis mitigated
mitigated by the the basic stuctural
basic structural
fact
fact of differentials
differentials of involvementin the
ofinvolvement the relationship
relationship among
among those com-
those com-
prising
prising their
their role-set.
role-set.
2. Differences ofpower
2. Diffierences power of those in the
those in the role-set.
role-set. A second
secondpotential
potential mechan-
mechan-
ism forstabilizing
ism for stabilizing the
the role-set
role-set is foundin the
is found the distribution
distribution of power
power and and
authority.
authority. By By power,
power, in this this connection,
connection, is meant meant thethe observed
observed and and
predictable
predictable capacity
capacity toto impose
impose one's
one's will
will in a social
social action,
action, even
even against
against
the
the opposition
opposition of others
others taking
taking part
part in that
that action;
action; by authority,
authority, the the
culturally
culturally legltimized
legitimized organization
organization of power. power.
As
As a consequence
consequence of socialsocial stratification,
stratification, the the members
members of a role-setrole-set
are
are not
not apt
apt to be equally
equally powerful
powerful in shaping
shaping the the behaviour
behaviour of status-
status-
occupants.
occupants. However,
However, it does does not
not follow
follow that
that the
the individuals,
individuals, group,
group, or
stratum
stratum in the the role-set
role-set which
which are are separately
separately most
most powerful
powerful uniformly
uniformly
succeed
succeed in imposing
imposing their
their demands
demands upon upon thethe status-occupant,
status-occupant, say, say, the
the
I3
I113

ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT MERTON
teacher.This
teacher. Thiswould
wouldbe besosoonly
onlyin in the
thecircumstance
circumstance thatthe
that theone onemember
member
the role-set
of the role-sethas has either
eitheraa monopoly
monopolyof power powerin the situationor
in the situation or out-
out-
weighsthe
weighs the combined
combinedpower powerof the the others.
others.Failingthis specialbut,
Failing this special but, of
course,not
course, not infrequent,
infrequent,situation,
situation,there theremay may develop
developcoalitions
coalitions power
of power
amongsome
among somemembers
membersof the the role-set
role-setwhich
whichenable
enablethe the status-occupants
status-occupants
to go
to go their
theirownown way.
way. The The familiar
familiarpattern
patternof aa balancebalanceof power poweris is of
coursenot
course not confined
confinedto to the
the conventionally-defined
conventionally-defined politicalrealm.In
political realm. In
less easily
less easily visible
visibleform,form, it can can be be found
found in in the
the workings
workingsof role-sets role-sets
generally,as
generally, as the
the boy
boy whowhosucceeds
succeedsin in having
havinghis his father's
father'sdecision
decisionoffset offset
his mother's
his mother'sopposedopposeddecision
decisionhas has ample
ample occasionto know. To
occasion to know. To the the
extentthat
extent that conflicting
conflictingpowerspowersin in his
hisrole-set
role-setneutralize
neutralizeone one another,
another,the the
status-occupant
status-occupant has relative
has relativefreedom
freedomto to proceed
proceedas as he
he intended
intendedin in thethe
first place.
first place.
Thus, even
Thus, even in in those
those potentially
potentiallyunstable unstablestructures
structuresin in which
which the the
membersof aa role-set
members role-setholdhold contrasting
contrastingexpectations
expectationsof what what the status-
the status-
occupant shoulddo,
occupant should do, the latteris
the latter is not
not wholly
whollyat at the
the mercy
mercyof the the most
most
powerful
powerful among
among them.them. Moreover,
Moreover, the structuralvariations engage-
the structural variations of engage-
ment
ment in the the role-structure,
role-structure, which which II havehave mentioned,
mentioned, can can serve
serveto rein-
to rein-
force
force the
the relative
relative power
power of the status-occupant.
the status-occupant. For to the extentthat
For to the extent that
powerful
powerful members
melnbers of his his role-set
role-set are are notnot centrally concernedwith
centrally concerned with this this
particular
particular relationship,
relationship, they they will
will be
be thethe less
less motivated
motivated to to exercise
exercise theirtheir
potential
potential power
power to to the
the full.
full. Within
Within varying
varying margins
margins of his his activity,
activity, the the
status-occupant
status-occupant will will then
then be freeto
be free to act
act asas he
he would.
would.
Once
Once again,
again, to to reiterate
reiterate thatthat which
which lends
lends itself
itself to
to misunderstanding,
misunderstanding,
I do
do not
not say
say that
that the
the status-occupant
status-occupant subject subject to to conflicting
conflicting expectations
expectations
among
among members
members of his his role-set
role-set is in fact fact immune
immune to control control by by them.
them.
I suggest
suggest only
only that
that the the power
power and and authority-structure
authority-structure of role-sets role-sets is is
often
often such
such that
that he has has a larger
larger measure
measure of autonomyautonomy than than he he would
would
have
have had
had if this
this structure
structure of competing
competing power power did did not
not obtain.
obtain.
3. Insulation
-3. Insulation of role-activities
role-activities from
from observability
observability by by members
members of the the role-set.
role-set.
People
People do not not engage
engage in continuous
continuous interaction
interaction with with allall those
those in theirtheir
role-sets.
role-sets. This
This is not
not an incidental
incidental fact, fact, to be ignored
ignored because
because familiar,
familiar,
but one
one integral
integral to the the operation
operation of social social structure.
structure. Interaction
Interaction with with
each
each member
member of a role-set
role-set tends
tends to be variously
variously interttent.
intermittent. This This funda-
funda-
mental
mental fact
fact allows
allows for for role-behaviour
role-behaviour which which is at odds odds with
with the the expecta-
expecta-
tions
tions of some
some in the the role-set
role-set to proceed
proceed without
without undue
undue stress.
stress. For,
For, as as I
elsewhere
elsewhere suggest
suggest at some some length,9
length, 9 effective
effective social
social control
control presupposes
presupposes
social
social arrangements
arrangements making making for for the observability
observability of behaviour.
behaviour. (By (By
observability,
observability, a conception
conception which which I have have borrowed
borrowed fFom from SimmelSimmel and and
tried
tried to develop,
develop, I mean mean the the extent
extent to whichwhich social
social norms
norms and and role-role-
performances
performances can readily readily become
become knownknown to others others in the the social
social system.
system.
This
This is, I believe,
believe, a variable
variable crucial
crucial to structural
structural analysis,
analysis, a beliefbeliefwhich
which
I cannot,
cannot, unhappily,
unhappily, undertake
undertake to defend defend here.)
here.)
To the extent
extent that
that the social
social structure
structure insulates
insulates the individual
individual from from
having
having his his activities
activities knownknown to members
members of his his role-set,
role-set, he is the the lessless
I114
I4

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
subjectto
subject to competing
competingpressures.
pressures.It shouldshouldbe be emphasized
emphasizedthat that wewe are
are
dealinghere
dealing herewithwithstructural
structuralarrangements
atTangements forsuch
for suchinsulation,
insulation,not notwith
with
the fact
the fact thatthat this
this oror that
that person
personhappens
happens to conceal
to concealpart part of hishis role-
role-
behaviourfrom
behaviour fromothers.
others.The The structural
structuralfactfact isis that
that social
socialstatuses
statusesdiffer
differ
in the
in the extent
extent to to which
which the the conduct
conductof those those in in them
them areare regularly
regularly
insulatedfrom
insulated fromobservability
observabilityby by members
membersof the the role-set.
role-set.Some
Somehave have aa
functionallysignificant
functionally sigtiificantinsulation
insulationof this thiskind,
kind,as asfor
forexample,
example,the thestatus
status
the university
of the universityteacher,
teacher,insofar
insofaras as norms
normsholdholdthat that what
whatisis said
saidin in the
the
classroomis
classroom is privileged.
privileged.In In this
this familiar
familiartypetype of case,case, the
the norm
normclearly
clearly
has the
has the function
functionof maintaining
maintainingsome some degree
degree of autonomy
autonomyfor for the
the
teacher.For
teacher. Forif theythey were
wereforever
foreversubject
subjectto to observation
observationby by all
all those
thosein in
the role-set,
the role-set,with with their
theiroften
oftendiffering
differingexpectations,
expectations,teachersteachersmight
mightbe be
drivento
driven to teach
teach not not what
what theythey know
knowor or what
what the the evidence
evidenceleads
leadsthemthem
to believe,
to believe,but but to to teach
teach what
what willwill placate
placatethe the numerous
numerousand and diverse
diverse
people who
people who are are ostensibly
ostensiblyconcerned
concernedwith with 'the 'the education
educationof youth'.youth'.
That this
That this sometimes
sometimesoccurs occursis is evident.
evident.But But it it would
would presumably
presumablybe be
morefrequent,
more frequent,were wereit it not
not for
forthe
therelative
relativeexemption
exemptionfrom fromobservability
observability
by all
by all and
andsundry
sundrywho whomay maywishwishto to impose
imposetheir
theirwillwillupon
uponthetheinstructor.
instructor.
Morebroadly,
More broadly,the the concept
conceptof privileged
privilegedinformation
informationand andconfidential
confidential
communicationin
communication in the
the professions
professionshas has this
this same
samefunction
functionof insulating
insulating
clientsfrom
clients fromobservability
observabilityof their their behaviour
behaviourand and beliefs
beliefsbyby others
othersin in
their role-set.
their role-set.Were Were physicians
physiciansor or priests
priestsfreefree to to tell
tell all
all they
they havehave
learnedabout
learned aboutthe the private
privatelives
livesof their
theirclients,
clients,the the needed
neededinformation
information
would not
would not be be forthcoming
forthcorningand and they
they could
could not not adequately
adequatelydischarge
discharge
their functions.
their functions.More More generally,
generally,if all all the
the facts
factsof one's
one's conducts
conductsand and
beliefs were
beliefs were freely
freely available
availableto to anyone,
anyone, social
social structures
structurescouldcould not not
operate.What
operate. What is is often
often described
describedas as 'the
'the need
need for for privacy'-that
privacy' that is, is,
insulationof actions
insulation actionsand and beliefs
beliefsfromfrom surveillance
surveillanceby by others-is
others- is the the
individualcounterpart
individual counterpartto to the
the functional
functionalrequirement
requirementof social socialstructure
structure
that some
that some measure
measureof exemption
exempiionfrom fromfull
full observability
observabilitybe be provided.
provided.
'Privacy'is
'Privacy' is not
not only
only aa personal
personalpredilection,
predilection,though thoughit may may be be tha~,
that,
too. It is
too. is also
also aa requirement
requirementof social socialsystems
systemswhich which mustmust provide
providefor for
aa measure,
measure,as asthey
theysaysayinin France,
France,of quant-d-soi, portionofthe
quant-a-soi, a portion ofthe selfwhich
selfwhich
is kept
is kept apart,
apart,immune
immunefrom fromobservation
observationby by others.
others.
Likeother
Like othersocial mechanisms,this
socialmechanisms, thisone
one of insulation
insulationfrom fromfull
fullobserva-
observa-
bility can,
bility can, of course,
course,miscarry.
miscarry.Were Werethe the activities
activitiesof the the politician
politicianor, or,
one prefers,
if one prefers,the the statesman,
statesman,fully fully removed
removedfrom fromthe the public
publicspotlight,
spotlight,
socialcontrol
social controlof his his behaviour-would
behaviourwouldbe be correspondingly
correspondingly reduced.And
reduced. And
as we
as we allall know,
know, anonymous
anonymouspower anonymouslyexercised
power anonymously extrciseddoes does notnot
makefor
make for aa stable
stablesocial
socialstructure
structuremeeting
meetingthe the values
valuesof aa society.
society.So, So,
too, the
too, the teacher
teacheror or physician
physicianwho whois is largely
largelyinsulated
insulatedfrom fromobservability
observability
may fail
may fail toto live
live upup toto the
the minimum
minimumrequirements
reqviirements his status.
of his status.AllAll this
this
meansonly
means only thatthat some
somemeasure
measureof observability
observabilityof role-performance
role-performance by
by
members
members of the the role-set
role-setis is required,
required,if the the indispensable
indispensablesocial socialrequire-
require-
ment accountabilityis
ment of accountability is to
to be
be met.
met. This
This statement
statementdoes does not
not contradict
contradict
I I5
115

ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT MERTON
an earlier
an earlierstatement
statementto to the
the effect
effectthat
thatsome
somemeasure
measureof insulation
insulationfrom from
observabilityis
observability is also
alsorequired
requiredfor for the
the effective
effectiveoperation
operationof social socialstruc-
struc-
tures. Instead,
tures. Instead,the the two
two statements,
statements,taken takenin in conjunction,
conjunction,imply imply that that
thereisis an
there an optimum
optimumzone zoneof observability,
observability, difficultto
difficult to identify
identifyin in precise
precise
terms and
terms and doubtless
doubtlessvarying
varyingfor for different
differentsocial
social statuses,
statuses,whichwhich will will
simultaneouslymake
simultaneously make bothboth for for accountability
accountabilitry and for
and for substantial
substantial
autonomy,rather
autonomy, ratherthanthanforforaa frightened
frightenedacquiescence
acquiescencewith withthe the distribu-
distribu-
tion of power
tion powerwhich whichhappens,
happens,at at aa particular
particularmoment,
moment,to to obtain
obtainin in the
the
role-set.
role-set.
Observability
4. Ohservahiliry conpZicting
of conflicting demands
demands by memhers
hy members tole-set.This
of a role-set. This
mechatiism
mechanism is is implied
impliedby by what
what hashas been
beensaid
said and
and therefore
thereforeneedsneedsonly only
passing commenthere.
passing comment here.As long as
As long as members
role-setare are happily
happily
ignorant
ignorant that that their
their demands
demands upon upon the occupantsof aa status
the occupants statusare areincom-
incom-
patible,
patible, eacheachmember
member may may press hisown
press his owncase.
case.The
The pattern
pattern is is then
thenmany many
against
against one. one. ButBut when
when it becomes
becomesplain plain that
that the demandsof some
the demands some are are
in full
full contradiction
contradiction with with the
the demands
demands of others,others, it becomes,
becomes,in in part,
part,
the
the task
task of members
members of the the role-set,
role-set, rather
rather than
than thatthat of the the status-
status-
occupant,
occupant, to resolve resolve these
these contradictions,
contradictions, eithereither by by a struggle
struggle for for over-
over-
riding
riding power
power or or by some
some degree
degree of compromlse.
compromise.
In such
such circumstances,
circumstances, the the status-occupant
status-occupant subjected
subjected to to conflicting
conflicting
demands
demands often often becomes
becomes cast cast in the
the role
role of the
the tedius
tertius gaudens,
gaudens, the the third
third
(or
(or more
more often,
often, thethe nth)
nth) party
party whowho draws
draws advantage
advantage from from thethe conflict
conflict
of the
the others.
others. Originally
Originally at the the focus
focus of thethe conflict,
conflict, he he can
can virtually
virtually
become
become a bystander
bystander whose whose function
function it is to highlight
highlight the the conflicting
conflicting
demands
demands being being mademade by members
members of his his role-set.
role-set. It becomes
becomes a problemproblem
for
for them,
them, rather
rather thanthan for
for him,
him, to resolve
resolve their
their contradictory
contradictory demands.demands.
At thethe least,
least, this
this serves
serves to make
make evident
evident that
that it is not
not wilful
wilful misfesance
misfesance
on hishis part
part which
which keeps
keeps himhim from
from conforming
conforming to all the the contradictory
contradictory
expectations
expectations imposed imposed upon upon him.l°
him. 10 When
When most most effective,
effective, this
this serves
serves to
articulate
articulate the the expectations
expectations of those those in the the role-set
role-set beyond
beyond a degree degree
which
which would
would occur,
occur, if this
this mechanism
mechanism of makingmaking contradictory
contradictory expecta-expecta-
tions
tions manifest
manifest were were notnot at work.
work.
5. Mutual
Mutual social
social suppod
support among
among status-occupants.
status-occupants. Whatever
Whatever he may may believe
believe
to the contrary,
contrary, the occupantoccupant of a social social status
status is not
not alone.
alone. The very very
fact
fact that
that he is placedplaced in a social
social position
position means
means thatthat there
there areare others
others
more
more or or less
less like-circumstanced.
like-circumstanced. To this this extent,
extent, the actual
actual or potential
potential
experience
experience of of facing
facing aa conflict
conflict of expectations
expectations among among members
members of the
role-set
role-set is is variously
variously common
common to to all
all occupants
occupants of the the status.
status. The particu-
particu-
lar persons subject to these conflicts
lar persons subject to these conflicts need need not,
not, therefore,
therefore, meetmeet them them as as
wholly
wholly private
private problems
problems whichwhich mustmust be be coped
coped withwith inin wholly
wholly private
private
fashion.
fashion.
It
It is
is this
this familiar
familiar andand fundamental
fundamental fact fact of
of social
social structure,
structure, of of course,
course,
which
which is is thethe basis
basis for
for those
those in in the
the same
same social
social status
status forming
forming the the
associations
associations interrnediate
intermediate to to the
the individual
individual and and thethe larger
larger society
society in in aa
pluralistic
pluralistic system.
system. These
These orgaIiizations
organizations constitute
constitute aa structural
structural response
response
6
I116
I

THE ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
to
to the
the problems
problems of copingcopingwith with the
the (potentially
(potentiallyor or actually)
actually)conflicting
conflicting
demands
demands by by those
those inin the
the role-sets
role-sets of the status.ll
the status. I I Whatever
Whatever the the intent,
intent,
these
these constitute socialformations
constitute social servingto
formations serving counterthe
to counter the power
powerof the the
role-set;
role-set; of being,
being, notnot merely amenableto
merely amenable its demands,
to its demands,but helping
but of helping
to
to shape
shape them.
them. SuchSuch organizations
organizations-so so familiar
familiaraa part part of the social
the social
landscape
landscape of differentiated societies-also develop
differentiated societies-also develop normative
normative systemssystems
which
which are are designed
designed to anticipateand
to anticipate and thereby
thereby to to mitigate
mitigate suchsuch con-con-
flicting
flicting expectations
expectatioDSli TheyThey provide
provide social
social support
support to to the
the individuals
individuals in
the
the status
status under
under attack.
attack. They
They minimize
minimize the the need
need for for their
their improurising
improvising
personal
personal adjustments
adjustments to to patterned
patt.erned types
types of conflicting expectations.
conflicting expectations.
Emerging
Emerging codes codes which
which· state
state in advance
advance what what the the socially-supported
socially-supported
conduct
conduct of the the status-occupant
status-occupant should should be,be, also
also serve
serve this
this social
social function.
function.
This
This function
function becomes
becomes all all the
the more
more significant
significant in the the structural
structural circum-
circum-
stances
stances when
when status-occupants
status-occupants are are highly
highly vulnerable
vulnerable to to pressures
pressures from from
their
their role-set
role-set because
because they they areare relatively
relatively isolated
isolated from from one one another.
another.
Thus,
Thus, thousands
thousands of librarians
librarians sparsely
sparsely distributed
distributed among among the the towns
towns and and
villages
villages of America
America and and not not infrequently
infrequently subject
subject to to censorial
censorial pressures
pressures
received
received strong
strong support
support from from the
the code
code on censorship
censorship developed
developed by by the
the
American
American LibraryLibrary Association.l2
Association. 12 This This onlyonly illustrates
illustrates the the general
general
mechanisms
mechanisms wherebywhereby status-peers
status-peers curbcurb thethe pressures
pressures exerted
exerted upon
upon themthem
individually
individually by drawing
drawing upon upon the
the organizational
organizational and and normative
normative supportsupport
of their
their peers.
peers.
6. Abridging
Abridging the the role-set.
role-set. There
There is,is, of course,
course, a limiting
limiting casecase in the
the modes
modes
of coping
coping withwith incompatible
incompatible demands
demands by the the role-set.
role-set. Role-relations
Role-relations are are
broken
broken off,
off, leaving
leaving a greater
greater consensus
consensus of role-expectations
ofrole-expectations among
among thosethose
who
who remain.
remain. But But this
this mode
mode of adaptation
adaptation by amputating
amputating the the role-set
role-set is
possible
possible only
only under
under special
special andand limited
limited conditions.
conditions. It can can be effectively
effectively
utilized
utilized only
only in those
those circumstances
circumstances where where it is still
still possible
possible forfor status-
status-
occupants
occupants to performperform theirtheir other
other roles,
roles, without
without the the support
support of those those
with
with whom
whom they they have
have discontinued
discontinued relations.
relations. It presupposes
presupposes that that the
the
social
social structure
structure provides
provides this this option.
option. By By and
and large,
large, however,
however, thisthis option
option
is infrequent
infrequent and and lited,
limited, since
since thethe composition
composition of the the role-set
role-set is
ordinarily
ordinarily not not a matter
matter of personal
personal choice
choice but a matter matter of the the social
social
organization
organization in which which the the status
status is embedded.
embedded. More More typically,
typically, the the
individual
individual goes,goes, and
and thethe social
social structure
structure remains.
remains.
RESIDUAL
RESIDUAL CONFLICT
CONFLICT IN THE ROLE-SET
Doubtless,
Doubtless, these
these are
are only
only some
some of the
the mechanisms
mechanisms which
which serve
serve to
articulate
articulate the
the expectations
expectations of those
those in the
the role-set.
role-set. Further
Further inquiry
inquiry will
will
uncover
uncover others,
others, just as
as it will
will probably
probably modify
modify the
the preceding
preceding account
account
of those
those we have
have provisionally
provisionally identified.
identified. But,
But, however
however much
much thethe sub-
sub-
stance
stance may
may change,
change, I believe
believe that
that the logic
logic of the
the analysis
analysis will
will remain
remain
largely
largely intact.
intact. This
This can be briefly
briefly recapitulated.
recapitulated.
First,
First, it is assumed
assumed that
that each
each social
social status
status has
has its organized
organized comple-
comple-
ment
ment of role-relationships
role-relationships which
which cancan be thought
thought of as
as comprising
comprising a
I117
I7

Ix8
118 ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT MERTON
role-set.Second,
role-set. Second,relationships
relationshipsholdhold not
not only
only the
the between
betweenoccupant
occupantof
the particular
the status and
particular status and each
each member
memberof the the role-set,
role-set,butbut always
always
potentially
potentially andand often
often actually,
actually,between
betweenmembers
role-setitself.
itself.
Third,to
Third, to the
the extent
extentthat
that members
role-setthemselves
themselvesholdhold sub-
sub-
stantially differing
stantially differingstatuses,
statuses,theythey will
will tend
tend to.
to have
have some
some differing
differing
expectations(moral
expectations (moraland and actuarial)
actuarial)of the the conduct
conductappropriate
appropriatefor for the
the
status-occupant.Fourth,
status-occupant. Fourth,this this gives
gives rise
rise to
to the
the sociological
sociologocalproblem
problemof
how their
how their diverse
diverseexpectations
expectationsbecome sufficientlyarticulated
become sufficiently arficulatedforfor the
the
status-structure
status-structure and the
and the role-structure
role-structure to operate
to operatewithwith aa modicum
modicumof
effectiveness.Fifth,
effectiveness. Fifth, inadequate
inadequatearticulation
articulationof thesethese role-expectations
role-expectations
tendsto
tends to call
call one
one oror more
moresocial
socialmechanisms
mechanismsinto into play,
play, which
whichserve
serveto to
reducethe
reduce the extent
extentof patterned conflictbelow
patterned conflict belowthe the level
level which
whichwould
wouldbe be
involvedif these
involved thesemechanisms
mechanismswere werenot
not at
at work.
work.
And now,
And now, sixth,
sixth, finally
finally and
and importantly,
importandy,even even when
when these
these (and
(and
probably other)mechanisms
probably other) mechatiisms areoperating,
are operating,theythey may
may not,
not, in particular
pariicular
cases,prove
cases, sufficientto
prove sufficient to reduce
reducethe the conflict
conflictof expectations
expectationsbelow
belowthe the
level required
level requiredfor for the
the social
social structure
structureto to operate
operate with with substantial
substantial
effectiveness.This
effectiveness. This residual
residualconflict
conflictwithin
withinthe the role-set
role-setmaymay be
be enough
enough
to interfere
to interferematerially
materiallywith with the
the effective
effectiveperformance
performanceof roles roles by
by the
the
occupantof the
occupant the status
statusin in question.
question.Indeed,
Indeed,it may may well
weIl tum
turn out
out that
that
this conditionis
this condition is the
the most
mostfrequent
frequentone-role-systems
one role-systems operatingat
operating at con-
con-
siderablyless
siderably less than
than full
full efficiency.
efficiency.Without
Without trying
trying to to draw
draw tempting
tempting
analogieswith
analogies with other
other types
types of systems,
systems,II suggest
suggestonlyonly that
that this
this is
is not
not
unlikethe
unlike the case
caseof engines
engineswhich
whichcannot
cannotfully
fullyutilize
utilizeheat
heat energy.
energy.If the the
analogylacks
analogy lacksforce,
force, it may may nevertheless
neverthelesshave have thethe merit
merit of excluding
excluding
the utopian
the figmentof aa perfectly
utopian figmeilt perfectlyeffective
effectivesocial
socialsystem.
system.
We do
We do not
not yet
yet know
knowsomesomeof thethe requirements
reqliirements forfuller
for fullerarticulation
ardculation
of the relationsbetween
the relations between the the occupant
occupantof aa status
statusandand members
membersof his his
role-set,on
role-set, on the
the one
one hand,
hand, andand for
for fuller
fullerarticulation
articuladonof the the values
valuesand and
expectationsamong
expectations amongthosethosecomprising
comprisingthe the role-set,
role-set,on on the other.As
the other. As we
we
have seen,
have seen, even
even those
those requirements
requirementswhich
which can can now
now be be identified
identifiedareare
not readily
not readilysatisfied,
satisfied,without
withoutfault,
fault,inin social
socialsystems.
systems.To To the
the extent
extentthat
that
they are
they are not,
not, social
socialsystems
systemsare are forced
forcedtoto limp
limp alone
alonewith
with that
that measure
measure
ineffectivenessand
of ineffectiveness and inefficiency
inefficiencywhich
whichis is often
often accepted
acceptedbecause
becausethe the
realisticprospect
realistic prospectof decided
decidedimprovement
improvementseems seemsso so remote
remoteas assometimes
sometimes
not to
not to be
be visible
visibleat at all.
all.
NOTES
NOTES
11 The
Ihe author
author was
was C.
C. R. Henderson,
Henderson, in Rivista
in Italauta
Rivistaltaliana di Sociologia,
di Sociologsa, I900, ~
1900, i,
the social
the social meliorist
meliorist and
and professor
professorof I27 if.,
127 ff., but
but coming
comingto to my
my attention
attentiononly
only
sociologyin the
sociology the University
Universityof Chicago:
Chicago: afterit was
after was reprinted
repnnted as an
as an appendix
appendixto to
'Business men
'Business men and
and social
social theorists',
theorists', Armand Cuvillers
Armand Cuvillers' t
Ou va
Ou va lala sociologie.
soaologsc.
Arrcan iournalof Sociology,
American Journal Sociology, 1I89S--g6,
895-96, fransisc?
franfaise? (Paris:
(Paris: Librairie
Librairie Marcel
Marcel
x, 38.5-97,
I, 3857, at 389
at 389. RiviEreet
Riviere et Qie,
(:ie, 1953),
I953), 178-208.
I78-208.
S' Emile
E:mileDurkheim,
Durkheim,'La'La sociologie
sociologieet et L. J. Henderson
a3 L. Hendersonmade made these
thesematter-
matter-
son domaine
son domainescientifique',
scientifique',first
firstpublished
published of-fact
of-factobservations
obsetvationssomesome time ago, but,
time ago, but,

ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET 119
I x9
evidentas
evident as they
theyare,are, they
they often
oftendrop dropfrom bridge, Mass.:
from bridge, Mass.: HarvardHarvard University
University
view. See
view. See hishis comparison
comparisonbetween between the Press,1957).
the Press, I957).
characterof organic
character orgaxiicchemistry
chemistryand and of BernardBarber
8 Bernard Barberhas has drawn
drawn out out thethe
sociology, in Parcto's
sociology, GcntralSociology
Pareto's General implicationsof this
Socwlogy implications this structural
structuralfactfact inin his
his
(Cambridge,Mass.:
(Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard
HarvardUniversity
University study study of voluntary
voluntaryassociations;
associations;see see his
his
Press,1935),
Press, I 935), 107-8.
I o78. 'Participation and
'Participation and mass mass apathy
apathy in
,' OnOn the the general
generalissue,issue,seesee thethe obser- associations',in
obser- associations', in A. A. W. W. Gouldner,
Gouldner,ed., ed.,
vations of Ernest
vations Ernest Nagel. 'Despite the
Nagel. 'Despite the Studies
Studzes in Lcadership
in Leadership (New (New York:
York:Harper
Harper
variability and
variability and instability
instability of social social & & Brothers,
Brothers,195 x950), 477-504, especially
0 ), 477-504, especially
phenomena,
phenomena, they they may may nevertheless
neverthelessbe be atat 486
486 if.ff.
subsumableunder
subsumable underaa common
commontheory theory.•• ... •' Robert
RobertK. K. Merton,
Merton,Social SocialTheory
Ncoy and and
thoughwhether
though whetherthis thisisis more
morethan thanaa fancy SocialStructure
fancy Social Stmsturc(Glencoe,
(Glencoe, Illinois:
Illinois: TheThe
is at
is at present
present any any man's
man'sguess.
guess.But But some
some FreeFree Press,
Press,rev.rev. ed.,
ed., inin press),
press), 336-56.
336-56.
things
things are are fairly
fairly clear.
clear. If aa comprehen-
comprehen- This This discussion
discussionof role-set role-setdraws
draws uponupon
sive social
sive socialtheory
theoryis is ever
everachieved,
achieved,it will one part
will one partof Chapter
ChapterIX, 'Continuities
'Continuitiesin in
not
not be be aa theory
theoryofhistorical
of historicaldevelopment,
development, the the Theory
Theory of ReferenceReference GroupsGroups and and
accordingto
according to which
which societies
societiesand and institu-
institu- Social
SocialStructures',
Structures',368-84.
368 84.
tions
tions succeedsucceedone one another
anotherin in aa series
seriesof 10See
10 See the
the observations
observationsby by William
WilliamG. G.
inevitablechanges.
inevitable changes.Those Thosewho who are are seek-
seek- Carr,
Carr, the the executive
executive secretary
secretary of the the
ing aa comprehensive
ing comprehensivesocial social theory
theory by by National
NationalEducation
EducationAssociation,
Association,who who hashas
chartingthe
charting the rise
rise and
and decline
declineof civiliza- summarized some
civiliza- summarized some of the the conflicting
conflicting
tions, are
tions, are looking
looking for for it in in thethe wrong pressuresexerted
wrong pressures exertedupon upon school
school curricula
curricula
place.
place. The The theory
theorywill will undoubtedly
undoubtedly have have by by voluntary
voluntaryorganizations,
organizations,such such asas the
the
to be
to highlyabstract,
be highly abstract,if it it is
is to
to cut
cut across
across American
AmericanLegion, Legion,the the Association
Associationfor forthe
the
the actual
the actualcultural
culturaldifferences
differencesin in human
human UnitedUnited Nations,Nations, the the National
National Safety
Safety
behaviour.
behaviour. Its Its concept
concept will will have
have to to be Council,the
be Council, the Better'
BetterBusiness
BusinessBureau,
Bureau,the the
apparently remote
apparently remote from from the the familiar AmericanFederation
familiar American Federationof Labour,Labour,and and the the
and obvious
and obvious traitstraits found
found in in anyone Daughtersof the
any one Daughters the American
AmericanRevolution.
Revolution.
society; its
society; its articulation
articulationwill will involve
involve the the His
His summary
summarymay may serve serve through
throughcon- con-
use of novel
use novelalgorithmic
algorithmictechniques;
techniques;and crete example
and crete example to to indicate
indicatethe the extent
extent of
its application
its applicationto to concrete
concretematerials
materialswill will competing
competingexpectations
expectationsamong among thosethose in in
require
require special special training
training of high high order.
order. the the complex
complex role-set
role-set of schoolschool super-
super-
But above
But aboveall, all, it will
will have
have to to bebe aa theory
theory intendents
intendentsand and local
local school
schoolboards
boardsin in asas
for which
for which aa methodmethod of evaluating
evaluatingevi- differentiatedaa society
evi- differentiated society as as ourour own.
own.
dence must
dence mut be availablewhich
be available which does does not not Sometimes,
Sometimes, Mr. Mr. Carr Carr reports,
reports, thesethese
dependon
depend on the
the vagaries
vagariesofspecial
of specialinsights
insights voluntary
voluntary organizations
organizations 'speak 'speak theirtheir
and private
and intuitions.It will
private intuitions. will have
have to to be
be collective
collective opinions
opixiionstemperately,
temperately,somesome-
aa theory
theory which,which, in its its method
methodof articu- timesscurrilously,
articu- times scurrilously,but but always
alwaysinsistently.
insistently.
lating
lating its its concepts
concepts and and evaluating
evaluating its its They
They organize
organize contests,
contests, drives,
drives, collec-
collec-
evidence, will
evidence, will be continuow with
be continuous with the tions, exhibits,
the tions, exhibits, special
special days,days, special
special
theories
theories of the the natural
naturalsciences.'
sciences.''Prob- weeks, and
'Prob- weeks, and anniversaries
anniversariesthat that runrun all all
le of concept
lems concept and and theory formation year
theory formation year long.
long.
in the
in socialsciences',
the social sciences',in in Sci4nsc,
Science, Languagc,
Language, 'They demand
'They demandthat that thethe public
publicschools
schools
and Human
and Human Rights.Rights. Proceedings
Proceedings of the give more
the give more attention
attention to to Little
Little League
League
American
American Philosophical baseball, first
Association, baseball,
Philosophical Association, first aid,
aid, mental
mental hygiene,
hygiene,
Eastern
Eastern Division, Division, Volume Volume II (Phila- speech correction,
(Phila- speech correction,Spanish Spanish in in the
the first
first
delphia: University
delphia: University of PennsylvaniaPennsylvania grade, grade, military
military preparedness,
preparedness, inter- inter-
Press,
Press, 195 2 ), 4343,
I952), 43-63, at at 63.
63. national understanding,
national understanding,modern modernmusic, music,
i6 In writing
writing of Keyncs's theories, world
Keynes's theories, world history,
history, American
American history,history, and and
R. F. F. Harrod characterizeseconomics
Harrod characterizes economicsin local history,
in local history, geography
geography and and home-
home-
much
much these terms. The
these terms. Nc Life Lift of John malcing,Canada
John making, Canadaand and South
SouthAmerica,
America,the the
Maynard
Maynard MCgtncs (Macrrlillan,London,
Keynes (Macmillan, London, Arabs Arabsand and the
thc Israeli,
Israeli,the the Turks
Turksand and thethe
I95I),1), 462-3-
195 462-3. Greeks,Christopher
Greeks, ChristopherColumbus Columbusand and Leif
Leif
•' T. H. Marshall, Marshall, 'A 'A note note on on Ericsson,
Ericsson,RobertRobert E. E. Lee
Lee and
and Woodrow
Woodrow
"status""', in K. M.
"status" Kapadia (editor),
M. Kapadia (editor), Wilson,
Wilson,nutrition,
nutrition,care care of thethe teeth,
teeth, free
frec
Professor
Professor Ghurye Ghuryc Fclstation Volurnc
Felicitation Volume enterprise,labour
(Bom- enterprise,
(Bom- labour relations,
relations,cancer
cancerpre- pre-
bay:
bay: Popular
Popular Book BookDepot,
Depot, n.d.),
n.d.), 11-19.
I I-I9. vention, human
vention, human relationships,
relationships,atomic atomic
7 R. K. Merton,
Merton, P. P. L. Kendall, and
L. Kendall, and energy,
energy, the the use
use of firearms,
firearms,the the Con-
Con-
G. G.
G. G. Reader, editors, The
Reader, editors, Nc Student-
Studunt- stitution,
stitution,tobacco,
tobacco,temperance,
temperance,kindness
kindness
Physician:
Physician: Introductory Studies in
Introductory Studies in the tfw toto animals,
animals, Esperanto,
Esperanto,the the 33 R's,
R's, the the
Sociology
Sociology of Medical Medical Edacation
Education (Cam- (Cam- 3 C's C'sand
and thethe 4 F's,
F's, use
use of the
the typewriter
typewriter

120
I20
ROBERT MERTON
ROBERT K. MERTON
and legible
and legible penmanship,
penmanship, moral moral values,
values, 'Nevertheless,if their
'Nevertheless, their national
national or-
or-
physical fitness, ethical
physical fitness, ethical concepts,
concepts, civil
civil gaxiizationprogramme
ganization programme in in education
educationis is
defence, religious
defence, literacy, thrift,
religious literacy, law
thrift, law not adopted
not adoptedforthwith,
forthwith,many
manyof themthemuse
use
observance,
observance, consumer
consumer education,
education, nar-
nar- the pressure
the the press,
pressure of the the radiance
press, the radianceof
cotics,
cotics, mathematics,
mathematics, dramatics,
dramatics, physics,
physics, the radio,
the radio, and
and all
all the
the props
props of propa-
propa-
ceramics,
ceramics, andand (that
(that latest
latest of all
all educa-
educa- ganda to
ganda to bypass their elected
bypass their elected school
school
tional
tional discoveries)
discoveries) phonics.
phonics. board.'
board.' An addressat
An address at the
the inauguration
inauguration
'Each
'Each of these
these groups
groups is is anxious
anxious to to Hollis Leland
of Hollis Leland Caswell,
Caswell, Teachers
Teachers
avoid
avoid overloading
overloading the the curriculum.
curriculum. All College, Columbia
College, ColumbiaUniversity,
University,Novem-
Novem-
any
any of them
them askask is that
that the
the non-essentials
non-essentials ber
ber 2I-2,
21-2, 1955,
I955, 10.
IO.
be dropped
dropped in order
order to get
get their
their material
material 11In
11 In this context, see
this context, see the
the acute
acute
in. Most
Most of them insistthat
them insist that they
they do
do not
not analysisof the
analysis the formation
formationof the the National
National
want
want a special
special coursthey
course-they just just want
want Union of Teachers
Union Teachersby Asher
AsherTropp,
Tropp, The
Nc
their
their ideas
ideas to permeate
permeate the the entire
entire daily
daily School Teachers
School Teachers(London:
(London: Heinemann,
Heinemann,
programme.
programme. Every Every one one of them
them pro-
pro- 1957)·
I 957).
claims
claims a firm
firm belief
belief in local
local control
control of 19See
11 See R. P.P. McKeon,
McKeon, R. K. Merton Merton
education
education andand an apprehensive
apprehensive hatred
hatred of and
and W. W. Gellhom,
Gellhorn, Freedom
Freedom to to Read
Rcad
national
national control.
control. (1957)·
(I957).


Robert K Merton - The Role-Set Problems in Sociological Theory

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The Role-Set: Problems in Sociological Theory

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