Chapter 1

Nature of Mathematics

Our daily life is full of mathematics and it cannot be denied that it is universal in nature. People around
the world use math to do their daily tasks. It also helps us make important decisions like which item to buy,
choosing the most profitable investment plan, or deciding which path to take to reach our destination with
the least possible amount of time.
Mathematics also helps us in understanding patterns, and we live in a world of patterns. The natural
world, though diverse and complex, has actually the most interesting aspect and that is, it can be considered
to be made up of patterns. These patterns are formed naturally from the forces that act in the natural world.
At the most basic level these patterns can often be described using mathematical principles. In a sense,
mathematics helps us in understanding the world, and through the world, we are able to understand and
appreciate mathematics.
In this chapter, we will see Mathematics as a vital part of nature and the universe, how it contributes
to the many aspects of life such as it helps organize patterns and regularities of the world and in
predicting the behavior and nature of phenomena in the world.

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature

Have you ever thought about how nature likes to arrange itself in patterns in order to act efficiently?
Nothing in nature happens without a reason, all of these patterns have an important reason to exist and they
also happen to be beautiful to watch. In his book, Nature's Numbers: The Unreal Reality of Mathematics,
Mathematician and author Ian Stewart said that “Mathematics is the science of patterns, and nature exploits
just about every pattern that there is.”
So what is a pattern? Pattern is a repeated design or recurring sequence. It is an ordered set of
numbers, shapes, or other mathematical objects, arranged according to a rule.
Observing the patterns around us will help us identify relationships and find logical connections to
form generalization and make predictions.

Example 1
What is the next figure in the pattern below?

Solution 1
We can observe from the figures that the number of sides of the regular polygon increases by one. So it is
natural to say that the next figure in the pattern is a hexagon or a polygon with 6 sides. But notice that the
colors of the polygons seemed to also follow a pattern. These are the colors that we see in the rainbow
and these colors are red, orange, yellow, green, and so on. Thus the next figure in the sequence must be a
green regular hexagon.
Seatwork 1
What is the next figure in the pattern below?

Solution for Seatwork 1

Example 2
What comes next in A, 2, C, 4, E, 6, ____ ?

Solution 2
Looking at the given pattern, every other letter of the English alphabet appears starting with A and even
numbers starting with 2 are placed in between these letters. Hence the answer is G.

Seatwork 2
What comes next in 23, 11, 27, 11, 31, 11, _____?

Solution for Seatwork 2

Patterns in Nature
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in
different contexts and can sometimes be modeled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries,
trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Symmetry refers to a sense of
harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. It can be defined as a structure that allows an object to
be divided into parts of an equal shape or size. There are two types of symmetry, line or bilateral symmetry
(also called as reflective symmetry) and rotational symmetry.

In line or bilateral symmetry, an imaginary line can be drawn across an object and the resulting
parts are mirror images of each other. This is evident in most animals, including humans.
 Human beings, insects, and animals all show bilateral symmetry

In rotational symmetry, the object or image can be turned around a center point and match itself
some number of times. It means that if you rotate the object by several degrees, you can still achieve the
same appearance as the original position. The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still
preserving the original formation is called the angle of rotation. To compute for the angle of rotation, we
use the following formula:

𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
Angle of rotation = 𝒏

Here 𝒏 refers to the order of rotational symmetry (𝒏-fold rotational symmetry) of a figure, that is,
𝟏/𝒏 of a complete turn will leave the figure unchanged.

A honeycomb is an evidence of 6-fold symmetry, a geometrical pattern evident in nature. The bees
have instinctively found a solution to problem known as “Packing Problems” which involve finding the
optimum method of filling up space such as cubic or
spherical container. The honeycomb cells hold the most
amount of honey while using the least amount of wax,
Thousands of years ago, Roman Scholar Terrentius
Varro conjectured that the hexagon is the shape that most
efficiently breaks flat space up into little units but he
couldn’t prove this idea. It was only in 1999 that
mathematician Thomas Hales proved it.

Example 3
Find the angle of rotation of the shape used in each cell of the honeycomb.
Solution 3
The hexagonal shape of a honeycomb cell makes it a 6-fold symmetry. Hence the angle of rotation is equal
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
to = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 .
𝟔

Seatwork 3
Find the angle of rotation of the starfish.
Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________
Problem Set 1.1
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Determine what comes next in the given patterns.

a. B, D, F, H, J, L, ____
b. 21, 2, 23, 5, 28, 8, _____
c. 1B3, 4E6, 7H9, _____
d. 41, 36, 31, 26, _____
e. 11, 5, 16, 5, 21, 5, _____

2. What is the next figure in the pattern?

a.

b.

3. Find the angle of symmetry of the figure to the right.

4. Determine the order of rotational symmetry of a figure whose angle of rotation is 𝟒𝟎𝟎 .

5. Aside from those already mentioned, give at least 3 patterns in nature that you can find around you.
1.2 The Fibonacci sequence

In this section, we consider one of the most beautiful ideas in the mathematical world that came out
during the medieval period. It was that 13th century Italian mathematician, named Leonardo of Pisa (better
known as Fibonacci), who discovered a sequence of numbers that reflect various patterns found in nature.
In 1202, after a trip that took him to several Arab and Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the book Liber
Abaci (Book of Calculation). This book contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns the birth
rate of the hypothetical population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. Here is a statement of
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have
produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of
rabbits. The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many
pairs of rabbits will there be at the start of each succeeding month?

The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call the Fibonacci sequence.
The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits on the first day of each of the first five
months. The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce another pair of rabbits each month. The
numbers in the second column—1, 1, 2, 3, 5—are the first five terms of the Fibonacci sequence.

Fibonacci observed that after each monthly generation, the number of pairs of rabbits increased from
1 to 2 to 3 to 5 to 8 to 13 to 21 and so on. That means that the number of pairs of rabbits for any month
after the first two months can be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of rabbits in each of the two
previous months. The table below shows the first 10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
 𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝑭𝒏 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55

Here 𝒏 and 𝑭𝒏 denote the month and number of pairs of rabbits respectively. The mathematical
notation 𝑭𝒏 will also be used to represent the 𝒏th Fibonacci number in our definition below and in the
succeeding examples and discussion.

Recursive Definition of the Fibonacci Number

𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏, 𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒏.𝟏 + 𝑭𝒏.𝟐 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑.

Example 1
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the 11th Fibonacci number.

Solution 1
Using the definition, we get 𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏𝟎 + 𝑭𝟗 . The table above give the value of 𝑭𝟗 and 𝑭𝟏𝟎 to be 34 and
55 respectively, hence, 𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟖𝟗. Thus the 11th Fibonacci number is 89.

Seatwork 1
Find the 24th Fibonacci number given that the 25th Fibonacci number is 75,025 and the 23rd Fibonacci
number is 28,657.

Solution for Seatwork 1

A Nonrecursive Formula for the nth Fibonacci number

We can find any term after the second term of the Fibonacci sequence by computing the sum of the
previous two terms. However, this procedure of adding the previous two terms can be tedious. For
instance, what is the 100th term of the Fibonacci sequence? To find the 100th term, we need to know the
98th and 99th terms. Many mathematicians tried to find a nonrecursive nth-term formula for the
Fibonacci sequence without success, until a formula was discovered by Jacques Binet in 1843. The
advantage of this formula over the recursive formula 𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒏.𝟏 + 𝑭𝒏.𝟐 is that you can determine the
nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding Fibonacci numbers.
𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏4√𝟓 𝟏.√𝟓
Binet’s formula: 𝑭𝒏 = :3 5 −3 5 ;
√𝟓 𝟐 𝟐

Example 2
Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 30th Fibonacci number.

Solution 2
𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝟏 𝟏4√𝟓 𝟏.√𝟓
𝑭𝟑𝟎 = 23 5 −3 5 7
√𝟓 𝟐 𝟐

= 𝟖𝟑𝟐, 𝟎𝟒𝟎
Seatwork 2
Find the 41st Fibonacci number using the Binet’s formula and a calculator.

Solution for Seatwork 2

Fibonacci Numbers in Nature

Fibonacci numbers appear in nature often enough to prove that they reflect some naturally occurring
patterns. You can commonly spot these by studying the way in which various plants grow.
The sunflower is an example. When we pay
attention to the arrangement of seeds in its head, we
can notice that they form spirals. In certain species,
there are 21 spirals in the clockwise direction and 34
spirals in the counter clockwise direction. In various
species, you can count some with 34 and 55, or 55 and
89, or 89 and 144. The numbers 21, 34, 55, 89 and 144
are the eight to twelfth numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence. This arrangement keeps the seeds uniformly
packed regardless of how large the seed is. It allows
the sunflower seeds to occupy the flower head in a way
that maximizes their access to light and necessary
nutrients.
The same natural phenomenon also occurs in the
number of petals that can be found in different flowers. If you count the number of petals on a flower,
you'll often find the total to be one of the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. For example, lilies and
irises have three petals, buttercups and wild roses have five, delphiniums have eight petals and so on.
Fibonacci sequence can also be observed in cauliflower florets, spirals in pine cones, and the bands
winding around pineapples, and many other examples around us.
You can even observe Fibonacci sequence in the human body. Take a good look at yourself in the
mirror. You'll notice that most of your body parts follow the numbers one, two, three and five. You have
one nose, two eyes, three segments to each limb and five fingers on each hand.

The Golden Ratio

Also known as the divine proportion, golden mean, or golden section, the golden ratio is a special
number approximately equal to 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟑𝟒. It is often symbolized using 𝝓 (Phi), after the 21st letter of the
Greek alphabet. It can be found by dividing a line into two parts so that the longer part, 𝑨, divided by the
smaller part, 𝑩, is also equal to the whole length, 𝑨 + 𝑩, divided by the longer part, 𝑨. That is,

𝑨 𝑨4𝑩
= = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟕... .
𝑩 𝑨
 This ratio, considered as the most aesthetically proportion, is visible in many works of art and
architecture such as in the Mona Lisa, The Notre Dame Cathedral, and the Parthenon.
Geometrically the golden ratio can be visualized as a rectangle perfectly formed by a square and
another rectangle, which can be repeated infinitely inside each section. Following are examples of designs
in nature and in human art and architecture that illustrates the relationship between the Fibonacci
sequence and the golden ratio.

the snail’s shell

The Parthenon is said to exhibit the application of the Golden Ratio

Interestingly, the golden ratio can also be observed in honeybees, sunflowers, and in the human
body. In honeybees, the ratio of female bees to the male bees in any given hive is approximately equal to
1.618. In sunflowers, the number of seeds in the opposing spirals of seeds has a 1.618 ratio between the
diameters of each rotation. In a human body, the ratio of the distance from your shoulder to your
fingertips to the length from your elbow to your fingertips is equal to the golden ratio. Also, the ratio of
the distance from your head to your feet, to the length from your belly button to your feet is equal to the
golden ratio.
The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio

It is interesting to note that the ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers approach the Golden Ratio.
To see this, do the following exercise. For ease of computation, we will use the rounded value 1.618034
for the golden ratio.

𝑭𝒏X𝟏
Compute the ratio for 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … What happens to the ratio as the value of 𝒏 gets bigger?
𝑭𝒏

𝑭𝒏X𝟏
You may have noticed that as 𝒏 gets bigger, the ratio approaches to 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟑𝟒, the golden ratio.
𝑭𝒏
𝑭 𝟖𝟑𝟐,𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝑭𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝟓
For example, 𝑭𝟑𝟎 = 𝟓𝟏𝟒,𝟐𝟐𝟗 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟑𝟑. .. is closer to the golden ratio than = 𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟒𝟕. ..
𝟐𝟗 𝑭𝟗

Seatwork 3
𝑭𝟑𝟓
Find the ratio . How does this compare with the value of the golden ratio?
𝑭𝟑𝟒

Solution for Seatwork 3

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________
Problem Set 1.2
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Find the value of 𝑭𝟐𝟑 given that 𝑭𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕, 𝟕𝟏𝟏 and 𝑭𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒𝟔, 𝟑𝟔𝟖.

2. Use a calculator and Binet’s formula to find the following Fibonacci numbers.
a. 𝑭𝟏𝟓
b. 𝑭𝟑𝟓
c. 𝑭𝟒𝟎

3. Evaluate the sum 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝒏 for 𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒 and 𝟓. Determine the pattern in the successive
sums.

4. Use the pattern in exercise 3 to find the sum 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝟏𝟎 .

5. Determine whether each of the following statements about Fibonacci numbers is true or false.
a. 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒏4𝟐 − 𝟏
b. 𝟐𝑭𝒏 − 𝑭𝒏.𝟏 = 𝑭𝒏4𝟏 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑
c. 𝟐𝑭𝒏 > 𝑭𝒏4𝟏 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑
d. 𝑭𝟑𝒏 is an even number
e. 𝑭𝒏 and 𝑭𝒏4𝟏 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑 are relatively prime.*

𝑭𝒏
6. To what value will 𝑭 approaches to as 𝒏 gets bigger?
𝒏 4𝟏

7. How should a 2-meter board be cut so that the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part is equal to the
golden ratio. Use 1.618034 as the value of the golden ratio.

8. Write a paragraph describing some examples of Fibonacci sequence and golden ratio in your everyday
surroundings.

1.3 Mathematics for our World

We have seen in the preceding sections how mathematics is a vital part of nature and the world and
numbers and patterns are evidences that everything around us is made up of mathematics. In this section,
we will see mathematics as a tool in predicting the behavior and nature of phenomena in the world.

World Population
Mathematics can be used to model population growth. The formula for exponential growth 𝑨 =
𝒓𝒕
𝑷𝒆 , where 𝑨 is the size of the population after it grows, 𝑷 is the initial number of people, 𝒓 is the rate of
growth, and 𝒕 is time, has been an essential tool to estimate or predict the world population.

Example 1
The exponential growth model 𝑨 = 𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒆𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝒕 describes the population of a particular city in thousands, 𝒕
years after 2009. What is the city’s population in 2009? What is the city’s population in 2029?

Solution 1
The city’s population in 2009 is the initial population given in the model which is 680,000 since in 2009,
𝒕 = 𝟎. In 2029, 𝒕 will be 20 years. The total population in 2020 is obtained by plugging in this value of 𝒕
into the exponential growth model 𝑨 = 𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒆𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝒕 . Therefore, the city’s population in 2020 is
approximately 1,239,041.

Seatwork 1
The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 7.6𝑒 d.dedfg describes the current world population in billions.
Determine the world population in 2050.

Solution for Seatwork 1

Seatwork 2

The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 50,000𝑒 d.djg describes the population of a particular city in 2015.
After how many years will the population become 1 million?

Solution for Seatwork 2

Fractals
 Predicting the location, size, and timing of natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, wildfires and landslides, may seem to be very impossible. Who would have thought
that mathematics could make it possible? It is due to fractals. Earth scientists are now able to predict the
future of these hazards in nature using fractals.
Fractals are mathematical sets, usually obtained through recursion, that exhibit interesting
dimensional properties. We can observe fractals all over nature. Similar patterns can be seen over and
over in trees and ferns, in mountains, icicles, clouds, ocean waves, coastlines, bacterial colony, lightning,
leaf veins, and bodies of water like waterfalls and rivers. The idea of self-similarity is a characteristic of
most fractals.

Self-similarity
A shape is self-similar when it looks essentially the same from a distance as it does closer up.

Self-similarity can often be found in nature. In the Romanesco broccoli pictured below , if we zoom in on
part of the image, the piece remaining looks similar to the whole.

Likewise, in the fern frond below, one piece of the frond looks similar to the whole.

Similarly, if we zoom in on the coastline of Portugal , each zoom reveals previously hidden detail, and the
coastline, while not identical to the view from further way, does exhibit similar characteristics.
Iterated Fractals
This self-similar behavior can be replicated through recursion: repeating a process over and over.

Example 2
Suppose that we start with a filled-in triangle. We connect the midpoints of each side and remove the
middle triangle. We then repeat this process.

Initial Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

If we repeat this process, the shape that emerges is called the Sierpinski gasket. Notice that it exhibits
self-similarity – any piece of the gasket will look identical to the whole. In fact, we can say that the
Sierpinski gasket contains three copies of itself, each half as tall and wide as the original. Of course, each
of those copies also contains three copies of itself.

We can construct other fractals using a similar approach. To formalize this a bit, we’re going to introduce
the idea of initiators and generators.
Initiators and Generators
An initiator is a starting shape.
A generator is an arranged collection of scaled copies of the initiator.

To generate fractals from initiators and generators, we follow a simple rule:

 Fractal Generation Rule
At each step, replace every copy of the initiator with a scaled copy of the generator, rotating as
necessary

This process is easiest to understand through example.

Example 3
Use the initiator and generator shown to create the iterated fractal.

initiator generator

Solution 3
This tells us to, at each step, replace each line segment with the spiked shape shown in the generator.
Notice that the generator itself is made up of 4 copies of the initiator. In step 1, the single line segment in
the initiator is replaced with the generator. For step 2, each of the four line segments of step 1 is replaced
with a scaled copy of the generator:

Step 1 Scaled copy A scaled copy Step 2

of generator replaces each line
segment of Step 1
This process is repeated to form Step 3. Again, each line segment is replaced with a scaled copy of the
generator.

Scaled copy
Step 2 Step 3
of generator

Notice that since Step 0 only had 1 line segment, Step 1 only required one copy of Step 0.
Since Step 1 had 4 line segments, Step 2 required 4 copies of the generator.
Step 2 then had 16 line segments, so Step 3 required 16 copies of the generator.
Step 4, then, would require 16*4 = 64 copies of the generator.

The shape resulting from iterating this process is called the Koch curve,
named for Helge von Koch who first explored it in 1904. Koch curve
Notice that the Sierpinski gasket can also be described using the initiator-
generator approach
 Initiator Generator

Example 4
Use the initiator and generator below, however only iterate on the “branches.” Sketch several steps of the
iteration.

initiator generator

Solution 4
We begin by replacing the initiator with the generator. We then replace each “branch” of Step 1 with a
scaled copy of the generator to create Step 2.

Step 1 Step 2

We can repeat this process to create later steps. Repeating this process can create intricate tree shapes.

Step 4 Final shape

Seatwork 3
Use the initiator and generator shown to produce the next two stages

Initiator Generator

Solution for Seatwork 3

Using iteration processes like those above can create a variety of beautiful images suggestive of nature.

More natural shapes can be created by adding in randomness to the steps.

Example 5
Create a variation on the Sierpinski gasket by randomly skewing the corner points each time iteration is
made.

Solution 5
Suppose we start with the triangle below. We begin, as before, by removing the middle triangle. We
then add in some randomness.
 Step 0 Step 1 Step 1 with
randomnesss
We then repeat this process.

Step 1 with Step 2 Step 2 with

randomnesss randomnesss
Continuing this process can create mountain-like structures. The
landscape to the right was created using fractals, then colored and
textured.
Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________
Problem Set 1.3
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 30𝑒 lg describes the population of a particular city in thousands, 𝑡
years after 2005.
a. What was the population of the city in 2005?
b. What will be the population in 2020?

2. Substitute the given values in the formula 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 lg to find the missing quantity.
a. 𝑃 = 135,000, 𝑟 = 8% per year, 𝑡 = 10
b. 𝐴 = 829,000, 𝑃 = 220,000, 𝑟 = 3% per year

3. Using the initiator and generator shown, draw the next two stages of the iterated fractal.

a.

b.

c.

4. Create your own version of Sierpinski gasket with added randomness.

5. Create a version of the branching tree fractal from example #3.c with added randomness.