Process Dynamics and Control Karthik K V

Module 1

Introduction

1.1 WHY PROCESS CONTROL?

As competition gets stiffer in the synthetic commercial center and procedures become increasingly confused to work, it is
worthwhile to utilize some type of programmed control. Programmed control of a procedure offers numerous favorable
circumstances, including
• Enhanced process safety
• Satisfying environmental constraints
• Meeting ever-stricter product quality specifications
• More efficient use of raw materials and energy
• Increased profitability

Considering the entire advantages one can realize through process control, it is well worth the time and effort required to
become familiar with the concepts and practices used in the field.
Control frameworks are utilized to keep up process conditions at their ideal qualities by controlling certain procedure factors
to alter the factors of intrigue. A typical case of a control framework from regular daily existence is the voyage control on a
vehicle. The reason for a voyage control is to keep up the speed of the vehicle (the controlled variable) at the ideal worth (the
set point) notwithstanding varieties in landscape, slopes, and so forth.

Dairy processing unit tasks essentially include warming, cooling, isolating, drying or freezing of the items. These unit
activities are completed under shifting states of temperatures, weights, streams and physical pieces. The estimation and
control of these variable elements at the different phases of preparing require the exact and effective instruments,
notwithstanding the reliance upon human aptitudes. With the coming of enormous scope milk taking care of plants the
programmed activity and control through proficient instrumentation and mechanization has gotten much progressively
fundamental. Utilities, for example, steam, water, power air, fuel and so on must be estimated and controlled at suitable
focuses in the plant. Programmed control instruments are utilized to quantify and control the temperature, weight, stream and
level of these utilities. The general point of the instrumentation/robotization is to improve the item quality and upgrade the
plant proficiency for better financial returns.

Variable
A characteristic number or amount that increments or diminishes after some time, or takes various qualities in various
circumstances is known as Variable. It is a factor that can be appointed a quantifiable element or some likeness thereof that
differs, e.g., length, distance across, region, stream, weight, cost or life expectancy and so on. A reliant variable is any
quantifiable factor whose conduct is constrained by another variable. An autonomous variable is any quantifiable factor that
produces change or response in another variable. A variable is something that is changed or adjusted in an investigation. In
preparing of food items the factors included could be temperature and weight of steam, handling time, stream pace of
different streams and so on. For instance, to decide the impact of temperature and mugginess on capacity of a food item will
give proof on the timeframe of realistic usability of item in various capacity conditions. Variable is subject to change, may
have a scope of potential qualities and is at risk to digress from a set up expansion type.

Measurement
At the point when we choose to consider a variable we have to devise some approach to gauge it. A few factors are anything
but difficult to quantify and others are troublesome. The estimations of factors are made important by measuring them into
explicit units. For instance, rather than saying that a specific liquid is hot, we can determine an estimation and indicate that
the liquid is having a temperature of 80°C. Estimation is assortment of quantitative information. An estimation is made by
contrasting an amount and a standard unit. A case of estimation implies the utilization of a ruler to decide the length of a bit
of paper. Estimation is along these lines basically a demonstration or the consequence of correlation between the amount
(whose extent is obscure) and a predefined standard. Since both the amounts are thought about, the outcome is communicated
in numerical qualities. In the physical sciences, quality affirmation, and building, estimation is the action of getting and
contrasting physical amounts of true items and occasions. Set up standard articles and occasions are utilized as units, and the
procedure of estimation gives a number relating the thing under examination and the referenced unit of estimation.

Unit of Measurement

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A unit of estimation is a positive greatness of a physical amount, characterized and received by show as well as by law that is
utilized as a standard for estimation of the equivalent physical amount. Some other estimation of the physical amount can be
communicated as a straightforward different of the unit of estimation. For instance, length is a physical amount. The meter is
a unit of length that speaks to a clear foreordained length. At the point when we state 10 meters (or 10 m), we really mean
multiple times the clear foreordained length called "meter". The definition, understanding, and handy utilization of units of
estimation have assumed a significant job in human undertaking from early ages up right up 'til the present time. Various
frameworks of units used to be exceptionally normal. Presently there is a worldwide norm, the International System of Units
(SI), the cutting edge type of the decimal standard for measuring. The International System of Units (condensed as SI from
the French language name Système International d'Unités) is the cutting edge amendment of the decimal measuring standard.
It is the world's most generally utilized arrangement of units, both in regular trade and in science. The SI was created in 1960
from the meter-kilogram second (MKS) framework, instead of the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) framework, which, thusly,
had numerous variations. During its advancement the SI likewise presented a few recently named units that were beforehand
not a piece of the decimal measuring standard. The first SI units for the six essential physical amounts were:
· meter (m) : SI unit of length
· second (s) : SI unit of time
· kilogram (kg) : SI unit of mass
· ampere (A) : SI unit of electric current
· degree kelvin (K) : SI unit of thermodynamic temperature
· candela (cd) : SI unit of luminous intensity
The mole was subsequently added to this list and the degree Kelvin renamed the kelvin.
There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass,
temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are constructed from the base units, for
example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m2·kg·s−3.
Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg/m 3.

Significance of Measurements
Science depends on target perception of the adjustments in factors. The more noteworthy our accuracy of estimation the more
prominent can be our trust in our perceptions. Likewise, estimations are in every case not exactly great, i.e., there are
blunders in them. The more we think about the wellsprings of mistakes in our estimations the more outlandish we will be to
reach incorrect determinations. With the advancement in science and innovation, new marvels and connections are
continually being found and these progressions require fresher improvements in estimation frameworks. Any innovation isn't
of any down to earth utility except if it is supported by real estimations.

The estimations accordingly affirm the legitimacy of a given speculation and furthermore add to its comprehension. This is a
consistent chain that prompts new revelations with new and increasingly complex estimation methods. While rudimentary
estimations require just common techniques for estimation, the propelled estimations are related with complex strategies for
estimation. The headway of Science and Technology is consequently reliant upon an equal advancement in estimation
methods. It very well may be securely be said that, the advancement in Science and Technology of any nation could be
surveyed by the manner by which the information is procured by estimations and is handled.

In R&D applications the plan of types of gear and procedures require the fundamental building structure information on the
properties of the info crude materials and handled items. The activity and upkeep of types of gear for ideal preparing factors
to accomplish best quality item and vitality productive hardware use require the observing and control of a few procedure
factors. Both these capacities require estimations. The prudent structure, activity and upkeep require a criticism of data. This
data is provided by suitable estimation frameworks.

Function of Instrumentals and Measurement Systems

The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions they perform. There are four main
functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing, recording and control.
i). Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the variable quantity under measurement.
Several types of methods could be employed in the instruments and systems for this purpose. Most of the time, this
information is obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
ii). Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity
under measurement against time or against some other variable. This is a recording function performed by the instrument. For
example, a temperature indicator / recorder in the HTST pasteurizer gives the instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart

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recorder. iii). Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the measured signal to facilitate
recording / control.
iv). Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions, especially in the food processing industries where the
processing operations are required to be precisely controlled. In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the
systems to control the original measured variable or quantity.
Thus, based on the above functions, there are three main groups of instruments. The largest group has the indicating function.
Next in line is the group of instruments which have both indicating and or recording functions. The last group falls into a
special category and perform all the three functions, i.e., indicating, recording and controlling.

Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument

The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system / instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response

STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics
ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with
time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.

The various static characteristics are:

i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility
vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution
viii) Threshold
ix) Drift
x) Stability
xi) Tolerance
xii) Range or span

Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. The
accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
a) Point accuracy:
Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any
other Point on the scale.

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b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:

When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.

c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.

Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement
within a group of measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:

Where, P = precision
Xn = Value of nth measurement
Xn (bar) = Average value the set of measurement values

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the
ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Inverse
sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/
sensitivity

Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale
readings over a given period of time.

Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading and random in nature drift. It is of 3 types
a) zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue warming up of electronic
tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is called span drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occur only on a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that output does not change at all
until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.

Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value below which no
output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating life.

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Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is called tolerance.

Range or span:
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is called its range
or span.

Dynamic characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error

Speed of response:
It is defined as the quickness with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. The
measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in measured quantity has
occurred.
b) Time delay lag:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the application of the input.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measure and quantity
without dynamic error.

Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

The Bourdon Gauge:
The device consists of a metallic tube of elliptical shape which is closed at one end and the other is fitted to the measuring
gauge where the pressure is measured. When the fluid enters the tube, the tube straightens. By using the pinion arrangement
the small deformation of the tube is communicated to a pointer in an amplified manner. The pointer moves over a graduated
dial. The device is calibrated for different values of pressure. The bourdon gauge is suitable for measuring both high
pressures as well as vacuum pressures. This type where a device is used to measure negative as well as positive pressures is
called a compound gauge.

Working Principle of Bourdon Gauge

If a tube having oval cross section is subjected to pressure its cross section tends to change from oval to circular.

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Figure 1.1: Burdon type pressure gauge

Construction of a Bordon Gauge

Bourdon tube gauges consist of a circular tube.
One end of the tube is fixed while the other end is free to undergo elastic deformation under the effect of pressure.
Fixed end is open and pressure which is to be measured is applied at the fixed end.
Free end is closed and undergoes deformation under the effect of pressure.
Due to applied pressure the circular tube tends to uncoil and become straight along the dotted line as shown in the
Figure 1.1

Working of Bourdon Gauge

As the pressure is applied at the fixed end free end undergoes deformation. The free end is attached with sector which further
mesh with the pinion on which pointer is mounted. Deformation of the pointer is transferred to pointer via this mechanism.
As a result point undergoes deflection and shows the pressure reading on calibrated dial.

Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. Simple Design
3. Good accuracy except at low pressure.
4. High-pressure range.
5. It can be easily used with electrical devices like LVDT.

Disadvantages
1. Susceptible to shock and vibration
2. Gauges are subjected to hysteresis

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge:

This gauge depends on a similar rule as that of the Bourdon measure. For this situation a corrugated diaphragm is given
rather than the Bourdon tube. At the point when the gauge is fitted to any check point, the diaphragm will experience an
elastic deformation.
This disfigurement is imparted to a pointer which proceeds onward a graduated scale showing the weight. It might be noticed
that this gadget takes a shot at a similar standard as that of the aneroid gauge. This gauge is discovered reasonable for
estimating moderately low pressures.
A diaphragm pressure gauge is a device that uses a diaphragm with a known pressure to measure pressure in a fluid. It has
many different uses, such as monitoring the pressure of a canister of gas, measuring atmospheric pressure, or recording the
strength of the vacuum in a vacuum pump. The diaphragm pressure gauge consists of a circular membrane, made from sheet
metal of precise dimensions, which can either be flat or corrugated. The diaphragm is mechanically connected to the
transmission mechanism, which will amplify the small deflections of the diaphragm, and transfer them to the pointer. The
process pressure is applied to the lower side of the diaphragm, while the upper side is at atmospheric pressure.

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Figure 1.2: Diaphragm type pressure gauge

The differential pressure across the diaphragm lifts up the diaphragm and puts the pointer in motion. The deflection of the
diaphragm is very small (+/- 1 mm), making it necessary to use a high-ratio multiplying movement, to rotate the pointer
along the full length of the scale. The actuation of such a high-ratio transmission mechanism is possible, because diaphragm
deflection is able to generate large forces.

Applications of the diaphragm pressure gauge

Pressure gauges with horizontal diaphragm allow to find suitable versions for even difficult kinds of media, such as
aggressive, contaminated or viscous media. The stainless steel bayonet ring case is designed for applications, where a rust-
resistant, sealed case of high chemical resistance is required (dirty damp, or corrosive atmosphere).
For measuring points with increased overload with liquid-filled case suitability for high dynamic pressure loads and
vibrations (model 433.50)
For gaseous, liquid and aggressive media, also in aggressive environments With the open connecting flange option also for
contaminated and viscous media Process industry: Chemical, petrochemical, power plants, mining, on-/offshore,
environmental technology, machine building and general plant construction

Bellow type Pressure Gauge

Figure 1.3: Bellow type pressure gauge

These type of gauges are mainly used to measure the absolute pressure. They are more sensitive than the bourdon type of
gauges and used for measuring pressures up to 40mmHg.

Construction

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The bellows are made up of an alloy with high strength and ductility. It should have very little hysteresis effect. Commonly
brass or phosphor bronze is used for making bellows. For selecting a specific material for bellows, the parameters to be
checked are:

Figure 1.4: Bellow type gauge with internal details

(i) Range of pressure

(ii) Hysteresis
(iii) Fatigue on dynamic operation
(iv) Corrosion
(v) Fabrication ease
(vi) Sensitivity to fluctuating pressures

Out of these hysteresis and sensitivity to fluctuating pressures are the most important ones. Hysteresis can be minimized by
following a proper manufacturing technique. For strong bellows, the carbon steel is selected as the main element. But the
material gets easily corroded.
Working
There are two arrangements of the bellows, in the first the pressure is applied to one end and the deflection is balanced on the
other by the means of a spring, this type gives the gauge pressure. In the contrary the differential pressure is measured by
applying pressure on one side and the other side the pressure is applied to the inside of the sealed bellow. By suitable
calibration of the device the pressure difference is indicated by a pointer on the scale.

Advantages
(i) Its cost is moderate.
(ii) It is able to deliver high force.
(iii) It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures.
(iv) It is good to low-to moderate range.

Disadvantages
(i) It needs ambient temperature compensation.
(ii) It is unsuitable for high pressures.
(iii) The availability of construction metals is limited.

Temperature Measurement
The most commonly used temperature measuring device is the liquid in glass thermometer and it is very inexpensive to make
and easy to use. It has a glass bulb attached to a sealed glass tube called as capillary or stem. A very thin opening, called a
bore, exists from the bulb and extends down the centre of the tube. The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-
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colored alcohol and is free to expand and rise up into the tube when the temperature increases, and to contract and move
down the tube when the temperature decreases. In the Liquid in Glass Thermometers (LIG) the thermally sensitive element is
a liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope. The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal
expansion of the liquid. The background of the glass tube is covered with white enamel and the front of the glass tube forms a
magnifying glass that enlarges the liquid column and facilitates with reading the temperature.
In Below Figure (Left), an all glass thermometer is depicted, with its scale etched into the stem. Liquid in glass thermometers
are fragile and for industrial use, the thermometer is mounted in a protective housing and the scale is engraved on a separate
plate that is part of the protective case. An industrial thermometer is shown in Below Figure (Right).

It mainly comprises:
A bulb which acts as a container for the functioning liquid where it can easily expand or contract in capacity. A stem, “a glass
tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a
working liquid”. The temperature scale is imprinted on the capillary for displaying the temperature readings. The calibration
point is usually the ice point of water for referencing. A working liquid which is generally either mercury or alcohol. An inert
gas, mainly argon or nitrogen which is filled inside the thermometer above mercury to trim down its volatilization.

Figure 1.5: Glass thermometer

Advantages
Following are the major advantages associated with the use of liquid-in-glass thermometers:
-They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement devices.
-They are handy and convenient to use.
-Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or batteries for charging.
-They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of electricity.
-They provide very good repeatability and their calibration remains unaffected.
Limitations
Use of liquid-in-glass thermometers includes following limitations too:
They are considered inapt for applications involving extremely high or low temperatures.
They cannot be applied in regions where highly accurate results are desirable.
As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak and delicate. Therefore, they must be handled with extra care
because they are likely to break.

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Besides, they cannot provide digital and automated results. Hence, their use is limited to areas where only manual reading is
adequate, for example, a household thermometer.
“Temperature readings should be noted immediately after removal because a glass thermometer can be affected by the
environmental temperature, heat produced by the hand holding it, cleaning, etc. This temperature should be recorded because
a glass thermometer does not offer a recall of the measured temperature.”
Reading temperature via liquid-in-glass thermometers call for brilliant eyesight.
Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer may be perilous or risky to health owing to their potential chemical spills.
These thermometers display temperature either in Celsius or Fahrenheit scales. Thus, temperature conversion would be
needed if the temperature reading is wanted in some other scale.

There are two major types of liquid in glass thermometers

1. Mercury thermometer
2. Alcohol thermometer

Mercury thermometer was developed by a German based physicist named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. It consists of
mercury as a liquid filled in a glass tube. On the body of the glass tube, calibrated marks are provided which facilitates the
reading of temperature. A bulb is formed at one end of the thermometer which contains the largest part of mercury. The
expansion and contraction of this mercury size is then further increased in the extremely thin bore of the glass tube.   Alcohol
thermometers are replacing mercury thermometers in many applications. They employ alcohol as the filled in liquid in glass
tubes. The temperature measurement range of alcohol thermometers varies from 115°C to 785°C, where former is the
freezing temperature point of alcohol and latter is boiling temperature point of alcohol.

Table 1.1: Liquids used in glass thermometers and their temperature range

Thermocouple
Thermocouples are the most popular temperature sensors. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, have standard connectors
and can measure a wide range of temperatures. Their main limitation is accuracy as the system errors of less than 1°C can be
difficult to achieve. Following figure represents internal construction of thermocouple and its circuitry.

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A thermocouple is made up of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, that produce a voltage (expressed in
millivolts) with a change in temperature. The junction of the two metals, called the sensing junction, is connected to
extension wires. Any two dissimilar metals may be used to make a thermocouple.

Figure 1.6: a. Internal Construction b. Circuit diagram

A thermocouple is built of two divergent metal wires joined toward one side. It chips away at the guideline of "Seebeck
impact" whereby electromagnetic power is produced when two disparate metals are joined at two distinctive temperature
closes. At the point when one finish of each wire is associated with an estimating instrument, the thermocouple turns into a
delicate and profoundly precise estimating gadget. Warming the estimating intersection of the thermocouple delivers a
voltage which is more noteworthy than the voltage over the reference intersection. The contrast between the two voltages is
relative to the distinction in temperature and can be estimated on the voltmeter (in mV). Thermocouples might be developed
of a few distinct blends of materials. The most significant factor to be viewed as while choosing a couple of materials is the
"thermoelectric distinction" between the two materials. A huge distinction between the two materials will bring about better
thermocouple execution.

Principle of Operation
1. When two dissimilar metals are connected together, a small voltage called a thermo junction voltage is generated at the
junction. This is called the Peltier effect.
2. If the temperature of the junction changes, it causes voltage to change too, which can be measured by the input circuits of
an electronic controller. The output is a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the junction and the free
ends. This is called the Thompson effect.
3. Both of these effects can be combined to measure temperature. By holding one junction at a known temperature (reference
junction) and measuring the voltage, the temperature at the sensing junction can be deduced. The voltage generated is directly
proportional to the temperature difference. The combined effect is known as the thermo-junction effect or the Seebeck effect.
The figure below illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit.

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Figure 1.7: Thermocouple circuit

Figure 1.8: Thermocouple Construction

The voltage is estimated to derive the temperature. In useful activity, wires An and B are associated with an advanced
voltmeter (DVM), computerized multimeter (DMM), advanced information obtaining framework, or some other voltage
estimating gadget. On the off chance that the estimating gadget has extremely high info impedance, the voltage created by the
thermo-intersection can be estimated precisely. In any case, the principle issue with thermocouple temperature estimation is
that wires A and B must associate with the leads of the voltmeter, which are commonly made of copper. In the event that
neither wire A nor wire B is itself copper, interfacing with the DVM makes two more thermo-intersections! (Thermocouple
metals are ordinarily not equivalent to those of the DVM drives.) These extra thermo-intersections additionally produce a
thermo-junctive voltage, which can make a blunder when attempting to quantify the voltage from the detecting intersection.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

In this type the temperature is measured by comparing the resistance of the RTD element with the temperature. RTD is a
device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of a pure electrical wire. This is referred to as
temperature sensor. RTD can measure highly accurate temperatures and is the most commonly used in the industries.
The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as temperature increases and, conversely,
decrease in resistance as temperature decreases. RTDs act somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in
temperature to voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are
pure, of uniform quality, stable within a given range of temperature, and able to give reproducible resistance-temperature
readings. RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals are best suited for RTD
applications because of their linear resistance-temperature characteristics.
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a device which used to determine the temperature by
measuring the resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure
temperature with high accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in industries.

This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of temperature, the expression can be

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These three metals are having different resistance
variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is called resistance-temperature characteristics. Platinum has the
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temperature range of 650oC, and then the Copper and Nickel have 120oC and 300oC respectively. For Platinum, its resistance
changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius of temperature.
The purity of the platinum is checked by measuring R100 / R0. Because, whatever the materials actually we are using for
making the RTD that should be pure.

Bimetallic Thermometer
Definition: The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic strip which converts the temperature into the mechanical
displacement. The working of the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal expansion property of the metal. The thermal
expansion is the tendency of metal in which the volume of metal changes with the variation in temperature.
Each and Every metal has a different temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient shows the relation between the
change in the physical dimension of metal and the temperature that causes it. The expansion or contraction of metal depends
on the temperature coefficient, i.e., at the same temperature the metals have different changes in the physical dimension.

Figure 1.9: Construction of Bimetallic thermometer

Working Principle of Bimetallic Thermometer

The working principle of bimetallic thermometer depends on the two fundamental properties of the metal.
1. The metal has the property of thermal expansion, i.e., the metal expand and contract concerning the temperature.
2. The temperature coefficient of all the metal is not same. The expansion or contraction of metals is different at the same
temperature.

Constructions of Bimetallic Thermometer

The bimetallic strip is developed by holding together the two slight segments of various metals. The metals are consolidated
toward one side with the assistance of the welding. The holding is kept so that there is no relative movement between the two
metals. The physical component of the metals shifts with the variety in temperature.
Since the bimetallic piece of the thermometer is built with various metals. Along these lines, the length of metals changes at
various rates. At the point when the temperature builds, the strip twists towards the metal which has a low-temperature
coefficient. Furthermore, when the temperature diminishes, the strip twists towards the metal which has a high-temperature
coefficient.
The figure beneath shows the bimetallic strip as the straight cantilever bar. The strip fixed toward one side and redirects at the
opposite end.
The scope of diversion of bimetallic strip relies upon the kind of metals utilized for development. The avoidance of the metal
is legitimately relative to the length of the strip and the variety of temperature and is contrarily corresponding to the thickness
of the strips.

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Figure 1.10: Deflection in Bimetallic thermometer

Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a gadget that is utilized for the temperature estimation of an article. The gadget really tracks and measures the
measure of warmth that is emanated from an article. The warm warmth emanates from the article to the optical framework
present inside the pyrometer. The optical framework makes the warm radiation into a superior concentration and passes it to
the identifier. The yield of the identifier will be identified with the info warm radiation. The greatest favorable position of this
gadget is that, not normal for a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no immediate contact
between the pyrometer and the item whose temperature is to be discovered.
Optical Pyrometer
In an optical pyrometer, a brilliance correlation is made to gauge the temperature. As a proportion of the reference
temperature, a shading change with the development in temperature is taken. The gadget looks at the brilliance delivered by
the radiation of the item whose temperature is to be estimated, with that of a reference temperature. The reference
temperature is created by a light whose brilliance can be balanced till its force gets equivalent to the splendor of the source
object. For an article, its light force consistently relies upon the temperature of the item, whatever might be its frequency. In
the wake of changing the temperature, the present going through it is estimated utilizing a multimeter, as its worth will be
relative to the temperature of the source when aligned. The working of an optical pyrometer is appeared in the figure beneath.

Department of Chemical Engineering, DSCE

Process Dynamics and Control Karthik K V

Figure 1.11: Optical Pyrometer

Indicators and Recorders

Indicators and recorders are instruments that changes over the sign produced by an instrument circle into a meaningful
structure. The pointer or recorder might be locally or board mounted, and like modifiers and transmitters this data is shown
by the sort of image utilized. Displays can be either digital or analogue and is very easy to convert signals from one form to
the other if required. An indicator gives the value at the very instant whereas the recorder can be used to store the recorded
data for further use.
Also recorders can be directly fitted to a computer to store data via serial or parallel USB port.

Department of Chemical Engineering, DSCE

Process Dynamics and Control Karthik K V

Figure 1.12: Indicators and Display symbol

Department of Chemical Engineering, DSCE