o Most steel construction is done with a type of steel called mild steel.

Mild steel is a material that is immensely strong.

o Take a circular bar of steel 1 inch / 25mm in diameter.
o If you were to attach this bar securely to your ceiling, you could hang
from it 20,000 Kg (which is 20 tons), or any one of the following:
18 Honda City Cars
o 2 and a half African Elephants
o 1 and a half London City Routemaster Double-Decker Bus

This immense strength is of great advantage to buildings.

o The other important feature of steel framing is its flexibility.
o It can bend without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a
steel building can flex when it is pushed to one side by say, wind, or
an earthquake.
o The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or ductility. This means
that when subjected to great force, it will not suddenly crack like glass,
but slowly bend out of shape.
o This property allows steel buildings to bend out of shape,
or deform, thus giving warning to inhabitants to escape.
o Failure in steel frames is not sudden - a steel structure rarely
collapses.
o Steel in most cases performs far better in earthquake than most
other materials because of these properties.

However one important property of steel is that it quickly loses its

strength in a fire.
o At 500 degrees celsius (930 degrees F), mild steel can lose almost half
its strength.
o This is what happened at the collapse of the World Trade Towers in
2001. Therefore, steel in buildings must be protected from fire or high
temperature; this is usually done by wrapping it with boards or
spray-on material called fire protection.
 Use Of Steel Construction
o
High rise buildings because of its strength, low weight,
and speed of construction

o Industrial buildings because of its ability to create large

span spaces at low cost.

o Warehouse buildings for the same reason.

o Residential buildings in a technique called light gauge

steel construction.

o Temporary Structures as these are quick to set up and

remove.
 Advantages & Disadvantages Of
Steel Structures
o Steel structures have the following advantages:
They are super-quick to build at site, as a lot of work can be
pre-fabricated at the factory.
o They are flexible, which makes them very good at resisting
dynamic (changing) forces such as wind or earthquake forces.
o A wide range of ready-made structural sections are available,
such as I, C, and angle sections
o They can be made to take any kind of shape, and clad with any
type of material
o A wide range of joining methods is available, such as bolting,
welding, and riveting
o Steel structures have the following disadvantages:
They lose strength at high temperatures, and are susceptible
to fire.
o They are prone to corrosion in humid or marine environments.
 Universal Section.
o An I-beam, also known as H-
beam (for universal column, UC), w-
beam (for "wide flange"), universal
beam (UB), rolled steel joist (RSJ),
or double-T is a beam with an I or H-
shaped cross-section.
o The horizontal elements of the "I" are
known as flanges. while the vertical
element is termed the "web". I-beams are
usually made of structural steel and are
used in construction and civil engineering.
o The web resists shear forces, while the
flanges resist most of the bending moment
experienced by the beam.

o Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient

form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of
the web.
o On the other hand, the cross-section has a reduced capacity in the
transverse direction, and is also inefficient in carrying torsion, for
which hollow structural sections are often preferred
• There are two standard I-beam forms:
• Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold
rolling or extrusion (depending on material).
• Plate girder, formed by welding (or
occasionally bolting or riveting) plates.
• UCs have equal or near-equal width and depth
and are more suited to being oriented
vertically to carry axial load such as columns in
multi-storey construction.
• UBs are significantly deeper than they are
wide are more suited to carrying bending load
such as beam elements in floors.
Rolled steel sections Rolled steel channels Rolled steel I sections

• Rolled steel sections are steel members readily produced by the

steel mills.
• They are manufactured in standard shapes and sizes for each
shape.
• They are made in lengths up to 12 metres long. Common shapes
are “L” shaped angle sections, “C” channel sections and “I”
shaped beam sections
• These rolled sections have an upper limit
on cross sectional size because of
limitations in the capacities and
configurations of the rolling mill
equipment in the steel mills where they
are produced.
• But when the structure needs even
larger shapes from considerations of
load carrying capacity, then these
standard rolled shapes will be
inadequate.
• So flat plates are assembled to a
suitable shape and welded together to
produce beams of the required sizes.
• The following is how a built up I section
looks.
• This is assembled from three plates ,
(two flange plates and a web plate
 Columns and Stanchions.
• Column is a vertical compression member .It may
be solid or hollow in section.
• Vertical compression member may be called a
stanchion.
• Depending upon their height and the loading
conditions they may be fabricated in various
shapes.
• For columns to carry heavy loads two or more
sections of angles, channels ,rolled steel joists etc
are joined to form a compound section.
Different types of Stanchions
 Trusses
• A standard truss is a series of triangles - a stable geometric
shape that is difficult to distort under load. regardless of its
overall size and shape, all the chords and webs of a truss form
triangles.
• These triangles combine to distribute the load across each of
the other members, resulting in a light structure that is
stronger than the sum of the strength of its individual
components.
• However, for all the advantages, proper installation techniques
and bracing are critical. additionally, trusses should not be
modified in the field without consulting the truss
manufacturer. cutting a web member, for example will
radically alter its strength.
• Scissor truss (shown) provide a dramatic ceiling effect. this
truss type will exert lateral forces on walls if not installed with
a fixed and slide end.
Trusses For Longer Spans.
Advantages of Steel Trusses Over Timber Trusses.

•Steel Trusses are stronger than timber trusses.

•Steel Section forming the truss are light in weight and
can be fabricated in any desired pattern.
•No danger of termites.
•Better at fire resistance than timber trusses.
•No span restrictions and can be used for industrial
buildings.
•Sections easy in transportation.
•No wastage of material.
•Easy Erection techniques so roofing work for steel
trusses is faster.
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMES
COLUMN BASES AND FOUNDATION

MASS CONCRETE BASE

TIMBER TEMPLATE FOR HOLDING
DOWN BOLTS

BASE PLATE WITH COLUMNS AND

GROUTING HOLES
 COLUMN BEAM CONNECTIONS- BOLTED

BOLTED BEAM SPLICE

WELDED BUILT UP LONG SPAN BEAM
WELDED BEAM TO COLUMN
CONNECTION
COLD ROLLED SECTION
CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTIONS
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTIONS
FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL MEMBERS
FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL MEMBERS
FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL MEMBERS
FIRE PROTECTION OF
STEEL MEMBERS
 PORTAL FRAMES

•Portal frames are two dimensional rigid frames which have the basic
characteristics of a rigid joint between the column and the beam.
•The main objective of this form of design is to reduce the bending moment in
the beam thus allowing the frame to act as one structural unit.
•The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column can result in rotational
movement at the foundation which can be overcome by the introduction of a
pin or hinge joint.
•The pin or hinge will allow free rotation to take place at the point of fixity
whilst transmitting both load and shear from one member to another.
•In practice a true pivot is not always required but there must be enough
movement to ensure that the rigidity at the point of connection is low enough
to overcome the tendency of rotational movement.
Basic Arrangements for Portal Frames.
•Steel portal frames are
widely used in most of
the European countries
because they combine
structural efficiency with
functional application.
• Various configurations
of portal frames can be
designed using the same
structural concept .
 •Multi-bay frames can also be
designed, either using single or
pairs of internal columns.
• In addition to the primary steel
structure, a wide range of
secondary components has also
2.6 been developed, such as cold
formed steel purlins, which also
provide for the stability of the
framework (see Figures 2.6 and
2.7).
•These simple types of structural
2.7 systems can also be designed to be
architecturally more appealing by
using curved members, cellular or
perforated beams etc., as
illustrated in Figure 2.8.
2.8
 Innovative structural
systems have also been
developed in which
portal frames are
created by moment
resisting connections
using articulations and
ties, as given in Figure
2.9.

2.9
Single Span Symmetrical Portal Frame

Portal Frame with Internal Mezzanine Floor

Portal Frame with External Mezzanine Floor

Portal Frame with Column Brackets.
Over View of Components in a Portal Frame Structure.
Over View of Components in a Portal Frame Structure
Over View of Components in a Portal Frame Structure
Connections
The three major connections in a single bay portal frame are those at the
eaves, the apex and the column base.

Eaves
•For the eaves, bolted connections are mostly used.
• A haunch can be created by welding a ‘cutting’ to the rafter to increase its depth
locally and to make the connection design more efficient.
•The ‘cutting’ is often made from the same steel section as the rafter.
•In some cases, the column and the haunched part of the beam are constructed as
one unit, and the constant depth part of the beam is bolted using an end plate
connection.
Typical Eaves Connection in a Portal Frame
Apex
•The apex connection is often designed similarly.
• If the span of the frame does not exceed transportation limits (about 16 m),
the on-site apex connection can be avoided, thus saving costs.

Typical apex connections in a portal frame

Base
•The base of the column is often kept simple with larger tolerances in order to
facilitate the interface between the concrete and steelwork.
•Pinned connections are often preferred in order to minimize foundation sizes
although stability during construction must be considered.
•High horizontal forces may require the use of fixed based connections.

Typical examples of nominally

pinned column bases in a portal
frame
Roof systems
•There are a number of proprietary types of cladding that may be used in industrial
buildings.
•These tend to fall into some broad categories, which are described in the following
sections.
•Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
• Single-skin sheeting is widely used in agricultural and industrial structures where
no insulation is required.
•It can generally be used on roof slopes down to as low as 4° provided that the laps
and sealants are as recommended by the manufacturers for shallow slopes.
•The sheeting is fixed directly to the purlins and side rails, and provides positive
restraint .
•In some cases, insulation is suspended directly beneath the sheeting.
• Generally steel sheeting is made of galvanised steel.
•Due to the wide range of product forms, no standard dimensions for sheeting exist,
although there are strong similarities between products and shapes.
•The steel sheets are usually between 0.50 and 1.50 mm thick (including
galvanisation)
Single Skin Trapezoidal Sheeting.
Double-skin construction using plastic ferrule and Z
spacers
 Composite beams and Composite
Slabs Using Steel Decking.

• Composite construction consists of I or H profile steel beams

with shear connectors welded to the top flange to enable the
beam to act compositely with an in-situ composite floor slab .
• The concrete slab and the steel beam act together to increase
the bending resistance and stiffness of the floor construction.
• Composite slabs span between secondary beams, which
in turn may be supported by primary beams. The secondary
and primary beams are designed as composite.
• Edge beams can be designed as non-composite, although
shear connectors may be used for reasons of structural
integrity and transfer of wind loads.
• The floor slab comprises shallow steel decking and a
concrete topping, which act together compositely. Mesh
reinforcement is placed in the slab to enhance the fire
resistance of the slab, to distribute localised loads, to act as
transverse reinforcement around the shear connectors and
to reduce cracking in the slab.
• The decking is normally designed without propping and
supports the weight of the wet concrete and construction
loading as a continuous member over at least two spans.
• The composite slab is normally designed as simply
supported between beams.
 Cellular Composite beams with
Composite Slabs Using Steel Decking.

Long Span Secondary Cellular Beams with Regular Cellular openings.

 Dry Wall Construction
• Drywall (also known as plasterboard, wallboard, gypsum panel, sheet rock,
or gypsum board) is a panel made of calcium sulphate dihydrate (gypsum) with
or without additives and normally pressed between a facer and a backer
(typically thick sheets of paper).
• It is used to make interior walls and ceilings.
• The plaster is mixed with fiber (typically paper
and/or fibreglass), plasticizer, foaming agent, and various additives that can
decrease mildew, increase fire resistance, and lower water absorption.
• Drywall is cut to size, using a large T-square, by scoring the paper on the
finished side (usually white) with a utility knife, breaking the sheet along the
cut, and cutting the paper backing.
• Small features such as holes for outlets and light switches are usually cut
using a keyhole saw or a small high-speed bit in a rotary tool.
• Drywall is then fixed to the wall structure with nails or drywall screws and
often glue.
• Drywall fasteners, also referred to as drywall clips or stops, are gaining
popularity in both residential and commercial construction.
• Drywall screws heads have a curved taper, which allows them to
self-pilot and install rapidly without having to be punched through
the paper cover.
• When finished driving, these screws are countersunk slightly
into the drywall
Load Bearing Light Steel Framing
• Load-bearing walls
in light steel framing
use C sections of 70 to
150 mm depth and
steel thicknesses of 1.6
to 2.4 mm,
manufactured into two
dimensional wall
panels.
• Wall studs (vertical
C sections) are placed
at 300, 400 or 600 mm
spacing to align with
standard plasterboard
widths of 1.2 or 2.4 m
•Load-bearing light steel walls are
usually one of three generic forms:
•Double layer walls comprising
mineral wool or glass wool
insulation placed between the C
sections and two plasterboard
layers placed on the outer faces of
the wall.
•Double layer walls, as above, but
with rigid insulation board placed
between the layers.
•Single layer walls using a
minimum of 100 mm deep C
sections with ‘resilient bars’ fixed
to the outer face of the C section
and mineral wool between the C
sections and two plasterboard
layers (fastened to the resilient
bars).
https://youtu.be/g6sSbazsyLw

https://youtu.be/-GePl7noLuE
Façade Systems •There are two generic cladding types suitable for
use within the external wall systems described
earlier:
•Ground supported or floor supported cladding,
such as brickwork.
• Lightweight cladding that is supported by the
light steel wall.

•Main Design Considerations

•The main design considerations in the choice of
the façade system are the:
•Means of vertical and lateral support to the
cladding.
•Provision of the required level of thermal
insulation with minimal ‘cold bridging’.
•Provision of openings (windows and doors) and
attachments. Opportunities for prefabrication of
the façade panels, with attached cladding.
•External wall with brick cladding attached to light steel framing
External wall with metallic cladding attached to light steel framing
Insulated render attached to light steel framing
Advantages
• A wide variety of cladding materials may be used.
•Lightweight cladding can be supported by the light steel walls.
•Large panels can be prefabricated with their cladding attached.
• High levels of thermal insulation (low U-values) can be achieved.
•Walls are thinner than in blockwork or concrete construction
Construction Details.
• Types of Portal Frames
• Key Plan , Section & Roof Plan Of Portals.
• Stub Column and Stanchion Fixing detail.
• Fixing of Truss on RCC bracket / Column.
• Stanchion and Steel Cantilever.- Steel Bracket.
• Column /beam/ Metal Deck Connection.
• Construction of mortar brick /metal frame Facades to
steel structure.
• Partition /Dry wall Construction with door and window.
• Truss Details for @ 12m Span minimum two storied
Structure.