Muon Decay Cosmic Speed Limit, Doppler Shift

Welcome back
to PHY 3305
Today’s Lecture:
Muon Decay
Cosmic Speed Limit
Doppler Shift
Christian Doppler
1803-1853
Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Announcements
• Reading assignment for chapter 2 is posted on the

course website.
• Problem Set 1 is due at the beginning of class,

REVISED!
REVISED!
Tuesday, January 31.
- Conceptual Questions: 2.1, 2.8, 2.16
- Exercises: 2.24, 2.26, 2.34, 2.53, 2.54,
• Concept Question 2.11 and Problems 2.62, 2.74 and

2.76 will be moved to Problem Set 2.

Last Time: The Lorentz
Transformations
We can use γ to write our transformations.
1
γν ≡ !
v2
1− c2
Frame S:
! ! v
x = γν (x − vt) t = γν (− 2 x + t)
c
Frame S’:
! ! v ! !
x = γν (x + vt ) t = γν ( 2 x + t )
c

Last time
Proper Time: Occurs in the frame where two events
happen at the same location (i.e. x1’ = x2’).
∆t = γν ∆t0
This is the shortest time interval of any measured
intervals in any of the frames.
Proper Length: Occurs in the frame where two events

occur simultaneously (i.e. t2’ = t1’).
L0
L=
γν
This is the shortest length any measured lengths in any of
the frames.

Life of a Muon
Assume that a muon is created in the atmosphere 3 km
above Earth’s surface, traveling downward at 0.98c. It
survives 2.2 µs in it’s own reference frame before
decaying.
Define the S reference frame as the surface of Earth

with the x-direction along the path of the muon. The S’
reference frame is that of the muon.
This means that the muon is moving at +v as seen from

Earth and Earth is moving at -v as seen from the muon.

Classical Physics:
1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

Classical Physics:
d = vt

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)
d = 647m The muon would decay before

reaching Earth’s surface.

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)

2. How much longer would it have to live in order to reach

Earth?

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)


Earth? d
t=
v

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)


Earth? d 3000m − 647m
t= =
v 0.98(3.00 × 108 )m/s

Classical Physics:

8
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 m/s)(2.2 × 10 −6
s)


Earth? d 3000m − 647m
t= =
v 0.98(3.00 × 108 )m/s
t = 8.0 × 10−6 s = 8.0µs

v !
t = γ ν ( 2 x + t! )
Special Relativity: c
1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

muon survive before decaying?

v !
t = γ ν ( 2 x + t! )

We can approach the problem in 2 ways - Lorentz

transformation equations or time dilation formula
(which is derived from Lorentz transformations).

v !
t = γ ν ( 2 x + t! )


v
∆t = γν ( 2 ∆x! + ∆t! )
c

v !
t = γ ν ( 2 x + t! )


=0
v
∆t = γν ( 2 ∆x! + ∆t! )
c
In the muon’s frame, it is standing still. Δx’ = 0.

v !
t = γ ν ( 2 x + t! )


=0
v
∆t = γν ( 2 ∆x! + ∆t! )
c
In the muon’s frame, it is standing still. Δx’ = 0.
Note: Proper time is assigned to the S’
∆t = γν ∆t! reference frame where events occur in
the same location. This agrees with our
formula here. Δt = γν Δt0
!
Now just calculate. Start with ∆t = γν ∆t
the gamma factor.
1
γν = !
(0.98c)2
1− c2

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = !
(0.98c)2
1− c2

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2
Then, apply to our case.
!
∆t = γν ∆t = 5.03 × (2.2 × 10 −6
s
µs)

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2
!
∆t = γν ∆t = 5.03 × (2.2 × 10 −6
s
µs)
∆t = 11µs

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2
!
∆t = γν ∆t = 5.03 × (2.2 × 10 −6
s
µs)
∆t = 11µs
2. Will the muon reach the surface?

8m
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 ) × (11 × 10−6 s)
s

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2
!
∆t = γν ∆t = 5.03 × (2.2 × 10 −6
s
µs)
∆t = 11µs

8m
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 ) × (11 × 10−6 s) = 3.2km
s

!
the gamma factor.
1
γν = ! = 5.03
(0.98c)2
1− c2
!
∆t = γν ∆t = 5.03 × (2.2 × 10 −6
s
µs)
∆t = 11µs

8m
d = vt = 0.98(3.00 × 10 ) × (11 × 10−6 s) = 3.2km
s
Yes, the muon will reach the surface.
Special Relativity: x = γν (x! + vt! )
3. Now, let’s ask ourselves how long it takes to reach

Earth from the muon’s perspective


Use the Lorentz transformation equations to find Δt’.
! !
∆x = γν (∆x + v∆t )


! = 0 !
∆x = γν (∆x + v∆t )
In the muon’s frame, it sees itself standing still. Thus,
Δx’ = 0.


! = 0 !
∆x = γν (∆x + v∆t )
Δx’ = 0.
! ∆x
∆t =
vγν


! = 0 !
∆x = γν (∆x + v∆t )
Δx’ = 0.
∆x 3000m
∆t! = = 8
vγν 0.98 × (3.00 × 10 s ) × 5.03
m


! = 0 !
∆x = γν (∆x + v∆t )
Δx’ = 0.
∆x 3000m
∆t! = = 8
vγν 0.98 × (3.00 × 10 s ) × 5.03
m
∆t! = 2.0 × 10−6 s = 2.0µs
Thus, from the perspective of the muon, it reaches Earth,

penetrates Earth, and decays 0.2 µs later.
Question Quiz # 11.2
Two events A and B occur simultaneously at separated

points yA and yB, with yB > yA, on the y-axis of reference
frame S. According to an observer S´ moving with respect
to S with a speed v in the positive x direction:
a) The event at yA always occurs first.

b) The event at yA always occurs last.
c) Either event might occur first, depending on
spatial separation yB-yA of the events and the
observer’s speed v.
d) The events remain simultaneous for all v.
e) None of the above.
Question Quiz # 11.2
Two events A and B occur simultaneously at separated

points yA and yB, with yB > yA, on the y-axis of reference
frame S. According to an observer S´ moving with respect
to S with a speed v in the positive x direction:
a) The event at yA always occurs first.

b) The event at yA always occurs last.
c) Either event might occur first, depending on
spatial separation yB-yA of the events and the
observer’s speed v.
d) The events remain simultaneous for all v.
e) None of the above.
Einstein’s Postulates:
1. The laws of physics are

invariant to observers in
different inertial reference
frames.
2.The speed of light is the

same to all observers,
regardless of their motion
relative to the light source.
As a consequence of Einstein’s Postulates,

nothing travels faster than the speed of light.

Light spots and
Shadows
Shadows on a wall.
The misconception is that the edge of a shadow

"moves" along a wall, when in actuality the change a
shadow's motion is part of a new projection, which will
propagate at the speed of light from the object of
interference.
Laser pointed at moon (light spot).

PaRticle Faster than
Speed of Light
http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-09-cern-faster-
than-light-particle.html
During the fall semester physicists from the OPERA

(Gran Sasso) experiment announced that they had
detected neutrinos traveling faster than the speed of
light.
Neutrinos were generated at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland

and shot through Earth to the OPERA detector in Gran
Sasso, Italy.
SuperNova 1987A

How long does it
take light to
arrive?
∆x
v=
∆t

How long does it
take light to
arrive?
∆x ∆x
v= ∆t =
∆t v

How long does it
take light to
arrive?
∆x ∆x
v= ∆t =
∆t v
c = 299,792,458 m/s
Δx = (1.586 ± 0.037) x 10 21
m

How long does it
take light to
arrive?
∆x ∆x
v= ∆t =
∆t v
c = 299,792,458 m/s
Δx = (1.586 ± 0.037) x 10 21
m
Δt = (167,800 ± 3900) years

How Much
Faster?
According to the OPERA paper about the results,
v−c
= (2.84 ± 0.41) × 10 −5
v
Which means neutrinos arrive 0.00248% faster than
light.

How Much
Faster?
v−c
= (2.84 ± 0.41) × 10 −5
v
light.
Apply this to our time for light to arrive in order to

find the time neutrinos arrive and we get

How Much
Faster?
v−c
= (2.84 ± 0.41) × 10 −5
v
light.
Apply this to our time for light to arrive in order to

find the time neutrinos arrive and we get
Δtneutrinos ~ 4 years earlier than Δtlight

What Do
Experiments tell
Us?
Neutrino experiments around the world reported

seeing the neutrinos from SN 1987a three to five
hours before the light arrived.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1987A

Reasons to
Question
• Arrival of neutrinos from SN 1987A
• If neutrinos travel faster than light, they should

radiate (emit) other particles until they slow down
(losing energy) to light speed.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15830844
http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/
episode.cfm?id=brian-greene-talks-ftl-
neutrinos-11-11-23

What Does this Mean?

1. The experimenters could have made an error when doing their
analysis.
- Uncertainties in the GPS clocks (10 ns).
- Need to know the distances with remarkable certainty

1. The experimenters could have made an error when doing their
analysis.
- Uncertainties in the GPS clocks (10 ns).
- Need to know the distances with remarkable certainty
2. We have made some assumptions when we did this calculation.

Our assumptions could be wrong.
- We assumed all neutrino flavors behave the same.
- We assumed a certain level of understanding about
supernova explosions.

Where to Go from here
1. One issue that was of concern was addressed by the OPERA
collaboration. There was concern that the proton pulses used to
generate were too long and generated uncertainty. CERN
generated shorter proton pulses. OPERA replicated their findings
with the shorter pulses.
http://www.nature.com/news/neutrino-experiment-replicates-faster-than-light-finding-1.9393
2. GPS issues will be much harder to resolve.
3. There are a number of neutrino experiments around the

world. So, we will need to wait and see what other
experiments have to say on the matter.

What is the Doppler Effect?

In classical physics sound experiences a shift in pitch

(frequency shift) when the sound source is moving
relative to the observer.

In classical physics sound experiences a shift in pitch

(frequency shift) when the sound source is moving
relative to the observer.
Classic example: Police Siren appears to go up in

pitch as it approaches you and down in pitch as it
goes away.

The source (S’) is moving
Doppler Shift in frequency relative to the observer (S).
! v !
∆t = ∆t + ∆t
csound
additional time to
travel to observer.

! v ! 1
∆t = ∆t + ∆t →f ≡
csound ∆t
additional time to
travel to observer.

! v ! 1
∆t = ∆t + ∆t →f ≡
csound ∆t
f!
f=
additional time to
(1 + csound )
v
travel to observer.
-v = source moves towards listener
+v = source moves away from listener

! v ! 1
∆t = ∆t + ∆t →f ≡
csound ∆t
f!
f=
additional time to
(1 + csound )
v
travel to observer.
-v = source moves towards listener
+v = source moves away from listener
What if the source is moving at an angle to the listener?
f!
f=
(1 + v
csound cos θ)

Does the same happen for light?

Does the same happen for light? relative to the observer (S).
Yes! But we must apply special relativity.

!
! ! f
∆t → γν ∆t →
γν


!
! ! f
∆t → γν ∆t →
γν
!
v2
1 − c2
!
f =f
(1 + c cos θ)
v


!
! ! f
∆t → γν ∆t →
γν
!
v2
1 − c2
!
f =f
(1 + c cos θ)
v
Assuming that the source is moving away/towards (not at

an angle) this can be simplified (exercise for the student).
away: ! towards: !
v
1− v
! 1+
f =f ! c f =f c
v
1+ v
c
1− c

Implications:

Implications:
Classical Physics:
- Light from a source moving away from an
observer is redshifted.
- Light from a source moving towards an
observer is blueshifted.

Implications:
Classical Physics:
- Light from a source moving away from an
observer is redshifted.
- Light from a source moving towards an
observer is blueshifted.
Modern Physics:
- All objects are redshifted because time
moves more slowly (time dilation) for the
moving source. The slowed movement lowers
the light frequency.
- Small effect which is outweighed by the
movement of the source.
Problem: Running a Red Light
You are driving towards a traffic light at 0.15c. A

policeman next to the light sees it as red. What color
does the light appear to you?


Red light has a wavelength of 650nm. The first step is

to convert this to frequency.



c
f=
λ



8m
c 3 × 10 s
f= =
λ 650 × 10−9 m



8m
c 3 × 10 s
f= =
λ 650 × 10−9 m
14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Now plug this into the appropriate
Doppler equation.

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
!
v
! 1+
f =f c
v
1− c

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c
f = 5.4 × 1014 Hz

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c
f = 5.4 × 1014 Hz
Convert back to wavelength.

c
λ=
f

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c
f = 5.4 × 1014 Hz

8m
c 3 × 10
λ= = s
f 5.4 × 1014 Hz

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c
f = 5.4 × 1014 Hz

8m
c 3 × 10
λ= = s
= 535nm
f 5.4 × 1014 Hz

‘ 14
f = 4.6 × 10 Hz
Doppler equation.
! !
v 0.15c
! 1+ 14 1+
f =f c
v = (4.6 × 10 Hz) × c
0.15c
1− c 1− c
f = 5.4 × 1014 Hz

8m
c 3 × 10
λ= = s
= 535nm
f 5.4 × 1014 Hz
You will observe the light as green.

Notes:
A modest speed of 0.15c = 4.5 x 107 m/s (~ 100 x 106 mph)

causes a dramatic shift in the character of light.
Although these high speeds are not so common in our

daily life here on Earth, they are common in nature.
The Doppler shift is an essential part of modern

astrophysics.

Spectral Lines
• Atoms give off waves of a certain frequency.
• Each atom in the universe gives off a unique set of
colors.
• This set of colors is known as ‘spectral lines’.

• Spectroscopy is the science of using spectral lines to
figure out what atoms an object contains.
• This technique is used to determine the composition of

distant stars.

Speed of Quasar
Quasar SDSS 1030+054 produces a hydrogen emission
line of wavelength λrest = 121.6nm. On Earth, this
emission line is observed to have a wavelength
λobs = 885.2 nm. Find the speed of the recessing
quasar .

Speed of Quasar
quasar .
First we need to find the appropriate equation for a

source which is moving away from the observer.

Speed of Quasar
quasar .
First we need to find the appropriate equation for a

source which is moving away from the observer.
!
v
! 1−
f =f c
v
1+ c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
Rewrite the Doppler equation in 1+ v
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
v
c c 1− c
= ! v
λ λ 1+ c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
v
c c 1− c
= ! v
λ λ 1+ c
!
! v
λ 1− c
= v
λ 1+ c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
v
c c 1− c
= ! v
λ λ 1+ c
!
! v
λ 1− c
= v
λ 1+ c
λ!2 v v
(1 + ) = 1 −
λ2 c c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
c c 1− v λ!2 v v λ!2
= ! c + = 1 −
λ λ 1+ v λ2 c c λ2
c
!
! v
λ 1− c
= v
λ 1+ c
λ!2 v v
(1 + ) = 1 −
λ2 c c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
c c 1− v λ!2 v v λ!2
= ! c + = 1 −
λ λ 1+ v λ2 c c λ2
c
λ!2
1−
!
λ ! 1− v v λ2
= c = λ!2
λ 1+ v c 1+ λ2
c
λ!2 v v
(1 + ) = 1 −
λ2 c c

!
v
1−
f = f! c
c
terms of wavelength
c
f=
λ
Thus,
!
c c 1− v λ!2 v v λ!2
= ! c + = 1 −
λ λ 1+ v λ2 c c λ2
c
λ!2
1−
!
λ ! 1− v v λ2
= c = λ!2
λ 1+ v c 1+ λ2
c
λ!2
λ!2 v v 1− λ2
(1 + ) = 1 − v = c( λ!2
)
λ2 c c 1+ λ2

λ!2
1− λ2
v = c( λ!2
)
1+ λ2
Plug in the numbers:
121.62
1− 885.22
v = c( 121.62
)
1+ 885.22

λ!2
1− λ2
v = c( λ!2
)
1+ λ2
Plug in the numbers:
121.62
1− 885.22
v = c( 121.62
)
1+ 885.22
8m
v = 0.963c or v = 2.89 × 10
s

The End
(for today)

Muon Decay Cosmic Speed Limit, Doppler Shift

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Welcome back

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

• Reading assignment for chapter 2 is posted on the

• Problem Set 1 is due at the beginning of class,

- Conceptual Questions: 2.1, 2.8, 2.16

- Exercises: 2.24, 2.26, 2.34, 2.53, 2.54,

• Concept Question 2.11 and Problems 2.62, 2.74 and

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Proper Length: Occurs in the frame where two events

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Define the S reference frame as the surface of Earth

This means that the muon is moving at +v as seen from

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

d = 647m The muon would decay before

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

d = 647m The muon would decay before

2. How much longer would it have to live in order to reach

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

d = 647m The muon would decay before

2. How much longer would it have to live in order to reach

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

d = 647m The muon would decay before

2. How much longer would it have to live in order to reach

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. How far will the muon travel before it decays?

d = 647m The muon would decay before

2. How much longer would it have to live in order to reach

t = 8.0 × 10−6 s = 8.0µs

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

We can approach the problem in 2 ways - Lorentz

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

We can approach the problem in 2 ways - Lorentz

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

We can approach the problem in 2 ways - Lorentz

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

1. According to an observer on Earth, how long will the

We can approach the problem in 2 ways - Lorentz

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Then, apply to our case.

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Then, apply to our case.

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Then, apply to our case.

2. Will the muon reach the surface?

Physics 3305 - Modern Physics Professor Jodi Cooley

Then, apply to our case.