Current Biology 21, 1833–1837, November 8, 2011 ª2011 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved
029
Dreamed Movement Elicits Activation
in the Sensorimotor Cortex
Martin Dresler,1,5 Stefan P. Koch,2,5 Renate Wehrle,1,5
Victor I. Spoormaker,1 Florian Holsboer,1 Axel Steiger,1
Philipp G. Sämann,1 Hellmuth Obrig,2,3,4
and Michael Czisch1,*
1Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10,
80804 Munich, Germany
2Berlin Neuroimaging Center, Charité University Hospital,
Humboldt University of Berlin, 10099 Berlin, Germany
3Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain
Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
4Clinic for Cognitive Neurology, University Hospital Leipzig,
04103 Leipzig, Germany
Summary
Since the discovery of the close association between rapid
eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming, much effort has
been devoted to link physiological signatures of REM sleep
to the contents of associated dreams [1–4]. Due to the im-
possibility of experimentally controlling spontaneous dream
activity, however, a direct demonstration of dream contents
by neuroimaging methods is lacking. By combining brain
imaging with polysomnography and exploiting the state of
‘‘lucid dreaming,’’ we show here that a predefined motor
task performed during dreaming elicits neuronal activation
in the sensorimotor cortex. In lucid dreams, the subject is
aware of the dreaming state and capable of performing pre-
defined actions while all standard polysomnographic criteria
of REM sleep are fulfilled [5, 6]. Using eye signals as temporal
markers, neural activity measured by functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and near-infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS) was related to dreamed hand movements during lucid
REM sleep. Though preliminary, we provide first evidence
that specific contents of REM-associated dreaming can be
visualized by neuroimaging.
Results
Lucid dreaming is a rare but robust state of sleep that can
be trained [5]. Phenomenologically, it comprises features of
both waking and dreaming [7]: in lucid dreams, the sleeping
subject becomes aware of his or her dreaming state, has full
access to memory, and is able to volitionally control dreamed
actions [6]. Although all standard polysomnographic criteria of
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep [8] are maintained and REM
sleep muscle atonia prevents overt motor behavior, lucid
dreamers are able to communicate their state by predefined
volitional eye movements [6], clearly discernable in the electro-
oculogram (EOG) (Figure 1). Combining the techniques of lucid
dreaming, polysomnography, and brain imaging via functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or near-infrared spectros-
copy (NIRS), we demonstrate the possibility to investigate
the neural underpinnings of specific dream contents—in this
5These authors contributed equally to this work
*Correspondence: czisch@mpipsykl.mpg.de
DOI 10.1016/j.cub.2011.09.
Report
case, dreamed hand clenching. Predecided eye movements
served as temporal markers for the onset of hand clenching
and for hand switching. Previous studies have shown that
muscle atonia prevents the overt execution of dreamed hand
movements, which are visible as minor muscle twitches at
most [3, 9].
Subjects were instructed to make series of left and right hand
movements separated by sets of left-right-left-right (LRLR)
eye movements upon becoming lucid (see Experimental
Procedures below; see also Supplemental Information avail-
able online). Out of six highly experienced lucid dreamers
who participated in the study, two subjects succeeded in
performing the task during lucid REM sleep under combined
electroencephalography (EEG)-fMRI or combined EEG-NIRS
conditions, respectively. As a control condition, the subjects
additionally performed both an actually executed and an imag-
ined hand-clenching task during wakefulness. Increases in
blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal in the sensori-
motor cortex contralateral to the indicated movement side
were found in the successful fMRI experiments during the
two lucid REM states in one subject (Figure 2). Given the short
duration of the lucid dreams, the activation of the sensorimotor
cortical regions was very specific compared to wakefulness:
executed hand clenching during wakefulness (WE) elicited
widespread activation clusters in the contralateral pre- and
postcentral gyrus (pFWE < 0.005). Collection threshold for
both imagined hand movements during wakefulness (WI) and
dreamed hand movements (LD) were set at puncorr < 0.005,
with voxel extent 50. Cluster significance was assessed in
a volume of interest defined by the activation during executed
hand movement in wakefulness. The strength of the activation
was evaluated by analyzing the difference between the maxi-
mum and minimum BOLD signal amplitude in the peak voxel’s
time course of the respective motor regions. Strongest BOLD
signal fluctuations of the peak voxel’s time course can be
seen during WE (left hand: 5.62%; right hand: 4.49%), whereas
WI and LD showed mean fluctuations of only 1.3%–1.4% and
1.8%–2.5%, respectively (Figure 2).
FMRI results were confirmed by an independent imaging
method in a second subject: NIRS data showed a typical
hemodynamic response pattern of increased contralateral
oxygenation over the sensorimotor region during successful
task performance in lucid REM sleep (Figure 3; Figure 4).
Notably, during dreaming, the hemodynamic responses were
smaller in the sensorimotor cortex but of similar amplitude in
the supplementary motor area (SMA) when compared to overt
motor performance during wakefulness.
Discussion
The discovery of the close relationship between REM sleep
and dream reports [10, 11] boosted decades of neuroscientific
research into the brain state potentially evoking vivid and in-
tense dreams. Neurophysiological studies suggest that during
REM sleep, the brain functions as a closed loop system, in
which activation is triggered in pontine regions while sensory
input is gated by enhanced thalamic inhibition and motor
output is suppressed by atonia generated at the brain stem
Current Biology Vol 21 No 21
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Figure 1. Exemplary Lucid REM Sleep as Captured by Polysomnography
during Simultaneous fMRI
Note high-frequency electroencephalogram (EEG) and minimal electromyo-
gram (EMG) amplitude due to muscle atonia characteristic of rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep (left), with wakefulness for comparison (right).
Subjects were instructed to communicate the state of lucidity by quick
left-right-left-right (LRLR) eye movements. Filter settings are as follows:
EEG, bandpass filter 0.5270 Hz, with additional notch filter at 50 Hz; elec-
trooculogram (EOG), bandpass filter 0.1–30 Hz; EMG, bandpass filter
16–250 Hz.
level [4, 12]. Cortical synthesis of internally generated sensori-
motor perceptions may explain partially coherent narrative
dream mentation [13]. REM sleep is associated with increased
cerebral blood flow in visual association areas and limbic
regions as well as attenuated metabolism in dorsolateral pre-
frontal cortex, primary visual cortex, and precuneus [14, 15].
Such a pattern of activation has been proposed to underlie
general dream features like vivid imagery, emotional experi-
ences, and lack of insight and volition [4, 16].
The neural correlates of specific dream mentation, however,
still had to be disclosed. Efforts have been made to correlate
REMs to gaze direction during dreams—the ‘‘scanning hy-
pothesis’’ [1, 2]—and indeed similar cortical areas are involved
in eye movement generation in wake and REM sleep [17]. In
a similar vein, small muscle twitches during REM sleep were
presumed to signal a change in the dream content [3]. In
REM behavior disorder, patients even seem to enact dream
fragments [18], suggesting that dreamed motor actions in-
volve activation of similar brain regions as during waking ac-
tions. Also in non-REM sleep, dreaming of task-related content
after an intense skill-learning session hints to the possibility
that the same neural systems control executed and merely
dreamed motor activity [19]. Nonetheless, the main obstacle
in the direct neuroscientific study of specific dream content
is that spontaneous dream activity cannot be experimentally
controlled because subjects typically cannot perform prede-
cided mental actions during sleep. Hence, dream research
methodology mostly relies on the evaluation of subjective re-
ports of very diverse dream contents. However, such memory
traces collected after awakening are often imprecise. There-
fore it seems difficult, if not impossible, to pinpoint specific
dream content in a precise temporal frame, a prerequisite for
the analysis of imaging data acquired during dreaming.
In the present study, we employed the skill of lucid dreaming
to overcome some of these obstacles. In line with the concep-
tion that sleep atonia is generated at the brainstem level [4] and
confirming earlier EEG studies [20], fMRI BOLD responses
were observed bilaterally in the same sensorimotor cortical
regions for lucid dreaming and wakefulness. However, during
dreaming, activation was much more localized in small clus-
ters representing either generally weaker activation or focal
activation of hand areas only, with signal fluctuations only in
the order of 50% as compared to the actually executed task
during wakefulness. Although in the fMRI analysis activation
in the SMA was not observed, the NIRS-measured hemody-
namic responses during dreaming were smaller in the sen-
sorimotor cortex but of similar amplitude in the SMA when
compared to overt motor performance during wakefulness.
The SMA is involved in timing, preparation, and monitoring of
movements [21], and linked to the retrieval of a learned motor
sequence especially in the absence of external cues [22]. The
SMA has been attributed as a programming area active only
during complex movements [23]; however, our NIRS data
speak for an activation of SMA even during simple movements
in this subject. This is in line with several PET and fMRI studies
reporting SMA activations for simple tasks such as hand
clenching, single finger-tapping, and alternated finger-tapping
(see Supplemental References and Supplemental Discussion
of the NIRS and fMRI mismatch).
In general, our data support the assumption that the pattern
of activation in motor imagery largely overlaps with activity
corresponding to motor execution [24]. Moreover, the finding
of a similar action representation for hand clenching during
lucid dreaming extends the view of a common neural substrate
for actions also for covert movements during this particular
dreaming state. In this regard, dreamed motor activity might
help to elucidate the controversy about the locus of control
for the inhibition of motor output in motor imagery: because
it is known that sleep atonia is generated at the brainstem level
and spinal cord [4], the similarity between imagined and
dreamed motor activity might be interpreted as confirma-
tive for explanations in terms of a blocking mechanism down-
stream of the motor cortex in motor imagery rather than a
prefrontal blockade [24]. Controversial reports exist on the
involvement of M1 activation in motor imagery [23, 25, 26]:
although it is typically smaller compared with that in execution
[26], transient responses might be interpreted to reflect the
onset of a specific motor imagination not leading to sustained
M1 activation [23]. The close interaction between somatosen-
sory and motor cortices during the performance of a move-
ment differs between waking and dreaming. Lack of sensory
feedback due to REM sleep atonia may further reduce the
activation in M1 and primary somatosensory cortex. However,
small muscle twitches might well occur during dreamed hand
clenching [3, 9], potentially leading to residual M1 activation.
Because several limitations of our study complicate the
interpretation of the activation pattern, the data have to be
considered as very preliminary. Due to the scarcity of the
phenomenon and the complexity of the methods, we basically
present two case studies of two dreams each, assessed with
different methods, which naturally leaves the possibility of in-
dividual differences strongly influencing the results. Based on
this, no statistical comparisons were made between condi-
tions (WE, WI, LD) or regions. The lack of hand electromyo-
gram (EMG) data further complicates the interpretation, and
the mismatch between the two subjects concerning SMA acti-
vation can hardly be explained satisfactorily. Hence, our data
could not and should not be interpreted as a thorough clarifi-
cation of the neural correlates of motor activity during dreams
but rather as a methodological proof of concept on how to
measure neural correlates of dream content with neuroimag-
ing methods.
Although lucid dreaming comprises all defining markers of
REM sleep proper [8] and all basal dream features such as
hallucinations, it differs from nonlucid dreaming in its metacog-
nitive insight into the hallucinatory nature of the dream state
and full access to cognitive capabilities [7, 27]. Recent sophis-
ticated EEG analyses have shown increased gamma band
Dreamed Movement Activates the Sensorimotor Cortex
1835

Figure 2. Comparison of Sensorimotor Activation during Wakefulness and Sleep

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD)-response increases were contrasted between left and right hand
movements (columns) in the three conditions (rows): executed hand movement during wakefulness (WE) (A), imagined hand movement during wakefulness
(WI) (B), and dreamed hand movement during lucid REM sleep (LD) (C). Effects of left (right) hand movements were calculated in a fixed-effects analysis as
a contrast ‘‘left > right’’ and ‘‘right > left,’’ respectively. Subpanels depict results in an SPM glass-brain view (sagital and coronal orientation) to demonstrate
the regional specificity of the associated cortical activation, along with sensorimotor activation overlaid on an axial slice of the subject’s T1-weighted
anatomical scan (position indicated on the glass brain for condition A). Clusters of activation in the glass-brain views are marked using the numbering given
in Table S1. Red outlines in the glass-brain views mark the extent of activation found in the WE condition. This region of interest (ROI) was derived from the
Current Biology Vol 21 No 21
1836
Figure 3. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Topography
Concentration changes of oxygenated (D[HbO], upper panel) and deoxy-
genated hemoglobin (D[HbR], lower panel) during executed (WE) and imag-
ined (WI) hand clenching in the awake state and dreamed hand clenching
(LD). The optical probe array covered an area of w7.5 3 12.5 cm2 over the
right sensorimotor area. The solid box indicates the ROI over the right
sensorimotor cortex with near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-channels sur-
rounding the C4-EEG electrode position. NIRS channels located centrally
over midline and more anterior compared to sensorimotor ROI were chosen
as ROI for the supplementary motor area (SMA, dotted box).
activity over frontal and frontolateral areas when comparing
lucid against nonlucid REM sleep, suggesting a neural corre-
late of this subjectively experienced cognitive control [28].
Hence, it cannot be excluded that neural activity associated
with nonlucid dreams differs from that of dream content delib-
erately induced by a lucid dreamer. To assess regular dream
mentation in more detail, lucid dreamers might reenact certain
simple dream reports and the accordant activation patterns of
lucid and nonlucid dreams could be compared. Although the
neuroimaging of lucid dreaming is currently hampered by the
scarcity of the phenomenon even in trained subjects, pro-
mising attempts exist to enhance lucid dreaming frequency,
e.g., by transcranial direct current stimulation [27].
In summary, we provide the first demonstration of imaging
of specific dream contents by using the technique of lucid
dreaming. This technique could be used to inversely infer
specific dream content from its underlying neural activity,
allowing for true ‘‘dream reading.’’ Similar to first ‘‘brain
reading’’ experiments in the wake state [29], we chose a simple
hand-clenching task because motor activity can be reliably
located by both imaging modalities applied. The combination
of lucid dreaming with neuroimaging and polysomnography
is a promising technique to also transfer more sophisticated
‘‘brain reading’’ tasks [30] to the dreaming state. Future appli-
cations might therefore lead to the imaging of prototypical
dream content like visual dream imagery or dreamed emotions.
Experimental Procedures
Six healthy male subjects (aged 21–38 years, mean age 29.6 years) who had
trained and practiced lucid dreaming for several years participated in the
study. Whole-brain BOLD-fMRI (1.5 Tesla, 25 slices, 4 mm thickness, in-
respective activation map during executed hand movement (A), thresholded at whole-brain corrected pFWE < 0.005, cluster extent >50 voxels, and served as
a ROI for analysis of the WI and LD conditions in (B) and (C), respectively. T values are color-coded as indicated. The time course of the peak voxel inside the
ROI is depicted (black) along with the predicted hemodynamic response based on the external pacing (A and B) or the predefined LRLR-eye signals during
(C). The maximal difference in activation of the peak voxel between conditions is indicated as percentage of BOLD signal fluctuations of the predicted time
course (gray).
plane resolution 3.125 3 3.125 mm2, TR 2 s, TE 40 ms) and NIRS were per-
formed in the early morning hours during which REM sleep incidence is
highest. The NIRS device was a custom-built monitor with 22 measuring
channels unilaterally covering right central sensorimotor areas. Five of the
six subjects underwent NIRS measurements with concurrent polysomno-
graphic recordings during sleep for 1–3 nights, and four of the six subjects
were assessed with fMRI with concurrent polysomnographic recordings for
2–6 nights. Subjects were instructed to signal the onset of a lucid dream by
left-right-left-right (LRLR) eye movements and to immediately start clench-
ing their left hand in their dream. They were further instructed to repeat the
LRLR signal after ten clenches and start to clench the right hand. The alter-
nating hand-clenching task was repeated for as long as possible, with the
LRLR signal indicating each changeover. Whereas a flat electromyogram
(EMG) indicated REM sleep atonia, eye signals were clearly visible and
distinguishable from spontaneous REMs in the EOG, providing unequivocal
temporal markers for imaging analysis (Figure 1). Polysomnographic data
were monitored online by a trained experimenter throughout the recording
session. Immediately after participants awakened, a short dream report was
prompted to verify lucidity and task compliance. Task performance was
considered successful when the following three conditions were concur-
rently fulfilled: (1) the subject was in REM sleep, (2) EOG signals showed
at least four sets of LRLR eye signals, and (3) both lucidity and dreamed
hand clenching were confirmed by the subject in the subsequent verbal
report. When the EEG showed clear signs of awakening after a LRLR signal,
one of the investigators entered the scanner or NIRS room and inquired
about task performance. Alternatively, when LRLR signals were followed
by a period of about 40 s without any further signals, one of the investigators
entered the scanner or NIRS room and inquired about task performance,
thereby definitely awakening a potentially sleeping participant.
During fMRI, two subjects signaled and reported lucid dreams of suffi-
cient length, i.e., four sets of LRLR eye signals and hand clenchings. Poly-
somnographic evaluation, however, revealed that one of the two subjects
showed increased EMG amplitudes, which could indicate a transition to
wakefulness. This subject was excluded from the analysis. The remaining
subject showed two lucid dreams during which the task was correctly per-
formed, verified by polysomnographic data matching the dream report. Two
further subjects reported lucidity during fMRI; however, one was not able to
perform the signaling or task as a result of sudden dream termination,
whereas the EEG of the other was compromised by strong sweating arte-
facts, thereby making any objective evaluation of sleep stage, lucidity, or
task performance impossible. During NIRS, two subjects signaled and
reported lucidity, but only one subject was able to successfully conduct
the hand-clenching task (in two different dreams). We compared the activa-
tion pattern of lucid hand movements to executed and imagined hand
movements, collected during wakefulness with both neuroimaging modali-
ties (see Supplemental Information for details).
Supplemental Information
Supplemental Information includes two tables, Supplemental Results,
Supplemental Experimental Procedures, and Supplemental Discussion
and can be found with this article online at doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.09.029.
Acknowledgments
We thank J. Allan Hobson for his advice and discussions on this topic.
Received: February 9, 2011
Revised: August 31, 2011
Accepted: September 15, 2011
Published online: October 27, 2011
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Dreamed Movement Activates the Sensorimotor Cortex
1837

Figure 4. Condition-Related NIRS Time Courses

Time courses of HbO (red traces) and HbR (blue
traces) from the right sensorimotor ROI (left panel)
and the supplementary motor ROI SMA (right
panel) for executed (WE) and imagined (WI) hand
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