Transceivers Architectures for

Mobile & Wireless Applications

Hooman Darabi
hdarabi@broadcom.com

1
 Wireless Transceiver Challenges

Desired TX
Wireless
Receiver

Out-of-band
Interferer TX

100dB
In-band

Select the desired

channel
N×200kHz in GSM
• Stringent linearity, phase noise, selectivity on RX
• Stringent mask, far-out noise on TX 2
 Receiver Requirements
• Receiver NF sets the sensitivity, range:
RS=50Ω
Ω
Sensitivity = -174 + NF + 10Log(BW) +SNR RX
10Log(KT), dBm/Hz Set by the standard

• Small signal linearity:

Blockers: In/Out-Band

̶ IIP2, IIP3
2fB1-fB2 fB1 fB2
• Large signal linearity: Y
G
GD
̶ Gain compression
Operates here
• Harmonic mixing A A D B
X

• Reciprocal mixing: BNF = 174 – PB -PN

3
 Transmitter Requirements
NF:
Range
• Output power
• Spectrum Mask
RX Equivalent

– Sets the modulator quality

10dB/
Blockers:
– Sets the TX linearity
Co-existence GSM Mask
– Determines TX phase noise
• Far-out noise 100kHz/
SNR:
Thru-put • Modulation quality: PE, EVM
SNR, EVM
Phase Noise

• Phase noise in Mask, Blockers

transceivers: Far-out noise
Frequency 4
 GSM/EDGE/WCDMA
• GSM/EDGE is TDMA, while 3G is CDMA. Both FDD.
Slot0 Slot1 … Slot7 Frame: 8×577µ
µS
• CDMA less sensitive to jammers:

TX Out RX IN
Code: 3.84MHz Code

Modulation Bands Thru-put Challenges

GSM GMSK: 270kbps 4 0.08 Blockers, TX
EDGE 8PSK: 810kbps 4 0.236 mask, phase noise
3G+1 QPSK … 64QAM 19 0.384-21 TX leakage
1 HSPA, HSPA+, up to 21Mbps thru-put 5
 3G Full-Duplex Problem
TX Leakage
Large Blocker

RX Desired

Duplexer

TX RX
RF IC

• Duplexer is a dual-band filter 6

 Concept of MIMO

Demodulator
S1

Diversity
S2 Combiner

• Signals received on multiple antennas combined to

create a more benign composite channel
– Combined signal energy increases SNR
– Variability across frequency reduces fading
• Trading robustness for rate
7
 LTE Features
• High data rate: DL 300Mbps, UL 75Mbps
• Flexible bandwidth and modes RX1
LO1
– Over 40 bands RX2
– 1.4 -20 MHz variable bandwidth
– Flexible FDD, TDD, & FDD half duplex RX3
• High mobility up to 120 km/h LO2
RX4
• Carrier aggregation in LTE-A: 1Gbps
Contiguous Non-Contiguous
Intra-Band

Inter-Band
Band A Band B 8
 WLAN Design Challenges
• Bandwidth variability and detection
– 20MHz up to 160MHz
– OFDM .3125M
To help multi-path
f
0
• TX PAR of 12dB for 64QAM Q

• High fidelity transmitters

– -28dB EVM for 64QAM I
– IQ and in-band phase noise
• Receiver SNR and IQ imbalance
– LO (fixed) & filters (variable over frequency)
– Sensitivity: -67dBm for .11g, SNR = 25dB: NF =9dB 9
 Ideal Transceiver

ADC

ADC
SDR
fLO
DAC BB

DAC
-26dBm 0dBm
RF IF
-99dBm
fIF = fIN - fLO
• Filter only rejects out-of- • Invented by Armstrong in
band blockers 1918
• In-band blockers require • Frequency-conversion
a high-resolution ADC relaxes IF signal processing
• Power hungry • Lower power

10 Mitola, 2005
7 Armstrong, 1924 10
 LO Harmonic Mixing Issue
• In a perfectly linear RX, blockers still problematic
PB
fIF fIF
PD IIPk

fLO nfLO
(nfLO±fIF)/k

…
Hard Switching Mixer
fLO 3fLO nfLO

• Sets LNA IIPk , filter attenuation, range of acceptable IF

fIF/2
• Image: n=k=1, Only removed by filtering

(2fLO±fIF)/2
• Half-IF: n=k=2, Differential helps fLO

15 Cijvat, TCAS 2002 11

 Super-Heterodyne Receiver
Image Reject Channel-Select
Pre-Select

fLO IF

On-Chip

• Down-conversion relaxes the ADC

• High IF avoids DC offset & low frequency noise
• Needs external filters for image and other blockers

7 Armstrong, 1924 12
 Zero-IF Receiver

IQ Channel-Select
Complex

0
OFDM

1/f noise
-ω
ωLO ωLO

f
Pros Cons
• Less severe image issue • Requires quadrature LO
• Channel selection on-chip • DC Offset, 1/f noise, IIP2
• Suitable for WB: LTE, WiFi • In band IRR

1 Abidi, JSSC 1995 13
 3G RX NF Requirement
• For 12.2kbps reference measurement, SF=128, -
117dBm sensitivity, required NF = 9dB
-99dBm
SNR = 7dB
NF I^or = -106.7dBm/3.84MHz
Noise Floor = -108dBm
SF+CG=25dB (-174,3.84MHz)
DPCH_Ec = -117dBm/3.84Mz

• For a given duplexer, NF depends on:

– RX thermal noise
– RX 2nd-order nonlinearity
– TX and PA noise at RX band
14
 3G IIP2 Requirements
A(t)Cos(ω
ωt+φ
φ(t))

A(t)2
fTX fRX

0
I ≈50dB
+24dBm +28dBm
…

• TX leakage amplitude demodulated at zero IF

• In order not to affect sensitivity IIP2 > 50dBm
IIP2 = 2×(28dBm-I) – 13dB – -99dBm -10dB = +52dBm
Desensitizes by 0.5dB 15
 3G Out-of-Band IIP3 Requirements
PTX PB

(fRX-fTX)/2 …
TX Duplexer Isolation: 50dB
Duplexer Filtering: 30dB
• Stringent IIP3 due to TX leakage:

Signal = PTX + 2×PB - 2×IIP3

-99+3-5 28-50 -15-30

• IIP3 = -5.5dBm at the LNA input

• Need room for TX noise, 2nd-order nonlinearity …
16
 Low-IF Receiver
Low-IF

Polyphase
Active
fLOI
fLOQ

Digital IR

IR
0 IF∝
∝BW

Pros Cons
• IIP2, 1/f less problematic • Requires quadrature LO
• Image in-band • Higher IF, higher power
• Suitable for NB: GSM, BT • Tighter IRR
17
 GSM Noise Figure
• The standard requires -102dBm
• Receiver NF sets the sensitivity:
Band X

…
≈3dB

Sensitivity = -174 + NF + 10Log(BW) + SNR

≈ 59dB for GMSK

• Most advanced receivers target for <-109dBm

• NF of < 3dB assuming 3dB loss at front-end
18
 Choice of IF: Adjacent Blockers
n×200k n×200k-2×IF

fLO
IF
IF
• Trade-off between 1/f noise, IIP2, … vs. image rejection
-33dBm
45 400k -41dBm
IMRR, dBc

40
-73dBm
35 Tail of 400k -82dBm
30 Desired

200k

400k

600k
Mostly 200k
120
140
160
180

IF, kHz 19
 GSM In-Band Blocking Requirements
PB
∆ fB SNR
PD Noisy LO
fLO
BW
BNF = 174 + PB + PN
-23/-26dBm
• LO PN of -140dBc/Hz at 3MHz -43dBm
• BNF = 174 – 26 – 140 = 8dB
• RX NF of 6dB: Total BNF ≈ 10dB -99dBm
• 3GPP NF requirement: 13dB

1.6M
600k
Desired

3M
• Compression degrades the BNF further
– -26/-23dBm blocker can heavily compress the front-end 20
 Dual-Conversion Receiver

fLO2I Zero or
fLO2Q Low-IF
fLO1
fLO2 = fLO1/N

Sliding 1st IF = fRF / N+1

• DC offset and 1/f noise issues less severe
• No high frequency quadrature LO
• Higher power due to 2 mixers in signal path
• First LO image

13 Zargari, JSSC 2002 21
 Gain Control & Receiver SNR
• SNR determines through-put at high input powers
40
In-band
Adjacent 30
P1dB, dBm

PN, IQ

Gain, dB

SNR, dB
20 & linearity

10 Ideal Slope
0
-97

-52
-37
-112

-82
-67

-22

-112
-97
-82
-67
-52
-37
-22
Input, dBm Input, dBm

• Front-end gain reduction improves P1dB

• But degrades SNR
22
 ADC and Filtering
ADC

U/D fading

• GC keeps desired signal

-30

Signal, dBm

ADC
close to ADC full scale Blocker
-60
• Trade-off between filter
-90 Signal
& ADC
Q-Noise
• ADC DR >> receiver SNR RF PGA1 PGA2
23
 Example: 2G ADC Requirements
ADC Full Scale
6dB Margin: GC
10dB Up Fading
Blocker

41dB Blocker
87dB
Signal
(57dB below FS) 10dB Down Fading

(SNR ≈ 6dB) 20dB Noise Margin

ADC Q Noise
• -400kHz blocker dominant in low-IF 24
 Out-of-Band Blocking Issue
GSM out-of-band blocker profile:
0dBm
-12dBm
-23/6dBm

-99dBm
1930
PCS Frequency, MHz

1990
2010

2070
1830

1910

Band

 External SAW filters attenuate out-of-band blockers

 The in-band blocker as high as -23dBm
25
 Narrow-Band Filtering Concerns

Multi-Band Receiver
15-20dB
Switch

0dBm

-99dBm

6.6V p-p
• Large blockers compress the receiver
• Impose stringent far-out phase noise
• External filtering is narrow-band and costly 26
 Passive Mixers as N-Path Filters4
LO1
LO1 ZBB 0
LO2

LO3
VRF LO2
LO4
IRF LO3

Blocker
IRF
0 fLO
LO4 VRF
2 0 fLO
Z in ( s) ≈ RSW + 2
{Z BB ( s − jω LO ) + Z BB ( s + jω LO )}
π
High-Q BPF from low-Q LPF

4 L. Franks, Bell Syst. Tech. J., 1960

14 Mirzaei, TCAS 2010 27
 Current-Mode Receivers

BUF
GM

BUF

0
fRF
fRF
0

• Passive mixers to achieve high-Q filtering

• Current mode LNA: LNTA
• Enhance the blocker tolerance

21,22 Mikhemar, VLSI 2012 28
 Mixer-First Receivers
LO1 5
4

TIA_I
LO2 I

NF, dB
RS 3
VS LO3 2

TIA_Q
LO4 Q 1
0

10

20

30

40

50
 r (ON ) vbb
2  SW Resistance, Ω
• For M phases: F = 1 +

DS
RS
+
M ( 4 KTR S 
)
 × N Alia sin g


• At high frequency noise aliasing degrades NF significantly

• NF > 4dB in practice at GHz frequencies

18,19 Andrews, JSSC 2010
29
 Noise Cancelling Receivers
Noise and linearity
bottleneck BW << ∆fB
RLA
GM -
α = -GM×RLA
+ +

Low resistance VOUT

RS RLM
- -
+ rm = RLM
π2
RS = RSW + 2RBB/π

• Low noise and linear

• No Balun required

26 Murphy, ISSCC 2012
30
 Over-Sampling Mixer Architecture
TIA K0

8-Phase
TIA K1

Σ √2
…

IRF VOUT

TIA K7
1
Harmonic
Combination 1/7
͌

• Square-wave LO harmonically rich 7

x
VOUT = iRF (t )∑ K x sw(t − )
• Synthesizes arbitrary 8-phase LO: x =0 8T

17 Weldon, JSSC 2001 31
 Case Study: NC SDR Receiver
LO0
LO1
4fLO ÷4
…

LO7 GM I

Recombination
Weighting &
NF ≈ 1 + γ/GMRS
10Ω
Ω

• 1.9dB NF, 4dB BNF

50Ω
Ω

26 Murphy, ISSCC 2012 32
 Direct-Conversion Transmitters

I Q
÷2/4
fLO

Pros Cons
• Low power • Suffers from pulling
• Versatile • LOFT, IQ matching
• Highly integrated • Far-out noise
33
 Dual-Conversion Transmitters

fLO2Q fLO2I
fLO1 ÷N

Pros Cons
• No pulling • Higher power
• LOFT/IR less problematic • More complex filtering
• Sliding IF needed

13 Zargari, JSSC 2002 34
 Third Harmonic Folding

23 Mirzaei, TCAS 2011 A
fLO A/3 3fLO
f
vd (t) fLO +f1 fLO +f2 3fLO –f2 3fLO -f1 vu (t)

PA driver nonlinearity: y=a1x+a3x3

9a3A 3/4
3a3A 3/4 … a3vd 3(t)
undesired components

f
fLO +2f1-f2 fLO +2f2-f1
fLO -3f1

a3A 3/2
a3A 3/4
… 3a3vd 2(t)vu(t)
f
fLO -2f2-f1 fLO -2f1-f2

a3A 3/6 a3A 3/2 … 3a3vd (t)vu2(t)

f
fLO +2f1-f2 fLO +2f2-f1 35
 WCDMA TX General Requirements
TX Leakage

• -160dBc/Hz RX-band noise

RX Desired
results in 0.5dB NF degradation

Noise Floor = 28-50-160 = -182dBm/Hz

• ACLR1 at 5MHz: -33dBc

• ACLR2 at 10MHz: -43dBc RF IC

• EVM: 19%

36
 WCDMA TX EVM
• In linear TX, IQ imbalance, LOFT & PN dominate

Noise Floor IQ LOFT PN

10 10 10
EVM (%) = 10 + 10 + 10
+1.9M
-1.9M
fLO

Error
1

• 40dBc equal contribuƟon results in √3 = 1.7% EVM

• Baseband filter ripple adds further
• Typical RF IC EVM around 3%
37
 WCDMA TX ACLR
• Nonlinearity results in ACLR
– Depends on PAR, modulation

IM3
+1.9M 5±1.92MHz
-1.9M
0

ACLR1, dBc
• ACLR1 requirement of -33dBc at the antenna

OIP3 = 15.5dBm
– PA WC -37dBc (optimized for efficiency) +3dBm

-31dBc
– 2dB production margin
0dBm
– Leaves RFIC WC of -40dBc
38
 Folding Impact on PAD Linearity
Output 3G Signal
DAC
-20
Power, dBc

PAD
-40
w/ 3rd
DAC
-60
w/o 3rd
PAD Ideal vRF,1(ω)
-80
1 vRF,3(ω) vRF,5(ω)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 ≅ 1/3 ≅ 1/5
Frequency, MHz fLO 3fLO 5fLO f

• With third harmonic present: ACLR = -38 dBc

• With third harmonic removed: ACLR = -44 dBc
• Makes the PAD linearity requirements more stringent 39
 Case Study: Direct-Conversion 3G TX

+24 ~ -50dBm
> 70dB 10-20dB
I

…
Q PAD Units

1 GC

• Passive 25% mixer

• LOFT scales w/ RF gain
40
 GSM RX-Band Noise Requirements
+33dBm

EGSM RX

EGSM TX
-79dBm

≈
≈

915

960
880

935
20M Freq, MHz

 TX noise in RX-band -79dBm not to mask adjacent RX

 Corresponds to a 20MHz phase noise of:
PN = -79dBm – 10Log(100kHz) – 33dBm = -162dBc/Hz
 Typical PA noise ≈ -83dBm, leaving -165dBc for RF IC
 -112dBc spur, five exceptions allowed
41
 Linear TX vs. Translational Loop
fLO+fIF
Loop
Filter
fLO
PFD/CP
Modulator f
IF

• Sensitive to Pulling • No pulling issue

• 20M noise an issue • Relaxed filtering
• Simple • More complex
• Generic TX • Suitable for PM only

2 Erdogan, ISSCC 2005 42
 PLL-Based Transmitters
Reference

400kHz
PFD/CP

PLL
Modulator/
MMD ∆Σ
Pre-distortion
Lowpass
100kHz/

• Mixer/LO, analog modulator eliminated

• More sensitive to analog impairments
• Trade-off between BW and phase noise

3 Bonnaud, ISSCC 2006 43
GSM Mask & Phase Error Calculations
• -60dBc at 400kHz Power integrated in 30kHz BW
– 3dB production margin ≈ 10Log (200k/30k)
– 2dB PVT margin
PN = -65 – 10Log(30kHz) – 9 = -118.8dBc/Hz

• 5⁰ RMS phase error

– 2⁰ production margin 0.0178 Radian
– 2⁰ PVT, BW
PN -88 + 10Log(200kHz) = -35dBc = 1⁰

-88dBc
100kHz

Frequency
44
 Basics of Polar Transmitters
A(t)Sin(ω
ω0t+φ
φ(t)) Sin(ω
ω0t+φ
φ(t))
I + jQ = rejθθ
A(t)

Reference
PFD/CP
EDGE Constellation
PM
MMD ∆Σ

Modulator
AM
∆Σ

• Lower power consumption

• Compatible with GMSK TX
• Very sensitive to nonlinearities
45
 EDGE AM & PM Signals Spectrum

8PSK Ideal
PM 20nS
-20
Amplitude, dB

AM 40nS
80nS
-40 160nS

-60

-80
-800

-400

400

800

-800

-400

400

800
0

0
Frequency, kHz Frequency, kHz

• AM & PM stand-alone signals much wider

46
 PM Path Concerns
VCTRL Swing, mV

40 Only function of K Sin(ω

ω0t+φ
φ(t))
VCO
20 REF
PFD/CP
0
-20 φ/KVCO
PM
-40 MMD ∆Σ
200 300 400
Time, µS
• Phase noise
• VCO & CP nonlinearity due to large swing, wide BW
• PLL BW needs to be accurately controlled
̶ BW ∝ KVCO × R × ICP : Measure KVCO and adjust ICP

5,9 Darabi, JSSC 2011 47
 AM Path Concerns
-50
±400kHz Mod, dBc

AM-PM
PA or PAD
-55 Uncorrected

-60

AM

400kHz
-65

20dB/
Corrected
-70

PFT
-30
-15
0
15
30
45
AM-PM Relative Delay, nS 200kHz/

Mask Limiting Factors:

Static: AM-AM
• AM-AM/PM distortion in PAD Dynamic: AM-PM
• Phase feed-through
48
 2-Point PLL Based Polar Transmitters
3G AM & PM Signals HP

× 1/KVCO
0 + REF
Magnitude, dBc

PFD/CP
PM
-40
AM LP
-80 MMD ∆Σ

Modulator
3G PM
AM
10 20 30 40 50 ∆Σ
Frequency, MHz

• HP path to give a flat response

KVCO
• Accurate KVCO needed
• Accurate AM-PM matching needed
49
 Impact of VCO Nonlinearity on 3G Signal
• KVCO = dω ω03×L× (dCVAR/dV)
ω/dV = 0.5×ω
PVT Dependent
• LC and CVAR not modeled accurately
PLL BW: 250kHz
1.5 -40

ACLR, dBc
ACLR1
EVM, %

1.0 -50
0.5 -60 ACLR2
-0.8

-0.4

0.4

0.8

1 2 3 4 5
VCO Gain Error, % VCO Nonlinearity, %

• KVCO accuracy/linearity of better than 2% needed 50

 Case Study: 3G Polar TX
∆T
10b 20M Matched
AM Path
Modulator

AM
HP Path
REF LB
PFD/CP + ÷2 ÷2
PM
PLL (250kHz) F/V ÷4 OUT
HB
MMD ÷2

∆Σ
Linear VCO

• < -40dBc ACLR, < 3% EVM

6 Youssef, JSSC 2011 51
 Summary & Conclusions
• Standards set design parameters, radio architecture
• On receiver side:
Architecture 1/f, IIP2 IMR Linearity Limitations
Zero-IF Poor Self Modest WB
Low-IF Modest In-band Modest NB
• CM receivers improve linearity, relax filtering
• On transmitter side:
Architecture Power Noise Pulling Limitations
Direct Modest Poor Poor Generic
PLL Lowest Good None Only PM, NB
Polar Lowest Good Good Complex, NB
52
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53