TQMthesis

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/299272512
An investigation of the importance of Total Quality Management in

construction ﬁeld projects: Quality control.
Thesis · September 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2261.1609
CITATIONS READS
0 4,937
1 author:
Mohammad Yacoub Nasereddin

Loughborough University
1 PUBLICATION 0 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
MSC desertion View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammad Yacoub Nasereddin on 21 March 2016.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

An investigation into the
importance of Total
Quality Management in
construction field
projects: Quality Control.
Abstract
The primary idea behind the concept of TQM remains the notion that maintaining and continuously
improving the quality of products and processes. It aims broadly at maintaining and improving
quality standards so as to achieve project success and eventually customer satisfaction. At the same
time, the managerial approach seeks to create a culture of trust, participation, quality-mindedness,
zeal for continuous improvement and ultimately continuous learning. Practical evidence suggests
that business organizations seek TQM to gain competitive edge and articulate improvement
programs, primarily through conformance to specifications and by defining quality in terms of value
for price paid.
Particularly in the construction industry, TQM has evolved as a holistic approach to raise quality as
well as productivity standards. The core objectives of a coherent TQM program in construction
project include process improvements, defect prevention, measuring system capacity, enhanced
customer satisfaction, design and structural improvements and delivering high quality construction
projects.
This research is aimed at studying the importance of TQM in the construction field projects,
identifying the primary triggers that encourage construction companies to implement TQM
techniques in their work processes, and analysing the critical success factors in delivering high
quality projects. In lines with the business context and purpose of research presented above, the
title of the study at hand is formulated as under:
An investigation into the importance of Total Quality Management in construction field projects:
Quality Control.
In lieu of the research title presented above, the following remain the primary research objectives:
1. To investigate the importance of TQM in delivering successful construction projects.

2. To identify the advantages of implementing TQM systems in construction projects
3. To explore various quality systems and identify the best quality system to be used in
construction projects.
4. To analyze the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction projects.
1|Page
List of Tables and Figures
Table 1: Dimensions of Quality ............................................................................................................. 16
Table 2: Characteristics of Different Stages of TQM............................................................................. 31
Figure 1: Manufacturing v/s Construction Organizations ....................................................................... 7

Figure 2: CQI Framework Model ........................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3: Using CQI to Move from Current State to Future State......................................................... 23
Figure 4: Stages of TQM ........................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 5: Oaklan'd Model of TQM......................................................................................................... 40
Figure 6: Benefits of Implementing TQM in the Construction Industry ............................................... 47
Figure 7: Barriers to Extensive Implementation of TQM in the Construction Industry ........................ 48
2|Page
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Research Background and Business Context ................................................................................ 9
1.3 Purpose of Research ................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Research Title .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Research Objectives .................................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Research Outcomes ............................................................................................................. 11
1.6 Research Question(s) .................................................................................................................. 11
1.7 Key Terms.................................................................................................................................... 11
1.7.1 Quality .................................................................................................................................. 11
1.7.2 Total Quality Management .................................................................................................. 12
1.7.3 Six Sigma .............................................................................................................................. 12
1.7.4 Zero Defects ......................................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Structure of the Report ............................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 15
2.1 Quality ......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.1 Dimensions of Quality .......................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Quality Systems ........................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.1 Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) .............................................................................. 21
2.2.2 Six Sigma .............................................................................................................................. 23
2.2.3 Zero Defects ......................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.5 Total Quality Management .................................................................................................. 26
2.3 Total Quality Management ......................................................................................................... 27
2.3.1 Evolution of TQM ................................................................................................................. 28
2.3.2 Components of TQM ............................................................................................................ 32
2.3.3 American Quality Gurus Compared ..................................................................................... 37
2.3.4 Oakland’s Model of TQM ..................................................................................................... 40
2.4 Practical and Empirical Evidence regarding importance of TQM ............................................... 41
2.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control in Construction ............................................................. 44
2.5.1 Quality Control in Construction v/s Manufacturing............................................................. 45
2.5.2 Benefits of TQM to Construction Companies ...................................................................... 46
3|Page
2.5.3 Inhibitors to Implementation of TQM in Construction ........................................................ 47
Chapter 3: Research Methodology ....................................................................................................... 49
3.1 Research Paradigm (Interpretivst v/s Positivist) ......................................................................... 49
3.2 Research Approach (Inductive v/s Deductive) ............................................................................ 50
3.3 Nature of Research (Qualitative v/s Quantitative) ..................................................................... 51
3.4 Research Design (Primary v/s Secondary) .................................................................................. 53
3.4.1 Primary Research ................................................................................................................. 53
3.4.2 Secondary Research ............................................................................................................. 54
3.4.3 Justification .......................................................................................................................... 55
3.4.5 Methodology Triangle .......................................................................................................... 55
3.5 Structural Limitations.................................................................................................................. 55
3.6 Research Ethics ........................................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4: Findings, Analysis & Discussion ........................................................................................... 58
4.1 RQ 1: How and why is TQM important in modern day construction industry? ......................... 58
4.1.1 Focus on Improved Quality .................................................................................................. 60
4.1.2 Identification of Defects and Continuous Improvement ..................................................... 61
4.2 RQ 2: What are the benefits of implementing TQM systems in construction projects? ............ 62
4.2.1 Continuous Improvement .................................................................................................... 62
4.2.2 Improved Productivity ......................................................................................................... 63
4.2.3 High Customer Satisfaction .................................................................................................. 64
4.2.4 Reduced Costs ...................................................................................................................... 65
4.3 RQ 3: What is the best quality system for construction projects? ............................................. 65
4.3.1 ISO 9000-9001 ...................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.2 Total Quality Management (TQM) ....................................................................................... 68
4.4 RQ 4: What are the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction projects? ... 69
4.4.1 Continuous Learning ............................................................................................................ 69
4.4.2 Education and Training ........................................................................................................ 70
4.4.3 Employee Empowerment and Involvement ........................................................................ 71
4.4.4 Customer Satisfaction .......................................................................................................... 72
4.4.5 Supplier Quality Management ............................................................................................. 73
4.4.6 Design Quality Management ............................................................................................... 74
4.4.7 Process Management .......................................................................................................... 74
4.4.8 Statistical Process Control.................................................................................................... 75
4.4.9 Quality Culture ..................................................................................................................... 76
4|Page
Chapter 5: Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 77
5.1 Research Objective 1................................................................................................................... 77
5.5 Contribution ................................................................................................................................ 81
Chapter 6: Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 83
6.1 Partnerships and Collaborations ................................................................................................. 83
6.2 Standardization ........................................................................................................................... 84
6.3 Competitive Bidding and Pre-Qualification ................................................................................ 84
6.4 Quality Culture – Clan Culture .................................................................................................... 85
6.5 Corporate Social Responsibility .................................................................................................. 85
6.6 Areas of Future Research ............................................................................................................ 86
Chapter 7: Project and Risk Management ............................................................................................ 88
7.1 Project Risks ................................................................................................................................ 88
7.2 Important Milestones ................................................................................................................... 0
References .............................................................................................................................................. 0
5|Page
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Overview
Quality, in general, can be defined as achieving the aesthetics, functional and legal requirements of a
given project (Dale, 2011). The definition varies according to the role of the people defining the
term; that is, the definition of quality may be entirely different for a manufacturer as compared to
that of an engineer. Hence, there is no single universal definition for quality; while some relate it to
‘performance to standards’, others attribute it to ‘meeting customer expectations’ and ‘satisfying
customer requirements’.
Given the non-availability of a standardized definition for quality, there are certain characteristics
that are taken as generic to the concept (Omachonu & Ross, 2004). Conformance to standards is
one, which essentially measures how well the product or service meets the targets as well as the
tolerances for defects. Similarly, fitness for use is another characteristic of quality which
fundamentally focuses on how well the product or service suits to requirements of the customers
and how well it performs to satisfy the intended functions of use. Value for price paid also
constitutes an important component of the definition of quality, combining both the economics and
consumer criteria. The underlying assumption hereby remains that quality per se is price sensitive.
Finally, support services also comprise a significant characteristic of the concept of quality, defining
it in terms of how well the quality of product or service is judged since quality not only applies to the
product or service but to the people, processes and the entire organizational environment
(Omachonu & Ross, 2004).
The definition of quality, therefore, varies across the industries in which the concept is applied. The
dimensions deemed necessary for high quality in manufacturing organizations differ considerably
from those applicable to service organizations, as is evident from the figure below:
6|Page
Figure 1: Manufacturing v/s Construction Organizations
(Total Quality Management, n.d., pp 139)
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management philosophy that views quality to be a result
integrating all organizational activities such as engineering, manufacturing, marketing and
administration work (Aized, 2012). It aims broadly at maintaining and improving quality standards so
as to achieve project success and eventually customer satisfaction. At the same time, the managerial
approach seeks to create a culture of trust, participation, quality-mindedness, zeal for continuous
improvement and ultimately continuous learning (Dale, 2011). The primary idea behind the concept
of TQM remains the notion that maintaining and continuously improving the quality of products and
processes. According to Aized (2012, pp 2), “TQM involves management, workforce, suppliers, and
even customers, in order to meet or exceed customer expectations.” TQM processes, therefore,
involve cross-functional product design, process management, customer involvement, supplier
quality management, commitment to leadership, strategic planning, and continuous employee
involvement (Aized, 2012).
A related concept to that of TQM is Six Sigma. Six Sigma is essentially a business management
strategy that seeks to continuously enhance the quality levels of the outputs as well as the
processes, primarily by identifying and then removing the root causes of defects Charantimath,
2003). At the same time, the management philosophy rests of the premise of minimizing variability
in production and other business processes (Charantimath, 2003). According to Knowles, (2011), Six
Sigma is a process aiming at 99.99966% defect free products. Aized (2012, pp 2) adds, “TQM’s focus
is general improvement by approaching the problem collaboratively and culturally whereas Six Sigma
utilizes the efforts of many departments, generally with a statistical approach. It makes use of
7|Page
measuring and analysing data to determine how defects and differences could be minimized to the
level where there are 3.4 defects per million cycles/products.”
Literary as well as practical evidence suggests that business organizations seek TQM to gain
competitive edge and articulate improvement programs, primarily through conformance to
specifications and by defining quality in terms of value for price paid (Charantimath, 2003). The core
objectives of a coherent TQM program include process improvements, defect prevention,
development of cause-and-effect relationships, measuring system capacity, development of trivial
significant needs, and observation of behaviour changes over a specified period of time (Omachonu
& Ross, 2004). Hence, the fundamental themes around which the concept revolves remain to
achieve reduction in quality costs, better employee satisfaction, improved customer-supplier
relationships, enhanced productivity lead time, and process improvements (Motwani, 2001).
Particularly in the construction industry, TQM has evolved as a holistic approach to raise quality as
well as productivity standards. According to Asim, Zaman & Zarif (2013, pp 25),”…in construction
industry, quality can be defined as meeting the requirements of the designer, constructor and
regulatory agencies as well as the owner.” These requirements include a wide scope of activities
including use of adequate and approved building materials, public health and safety, environmental
considerations, protection of public property, and conformity with applicable laws and regulations
pertaining to design, structure, etc. (Asim, Zaman & Zarif, 2013). Hence, it can be projected that the
concept of quality control in construction industry essentially comprises of different characteristics
as compared to those of the manufacturing industry. This is particularly because each construction
site and each construction project is unique, displays different conditions, and has a different life-
cycle, which makes it inherently difficult to assess the construction quality with a uniform standard
(Abu Bakar, Ali and Onyeizu, 2011). Moreover, since there are multiple parties involved in a typical
construction project (such as owner, designer, contractor, sub-contractor, supplier, and so forth), it
becomes all the more tedious to establish standardized quality control procedures. As concluded by
Asim, Zaman and Zarif (2013, pp 25), “These unique features of construction industry lead to the
conclusion that failure in the matters of quality can result from malfunction on the part of
constructor, designer, or even owner.”
8|Page
“The construction industry suffers from several problems such as low productivity, poor health and
safety, inferior working conditions, and inadequate quality. TQM can be a solution to these
problems.” (Polat, Damci and Tatar, 2011, pp 1120)
This research is aimed at studying the importance of TQM in the construction field projects,
identifying the primary triggers that encourage construction companies to implement TQM
techniques in their work processes, and analysing the critical success factors in delivering high
quality projects.
1.2 Research Background and Business Context

“Construction is a one-of-a-kind production its products are highly complex; its supply chain is
extremely fragmented; its processes are somewhat different. As such many construction companies
have difficulty in maintaining the expected satisfaction required by its customers. Total Quality
Management has proved to be a useful tool in ensuring the achievement of set standards and
successful productivity improvements in the construction industry” (Abu Bakar, Ali and Onyeizu,
2011, pp 285).
Quality management in the construction industry has long been a problem across the globe.
Reflected in the aftermath of various natural calamities as well as man-made disasters, the
significance of having highest standards of quality for construction projects has increased manifold.
While in the developing countries quality assurance in the construction industry has become the
norm and practice for quite some time, there is still a lot of room for further implementation and
improvement of TQM practices in the building and construction industry in general (Abu Bakar, Ali
and Onyeizu, 2011).
As discussed by Asim, Zaman and Zarif (2013), quality assurance and quality control in the
construction projects typically relies on the implementation of generic TQM practices including ISO
9000 and 14000 standards. However, there is serious need for more rigorous and construction
specific standards of quality control to be implemented in the construction industry in other to
enhance the quality of buildings further. It remains of prime significance to consider the great deal
9|Page
of time, money and resources, both human and material, which are wasted every year owing to
inefficient quality management procedures (Lakhe & Mohanty, 1994).
Taking UK as the case at hand, this research will study the state of quality assurance and control in
the country’s construction industry in general, identify loopholes, and suggest the best strategies (as
well as critical success factors) for further improvements. While benefiting the UK industry at large,
the research will also provide guidelines and improvement suggestions for countries, particularly
those still in the developing phase. It will identify the best quality system that suits the
characteristics of the construction industry as well as provide a benchmark for maximizing the
efficiency of quality management procedures art large.
1.3 Purpose of Research

According to Melsa (2009, pp 1), “Companies that have adopted quality management practices have
experiences an overall improvement in corporate performance including better employee relations,
higher productivity, greater customer satisfaction, increased market share, and improved
profitability.” Moreover, the author suggests that quality is positively and significantly related to
better return on investment, whereby superior quality products and services achieve up to three
times higher ROI as compared to those with inferior relative quality.
Given the empirical evidence supporting the positive results of implementing TQM practices, the
purpose of this study is to delve deeper into the significance of TQM in construction industry. The
primary aim of the study remains to identify the triggers and inhibitors for construction companies
while implementing TQM techniques in their operational processes, and to explore the critical
success factors that contribute to high quality projects in the construction industry.
1.4 Research Title

In lines with the business context and purpose of research presented above, the title of the study at
hand is formulated as under:
An investigation into the importance of Total Quality Management in construction field projects:
Quality Assurance.
10 | P a g e
1.5 Research Objectives
In lieu of the research title presented above, the following remain the primary research objectives:
5. To investigate the importance of TQM in delivering successful construction projects.

6. To identify the advantages of implementing TQM systems in construction projects
7. To explore various quality systems and identify the best quality system to be used in
8. To analyze the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction projects.
1.5.1 Research Outcomes

The intended research outcomes are outlined as below:
• Theoretical Framework behind TQM

• Practical and empirical evidence regarding importance of TQM
• Detailed analysis of various quality systems
• Critical analysis of best quality system for construction projects
• Benefits of implementing TQM in construction projects
• Critical success factors for high quality construction projects
• A list of valid recommendations regarding further incorporation of TQM in the UK
construction industry
1.6 Research Question(s)

The following remain the primary research questions guiding the research:
1. How and why is TQM important in modern day construction industry?

2. What are the benefits of implementing TQM systems in construction projects?
3. What is the best quality system for construction projects?
4. What are the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction projects?
1.7 Key Terms
1.7.1 Quality
• Quality is conformance to requirements.
11 | P a g e
• Quality is fitness for use.
• Good quality means a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability with a quality
standard suited to the customer.
• Quality is the degree to which performance meets expectations.
• Quality denotes an excellence in goods and services, especially to the degree they conform to
requirements and satisfy customers.
(Chandrupatla, n.d., pp 2)
1.7.2 Total Quality Management

“TQM is defined as both a philosophy and a set of guiding principles that represent the foundation of
a continuously improving organization. It is the application of quantitative methods and human
resources to improve all the processes within an organization and exceed customer needs now and in
the future.” (Dale, 2011, pp 1)
1.7.3 Six Sigma

“Six Sigma has 3 distinct elements to its definition:
• A Measure: A statistical definition of how far a process deviates from perfection

• A Target: 3.4 defects per million opportunities
• A Philosophy: A long term business strategy focused on the reduction of cost through the
reduction of variability in products and processes.”
It is a “comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining and maximizing business success.
Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data,
and statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business
processes.”
(Knowles, 2011, pp 13)
12 | P a g e
1.7.4 Zero Defects
“Zero defect is performance standard. It means that no defect should be allowed to occur in the
production/service, that even 99.9 per cent quality confidence level norm is not acceptable.”
(Charantimath, 2003, pp 119)
1.8 Structure of the Report

The structure of the report is outlined as below:
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter presents a synopsis of the study by providing an overview of the subject at hand. While
offering the research background and business context for the study, this chapter also outlines the
primary purpose of the research and the underlying objectives and research questions that guide the
research.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter presents a critical analysis of studies conducted by other authors on the subject of TQM
and quality control. It also offers a detailed theoretical and conceptual framework to facilitate better
understanding of the reader as well as to develop a thorough understanding of the subject matter to
guide the primary research for the study.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter describes the research design in detail. It discusses the nature of research, the research
approach, and the various data collection tools and techniques used to conduct primary research. At
the same time, the chapter also highlights the limitations and ethical considerations of the research.
Chapter 4: Findings & Analysis
This chapter presents the detailed findings of the primary research. It also offers detailed discussion
on the research objectives and seeks to solve each of the research questions presented in the first
chapter.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
13 | P a g e
This chapter concludes the research and summarizes the findings of the research, answering each
research question individually.
Chapter 6: Recommendations
This chapter presents a set of valid recommendations for the UK construction industry in terms of
offering higher quality construction projects through the implementation of TQM and quality control
approaches.
Chapter 7: Project and Risk Management
This chapter will elaborate upon all the risks involved in the project and how they were overcome
over the course of the research. It will also present the important milestones relevant to the
dissertation research, in the form of a gantt chart.
14 | P a g e
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Quality
Quality, more generally, is expressed as a notion referring to the excellence of a product or a service
in terms of fulfilling or exceeding the expectations of the consumers (Bagad, 2008). These
expectations are essentially based on the intended use of the product or service and the selling
price. When a given product or a service surpasses the expectations, it is termed as good quality.
Hence, the concept is fundamentally intangible and based on perception.
Xiang (2007) expresses quality as an equation:
Q = P/E
Where Q = Quality
P = Price
E = Expectations
“If Q is greater than 1.0, then the customer has a good feeling about the product and service. Of
course, the determination of P and E will most likely be based on perception with the organization
determining performance and the customer determining expectations” (Xiang, 2007, pp 11).
ISO 9000 (2000) offers a more definitive definition of the term quality. It defines quality as ‘the
degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements’. The definition can be broken
down into sub-elements to facilitate better understanding of the concept. According to this
definition the concept of ‘degree’ essentially means that quality can be assigned various adjectives
such as poor, good or excellent. Similarly, ‘inherent’ is defined as already existing within something,
particularly as a permanent characteristic. ‘Characteristics’ may be qualitative or quantitative in
nature. Finally, ‘requirement’ refers to the need or the expectations established of the product or
service.
Lakhe & Mohanty (1994) further assert that the establishment of quality essentially begins with
market research which helps in setting up the requirements for the product or service as well as
15 | P a g e
identifying the needs of the consumers. However, it can be argued thereby that for a given
organization to be practically effective, quality must necessarily span all functions, all departments
and all processes to be identified as a common language for improvement. Hence, it is necessary
that cooperation amongst all people and processes is encouraged at every interface to achieve a
total quality organization.
2.1.1 Dimensions of Quality

According to Garvin (1987), there are nine dimensions of quality which are then translated into the
requirements for the new product development as well as for the improvement of existing products:
Table 1: Dimensions of Quality
Dimension Meaning and Example
Performance Primary product characteristics, such as brightness of the picture
Features Secondary product characteristics and added features, such as remote control
Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards, workmanship
Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail
Durability Useful life, includes repair
Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair
Aesthetics Sensory characteristics, such as exterior finish
Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first
(Source: Xiang, 2007, pp 12)
Performance
16 | P a g e
This dimension essentially relates to the question “Does the product or service meet the required
performance levels; does it do what it is supposed to do?” Performance is generally considered a
source of contention between the suppliers and the customers, particularly when the deliverables
are not precisely and sufficiently defined within the specifications (Pereira, 2008). According to
Garvin (1987), “Because this dimension of quality involves measurable attributes, brands can usually
be ranked objectively on individual aspects of performance.”
Features
This dimension is more relevant to the features that serve the required or intended purpose of the
product or service. Garvin (1987) establishes, “Features are the “bells and whistles” of products and
services, those characteristics that supplement their basic functioning.” Hence, it remains imperative
for the suppliers designing the product that they specify the performance features and clearly define
the intended uses of the product or service (Pereira, 2008). Moreover, to many customers superior
quality is not a strong reflection of the availability of certain features than the total number of
options available (Lakhe & Mohanty, 1994).
Conformance
According to Garvin (1987), “A related dimension of quality is conformance, or the degree to which a
product’s design and operating characteristics meet established standards.” “Does the product or
service conform to the specifications?” is the key question within this dimension. Given a product or
a service is developed based upon the performance specifications previously defined, it is deemed to
conform to the standards (Pereira, 2008).
Reliability
Reliability is quite closely associated with performance and remains a major contributor to the brand
image and corporate repute. The fundamental question here remains “Will the product consistently
perform within specifications?” (Pereira, 2008). According to Garvin (1987), “This dimension reflects
the probability of a product malfunctioning or failing within a specified time period. Among the most
common measures of reliability are the mean time to first failure, the mean time between failures,
17 | P a g e
and the failure rate per unit time.” Moreover, consumers tend to seek reliability more as the
downtime and maintenance become more expensive.
Durability
According to Garvin (1987), durability measures the product life, and in turn has both economic and
technical dimensions to it. Technically speaking, durability is defined in terms of the amount of use
one gets from a given product before it deteriorates. From an economic perspective, consumers
tend to weigh the expected cost and future repairs against the investment, both in dollars and
personal inconvenience (Garvin, 1987). This dimension, therefore, addresses the key concern as to
how long will the product or service perform or last. Hence, it is closely related to the concept of
warranty. More importantly, the requirements for product durability are more than often included
within the procurement contracts with the suppliers (Pereira, 2008).
According to Garvin (1987), “This approach to durability has two important implications. First, it
suggests that durability and reliability are closely linked…Second, this approach implies that
durability figures should be interpreted with care. An increase in product life may not be the result of
technical improvements or the use of longer-lived materials. Rather, the underlying economic
environment simply may have changed.”
Service
This dimension focuses on the end user and relates to the ease of maintenance and repair of the
product. Garvin (1987) asserts, “Consumers are concerned not only about a product breaking down
but also about the time before service is restored, the timeliness with which service appointments are
kept, the nature of dealings with service personnel, and the frequency with which service calls or
repairs fail to correct outstanding problems.”
Aesthetics
Referring to the final look of the product, this dimension relates to the aesthetic properties of the
product and how they contribute to the company’s overall brand identity and brand image.
18 | P a g e
According to Garvin (1987), “Aesthetics—how a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes, or smells—is
clearly a matter of personal judgment and a reflection of individual preference.” Moreover, Pereira
(2008) also concludes, “Faults or defects in a product that diminish its aesthetic properties, even
those that do not reduce or alter other dimensions of quality, are often cause for rejection.”
Reputation
Reputation more precisely refers to the perception of the product or service. Garvin (1987) precisely
sums up the relationship between reputation and perception of quality by stating, “Reputation is the
primary stuff of perceived quality. Its power comes from an unstated analogy: that the quality of
products today is similar to the quality of products yesterday, or the quality of goods in a new
product line is similar to the quality of a company’s established products.” Hence, the underlying
assumption hereby remains that perception is reality. Hence, “A high quality product may get the
reputation for being low quality based on poor service by installation or field technicians. If the
product is not installed or maintained properly, and fails as a result, the failure is often associated
with the product’s quality rather than the quality of the service it receives” (Pereira, 2008).
2.2 Quality Systems

According to Bennett (n.d.) a quality system is a system that an organization uses to manage the
quality of the business’s services or products. The author states that quality management systems
are only one kind of management systems, other examples of quality management systems are
financial management systems, safety manage systems and environmental management systems.
Bennett (n.d.) quotes the official definition of a quality system as per the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) as being the “management system used to direct and control and
organization with regard to quality.” However, she states that this definition is ambiguous as many
others provided by the ISO.
Bennett (n.d.) asserts that the quality systems can be thought of as the system that a company uses
to “plan, create, develop, make and/or deliver your services or products.”
19 | P a g e
The author further asserts that for a service based business it is the system that is used to provide
those services. She goes on to assert that if a business sells or distributes products, made by other
businesses or persons then it can be defined as the system that is used to get, store, sale and deliver
and/or install those products.
A quality management system is made up of many different elements, the ISO 9001 categorizes
them into four different categories (Bennett, n.d.). These categories are as follows (Bennett, n.d.):
• Management - planning, goals & objectives, including the reviewing progress
• Resources - people, tools, equipment etc.
• Services or Products 'realization' – processes that are involved in making or distributing

them
• Monitor, Measurement & Checking –which is the all-important feedback loop.
The scope of quality management as stated by Bennett (n.d.) goes beyond the processes involved in
only making the service or product, it includes the following:
• Managing the organization through planning, setting goals and reviewing the development
and results.
• It involves making sure that the human resources available are competent and are capable
of doing their work and the appropriate resources are available such as plant, equipment, IT,
tools etc.
• The results need to be checked and analyzed in order to ascertain what happened and why.
• It includes identifying failure or other problems systematically and to fix them.
• And most importantly it includes improvement.
Bennett (n.d.) states that these elements of a quality system all work together to achieve two main
objectives:
20 | P a g e
• To produce goods and services that are of consistent quality and meet all the necessary
requirement.
• To increase customer satisfaction.
2.2.1 Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI)

According to Wiggins and Mathias (2013) continuous quality improvement (CQI) is a process which
ensures that a program is “systematically and intentionally improving services and increasing
positive outcomes.” The authors state that CQI is a recurring and data-driven process which is
proactive instead of reactive. Hence a continuous quality improvement environment will be one in
which data is collected and then used so as to make positive changes, even when things are already
going in a positive direction, rather than only when something goes wrong and needs to be fixed
(Wiggins & Mathias, 2013).
“Besides creating this inquisitive CQI culture in an organization, the key to any CQI initiative is using a
structured planning approach to evaluate the current practice processes and improve systems and
processes to achieve the desired outcome and vision for the desired future state” (National Learning
Consortium, 2013, pp 1).
CQI is a continuous process which involves the plan, do, study, and act cycle. Continuous Quality
Improvement is dependent on the internal owning of a process by the team working in that
particular program, which means that it is some steps ahead of just meeting external regulations and
standards (Wiggin and Mathias, 2013). The lever for change is thereby internally handled and is
under the control of the internal participants themselves, creating an environment where there is
excitement with respect to learning and growing in the organization (Wiggins & Mathias, 2013).
The authors maintain that for the process to achieve a level of continuous learning which is able to
respond to the research and innovation required, it is important that there be a support
infrastructure, which provides resources, supportive policies and practices and so forth.
National Learning Consortium (2013) presented a framework model for the implementation of CQI:
21 | P a g e
Figure 2: CQI Framework Model
According to this model, there are three essential component of the CQI initiative: structure, process
and outcomes. Structure includes all the assets possessed by the company such as human, physical,
technological and financial. Process includes the activities, the workflows, and all the tasks carried
out to achieve the desired outcome. Output refers to the immediate predecessor to the change
and is tied to the business or efficiency goals. Outcome then is the end result of the entire work
flow. Finally, Feedback Loop between the output/outcome and the CQI initiative essentially
represents the cyclical and iterative nature of the CQI initiative itself.
Lambert, Carr and Hubbard (2006) define the CQI process as one that uses a team based approach in
order to achieve operational changes. They maintain that these changes occur by following
sequential steps that are focused on the changing procedures, empowering the employee, putting
the customers first and accomplishing long-term organizational commitment (Lambert, Carr and
Hubbard, 2006).
According to National Learning Consortium (2013), moving from current state to the future state by
means of implementing CQI essentially begins with a clear vision of the transformed environment
and identification of the necessary required changes to attain that vision. It then moves into
generating the input from engaged team members who understand the needs for the practice of
CQI. In short, the entire process requires and involves transformation of the people, the processes
22 | P a g e
and the technology. The following figure illustrates the process of using CQI to move from current
state to future state:
Figure 3: Using CQI to Move from Current State to Future State
2.2.2 Six Sigma

In this time and era the way customers conduct business has changed due to globalization and the
readily available information that they have access to, making old business models obsolete. Hence
the competitive environment existing today, there is no room for error and this is the reason why
the concept of Six Sigma has become a part of many a company’s culture.
According to G.E. (n.d.) Six Sigma is a highly disciplined process which helps a company focus on
developing and then delivering products and services that are almost perfect. The word Sigma
denotes a statistical term and refers to the measurement of how far a particular process diverges
from being perfect (G.E., n.d.). The main concept behind Six Sigma is that if a business is able to
measure how many defects there are in a given process, they can be systematically eliminated to
reach the level of zero defects (G.E., n.d.).
23 | P a g e
According to Raisinghani et al. (2005) the immediate foal of Six Sigma is to decrease the defects and
the reduction of these defects will then lead to yield improvement. Raisinghani et al. (2005) further
discuss that higher yields tend to increase the level of customer satisfaction hence achieving the
ultimate goal of any given organization, that of increasing their net income. The authors also
maintain that Six Sigma is the poster child for driving the costs down whilst improving the bottom
line of the organization implementing it.
Cutcher-Gershenfeld (2004) states that the goal of an organization moving towards adopting Six
Sigma is the reduction in production and developmental costs, while reducing cycle time as well as
inventory level. When a business is producing goods and services at the Six Sigma level, it will
eliminate defects, increase its profit margins and improve customer satisfaction (Cutcher-
Gershenfeld, 2004). The Six Sigma approach moves industries to design and produce products and
services using a data driven structured approach to attack defects and improve the sigma level of
goods and services (Cutcher-Gershenfeld, 2004).
As identified by National Learning Consortium (2013), Six Sigma being primarily associated with
statistical modelling of processes, essentially rests on the following five principles:
Define
The first step involves defining the process and outcome to be improves, their key characteristics
and features, and then mapping the relevant inputs into the process that will eventually lead to the
desired outputs and outcomes. This step essentially defines the boundary of the CQI initiative
(National Learning Consortium, 2013).
Measure
“Once the process and outcome to be improved are defined, the CQI initiative must track
performance through data collection” (National Learning Consortium, 2013, pp 10). These
performance measures can be captured using various techniques such as surveys and structured
observations.
24 | P a g e
Analyse
Once the measures are defined and put into place, data can then be collected and analysed to
determine how practice is measuring against the standards set. A CQI initiative essentially reviews
the data as a part of a regular review process, primarily with the intention to identify the reasons
behind the problems. According to National Learning Consortium (2013, pp 9), “Ideally, baseline
data would be collected prior to putting new processes into place and at regular intervals.”
Improve
The results of the analysis merit improvements. For instance, if quality measures do not depict
improvement after a particular change is implemented, the CQI initiative must essentially examine
the entire implementation process and seek loopholes to amplify improvements (National Learning
Consortium (2013).
Control
The final phase of the CQI initiative, control, involves continuous and ongoing monitoring as well as
improvement (National Learning Consortium (2013).
2.2.3 Zero Defects

According to Suganthi and Samuel (2004), the zero defects concept rests on the premise of ensuring
that there is no existing waste in a given project. Waste here may be in the form of all unproductive
tools, employees and processes, etc. Hence, anything unproductive throughout the manufacturing
process is not perceived to add value to the project and should, therefore, be eliminated. By
reducing wastes the company essentially cuts down on costs and thereby fosters improvements in
quality.
The zero defects concept proposed by Crosby essentially comprises four main points (Chary, 2009):
• Quality is conformance to requirements –the state of assurance to requirements.
25 | P a g e
• The management system is prevention -
• The performance standard is zero defects – just being good in enough; it has to be perfect.
• The measurement system is the cost of quality
The core concept of the zero defects principle is the premise that ‘the whole is the sum of its parts’.
This tends to reiterate that a small defect at any one stage of the production process carries the
tendency to affect the whole operation and thereby the final finished product. Hence, according to
the principle of zero defects, by doing it right the first time, a company can facilitate from running
smoother and without needing to stop and spend on fixing small errors (Suganthi and Samuel, 2004).
While critics argue that it is not practically possible to achieve zero defects, the proponents contend
that zero defects in quality management is not to be inferred in literary terms (Chary, 2009). Instead,
“it refers to a state where waste is eliminated and defects are reduced. It means ensuring quality
standards and reducing defects to the level of zero in projects” (Chandana, n.d.). It is essentially the
quest for perfection to be able to ultimately improve quality. And although perfection may be not
achievable, at least the quest will pave the path towards quality improvements.
2.2.5 Total Quality Management

“TQM is regarded as an integration of various processes characterizing the behavioural dynamics of
an organization. For this, an organization is referred to as a total system (socio-technical), where all
the activities carried out are geared towards meeting the requirements of customers with efficiency
and effectiveness.” (Lakhe & Mohanty, 1994, pp 10)
TQM is essentially a Japanese style management philosophy that focuses on continuous

improvement and embraces virtually all activities through which the consumer needs and
community expectations as well as organizational objectives are satisfied in the most cost effective
and efficient fashion (Bagad, 2008). The underlying premise remains to maximize the potential of all
employees and continue to drive improvement across all organizational functions (ISO, 2012). It is
fundamentally a business level strategy which tends to exploit competitive advantage (ISO, 2012).
According to Xiang (2007, pp 13), “Competitive advantage is the outcome of a strategy that
generates increased value for a firm, relative to its competition, and sustainability is present if the
26 | P a g e
increased value remains when competitors stop trying to imitate the advantage.” Hence, TQM is a
major facilitator in terms of achieving competitive advantage.
TQM, being the focus of this research, is discussed in greater detail in the following section.
2.3 Total Quality Management

“TQM refers to a new concept in which the focus is shifted from quality of products to quality of all
issues within an organization. In other words, it compasses all aspects of business, makes quality a
strategic objective, and requires an integrated effort among employees at all levels to increase
customer satisfaction by continuously improving performance.” (Polat, Damci and Tatar, 2011, pp
1116)
Chowdhury (2005) discusses that the concept of TQM emerged as a management concept in Japan
in the 1950s while becoming popular in the West during the 1980s. The concept rests on the
premise of concentrating on the efficient production of quality that meets the market expectations.
Moreover, as the cost of production decreases, the productivity increases owing to the
improvement of quality accomplished through better management of ‘design, engineering, testing’
and improvement of work processes. At the same time, since the concept of quality combines
people power and process power, the quality in a product or service is essentially what the customer
is willing to pay for (Chowdhury, 2005).
“TQM strongly advocates the fine co-ordination and constructive framework that is required
between the organization, its employees, its suppliers & customers” (Asim, Zaman and Zarif (2013, pp
27). This tends to reiterate that an organization with TQM implemented fundamentally operates on
the premise of a customer-based unit and tends to capitalize on customer satisfaction instead of in-
house competence.
According to Asim, Zaman and Zarif (2013, pp 26), “the distinct and most vital determinant of an
organization's propensity towards quality is its aptitude to decode, amalgamate, and eventually
27 | P a g e
formalized quality related behaviours.” Hence, while quality assurance is a continuous process that
facilitates day to day business processes, it also aids in streamlining the formalizing of quality related
behaviours. Implementation of various quality programs such as TQM fore mostly requires
organizational change in terms of alteration in the organizational culture, processes, values and
strategic priorities (Motwani, 2012).
It can, therefore, that TQM is fundamentally a philosophy of a broad and systemic approach to
managing organizational quality and for seeking continuous improvement.
2.3.1 Evolution of TQM

Brun (2011) studied the evolution of the concept of TQM and concluded that historical evolution of
TQM essentially took place in four stages:
1. Quality Inspection (QI)

2. Quality Control (QC)
3. Quality Assurance (QA)
4. Total Quality Management (TQM)
Figure 4: Stages of TQM
28 | P a g e
(Source: Loughlin, 2008, pp 3)
Quality Inspection
The primary purpose of quality inspection remains to identify the poor quality products from good
quality products and separate them. While those identified as acceptable quality products are
floated to final level or product completion, the poor quality products are either scrapped, reworked
upon or sold altogether as lower quality (Bagad, 2008). Loughlin (2008, pp 4) notes, “The inspection
process is an after-the-event measurement process that can only result in non-conforming products
being sent back to be re-worked or result in lower graded products that are produced in a rating
system.”
Quality Control
According to Bruns (2011, pp 13), “With further industrial advancement came the second stage of
TQM development and quality was controlled through supervised skills, written specification,
measurement and standardization.” Hence, as manufacturing systems become more complex, the
quality of final products are more rigorously checked and verified by inspections rather than the
workers themselves. This involves a host of activities such as statistical quality control by inspection,
development of control charts, the use of inspection sampling methods, and so forth. The idea of
developing quality control, according to Brun (2011, pp 13), remained to help distinguish and
separate two types of process variations; “firstly the variation resulting from random causes and
secondly the variation resulting from assignable or special causes.” Further progress was made in
terms of developing monitoring systems for process control and control charts for documenting
lower evidence of non-conformance. Hence, as Loughlin (2008) contends, quality control essentially
remains the basic process of detecting mistakes and fixing them after their occurrence. “Under a
quality control scheme you may find that everything is closely monitored, with detailed performance
and product specifications as well as control systems for paperwork and procedures, product testing
at raw material and mid-production stages with reports being filed and overall feedback on the
processes involved to personnel and suppliers” (Loughlin, 2008, pp 4).
Quality Assurance
29 | P a g e
This third phase of the development of TQM, Quality Assurance, comprises of all the previous stages
so as to provide adequate confidence that the product or service will eventually satisfy the
customers’ needs (Mandal, 2009). According to Loughlin (2008), quality assurance essentially came
to limelight to address the need for lasting continual improvement in quality since only identifying
the mistakes was not enough to eliminate the root of the problem. “Other activities such as
comprehensive quality manuals, use of cost of quality, development of process control and auditing
of quality systems are also developed in order to progress from quality control to the quality
assurance era of Total Quality Management” (Brun, 2011, pp 13). Hence, quality assurance
fundamentally includes quality inspection and quality control, while also seeking to emphasise the
detection of activities towards the prevention of bad quality. Moreover, as quality systems
developed, advanced quality planning and comprehensive quality manuals eased the process of
quality assurance (Loughlin, 2008).
Total Quality Management
TQM essentially involves understanding as well as implementing virtually all the quality
management principles and concepts relevant to the previous three stages in every aspect of
business activities (Loughlin, 2008). According to Brun (2011, pp 13), “Total Quality Management
demands that the principles of quality management must be applied at every level, every stage and
in every department of the organization.” This tends to reiterate that the idea of TQM is that it must
be enriched by the application of sophisticated quality management techniques, and the entire
process must go beyond the inner organization to be able to develop close collaboration with the
suppliers.
“…the advent of TQM can be seen as timely in the search for productivity improvement and customer
satisfaction. TQM is a way of thinking about goals, organizations, processes and people to ensure
that the right things are done right the first time; and an approach to improving the competitiveness,
effectiveness and flexibility of the whole organization” (Abu Barak, Ali and Onyeizu, 2011, pp 285).
Hence, it can be argued that the philosophical underpinning of TQM is based on the understanding
and discovering of better processes, which can be thoroughly achieved through the implementation
30 | P a g e
of TQM as a major organizational change, calling for detailed transformation of culture, process,
strategic priorities and organizational values and beliefs.
The following table summarizes the characteristics of every phase of the evolution of TQM:
Table 2: Characteristics of Different Stages of TQM
(Source: Brun, 2011, pp 14)
31 | P a g e
2.3.2 Components of TQM
Leadership
This core element of the TQM philosophy essentially dictates that the top management must realize
the importance of quality and must also foster the notion that quality is a responsibility of everybody
at work (ISO, 2012). However, the underlying premise must remain that quality is the ultimate
responsibility of the top management, which should in turn take pride in the fact. Given this
approach, quality excellence becomes an integral component of the business strategy and takes the
lead in the implementation process (Mandal, 2009).
According to Mandal (2009), the inherent qualities of successful leaders essentially include the
following:
• The ability to give vivid attention to all internal as well as external customers
• The ability to empower and not control the subordinates, and the mindfulness to provide
the necessary resources, training, and work environment to facilitate their productivity
• To focus on improvement rather than maintenance of quality
• The ability to emphasize prevention and encourage collaboration rather than competition
• The necessary skills and aptitude to train and coach, and not direct and supervise
• The ability to learn from problems and hence exploit all possible opportunities for
improvement
• The zeal to continually strive for improved communications and continually demonstrate the
commitment to quality
• The ability to establish organizational systems that support quality efforts
Customer Focus
“Organizations depend on their customers and therefore should understand current and future
customer needs, should meet customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations.”
(ISO, 2012, pp 3)
Customer satisfaction must necessarily remain the key concern of all quality improvements. Given
the fact that customer expectation, needs and preferences are constantly changing, customer
32 | P a g e
satisfaction has fundamentally become a function of total experience with the organization (ISO,
2012). Hence, there is dire need for organizations to continually examine the quality systems and
practices, and to respond to the changing needs, requirements and expectations of the customers.
According to Mandal (2009), organizations must regularly seek customer feedback to discover
customer dissatisfaction, identify priorities or quality, price and delivery, and compare their own
performance with that of the competitors. Moreover, this process of collecting customer feedback
also facilitates in identifying the customers’ needs and determine further opportunities for
improvement. Various tools that can be used to generate customer feedback may include warranty
cards and questionnaires, telephonic and mail surveys, focus groups, customer complaint boxes, and
customer satisfaction index (Mukherjee, 2006).
Employee Involvement
Keeping the employees involved within the quality process remains another key component of the
TQM philosophy, resting on the premise that people are the most important resource any given
organization possesses and that quality comes from people (ISO, 2012). Employees can be actively
involved through a host of alternatives such as project teams, quality control circles (QCC),
education and training along the job, motivational programs such as incentive schemes, and by
fostering a work culture that is conducive to commitment and quality (McCubbrey, n.d.). “Employees
are essential to the building of a continuous improvement organization” (McCubbrey, n.d.).
According to ISO (2012, pp 5), key benefits of employee involvement include:
• “Motivated, committed and involved people within the organization

• Innovation and creativity in furthering the organization’s objectives
• People being accountable for their own performance
• People eager to participate in and contribute to continual improvement”
Process Approach
33 | P a g e
According to Loughlin (2008, pp 6), “Analysis of processes should be an integral part of the
organisation, there should be a focus on processes rather than the functions, and be part of the
Kaizen initiative for continuous improvement.”
Mukherjee (2006) notes that ‘quality at the source’ remains an importance concept in TQM. Hence,
process management remains imperative for managers and employees to focus in the detailed
activities in order to improve quality. ISO (2012, pp 5) also contends that “a desired result is achieved
more efficiently when activities and related resources are managed as a process.” Moreover, ISO
(2012) identifies a host of benefits of the process approach in TQM. One, the costs are reduced and
cycle times are shortened through the effective use of resources. Two, the results are better, more
consistent and more predictable. And three, there are more focused and prioritized improvement
opportunities.
Moreover, the applying the process approach typically leads to the following:
• “Systematically defining the activities necessary to obtain a desired result

• Establishing clear responsibility and accountability for managing key activities
• Analyzing and measuring of the capability of key activities
• Identifying the interfaces of key activities within and between the functions of the
organization
• Focusing on the factors – such as resources, methods, and materials – that will improve key
activities of the organization
• Evaluating risks, consequences and impacts of activities on customers, suppliers and other
interested parties.”
(ISO, 2012, pp 5)
Continuous Improvement
The basic premise under this component of TQM is that all work is viewed as process, whether
accruing from production or business (ISO, 2012). Hence, process improvement fundamentally
translates into increased customer satisfaction. According to Mukherjee (2006), improvement can be
sought in five ways, namely:
34 | P a g e
• Reduce resources
• Reduce errors
• Meet expectations of downstream customers
• Make process safer
• Make process more satisfying to the person performing it
ISO (2012) contends that continual improvement of the overall organizational performance should
essentially remain a permanent objective of the organization at large. This will lead to reaping a host
of benefits including performance advantage through improved organizational capabilities, better
alignment of the improvement activities at virtually all levels to the organizational strategic intent,
and improved flexibility to be able to react quickly to opportunities.
Moreover, applying the continual improvement principle typically leads to:
• “Employing a consistent organization-wide approach to continual improvement of the

organization’s performance
• Providing people with training in the methods and tools of continual improvement
• Making continual improvement of products, processes and systems an objective for every
individual in the organization
• Establishing goals to guide, and measures to track, continual improvement
• Recognizing and acknowledging improvements.”
(ISO, 2012, pp 8)
Supplier Quality
According to (ISO, 2012), almost 40% of production costs comes from purchased materials.
Therefore, supplier quality management remains a major concern when considering quality, since
substantial portion of quality related problems essentially come from the suppliers. Hence, there is
utmost need for partnership with the suppliers to be able to achieve quality improvement.
McCubbrey (n.d.) notes, “Sharing your quality and engineering expertise with your suppliers, having
a formal supplier certification program, and including your suppliers in the product design stage are
35 | P a g e
important measures to take to ensure that quality at the source extends to the supplier network.”
Moreover, ISO (2012, pp 10) suggests that efficient supplier relationship management yields the
following benefits for the implementing organization:
• Increased ability to create value for both parties

• Flexibility and speed of joint responses to changing market or customer needs and
expectations
• Optimization of costs and resources.
Hence, establishing mutually beneficial supplier relationships tend to largely balance short-term and
long-term considerations, while also allowing the pooling of expertise and resources with the
supplying partners. Through clear and open communication, the organization can share key
information and future plans with the suppliers and thereby establish joint development and
improvement activities. In a nutshell, supplier management not only inspires and encourages
improvements by suppliers but also recognized their achievement in due regards.
Performance Measures
TQM fundamentally requires managing quality by fact rather than by gut feelings (ISO, 2012). This
tends to reiterate that effective management requires careful measuring of the outcome versus the
expectations. Hence, using baselines to assess results for improvement remains a core component of
the TQM philosophy.
Mukherjee (2006) identifies a host of performance measures that can be used in due regard:
• Award Models such as MBNQA, EFQM, and PMQA

• Benchmarking
• Statistical measures such as control charts
• Certifications such as ISO 9000:2000 Quality Management System and ISO 14000
Environmental Management System
36 | P a g e
2.3.3 American Quality Gurus Compared
Juran’s 10 Steps for Quality Improvements
Juran took forward the works of previous researchers to focus on the customers’ point of view of
product quality and fitness for use. He advocated 10 steps for quality improvements:
1. Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.

2. Set goals for improvement.
3. Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems, select projects,
appoint teams, designate facilitators).
4. Provide training.
5. Carry out projects to solve problems.
6. Report progress.
7. Give recognition
8. Communicate results.
9. Keep score.
10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems and
processes of the company.
(Juran and Gyna, 1980)
According to Garvin (1987), “Juran observed that quality could be understood in terms of avoidable
and unavoidable costs: the former resulted from defects and product failures like scrapped materials
or labour hours required for rework, repair, and complaint processing; the latter were associated
with prevention, i.e., inspection, sampling, sorting, and other quality control initiatives.”
Deming’s 14 Points of Total Quality Management
Deming (1982) presented 14 management points with the fundamental premise that organizational
problems lie within the management process and that statistical methods may be used to trace the
source of such problems:
1. Create a constancy of purpose to facilitate continuous improvement of products and

services
2. Adopt the new philosophy open-heartedly
37 | P a g e
3. Cease dependence on inspection and eliminate the need for mass inspection in order to
achieve quality
4. End lowest tender contracts and avoid awarding business only on the basis of price tag
5. Improve every process constantly and forever, and for every process for planning,
production and service
6. Institute training on the job through modern methods of training
7. Institute leadership that is aimed at facilitating people and machines to perform at optimal
levels
8. Drive out fear and encourage effective two-way communication and other means that aid in
driving out fear throughout the organization
9. Break down barriers between all department and staff areas
10. Eliminate exhortations such as the use of slogans and posters, etc.
11. Eliminate targets such as work standards that prescribe numerical goals and objectives for
the workforce
12. Permit pride of workmanship by removing barriers that deter hourly workers from
performing at maximum capacity
13. Encourage education and institute a rigorous program of education for everyone at work
14. Inculcate top management commitment to ever-improving quality and productivity
Crosby’s 14 Steps for Quality Improvement Process
Not keen to accept quality relevant to statistical methods, Crosby (1982) advocated four absolutes:
1. Definition of quality – conformance to requirements.

2. Quality system – prevention.
3. Quality standard – zero defects.
4. Measurement of quality – price of non-conformance.
Furthermore, Crosby (1982) also proposed 14 points for quality improvement process:
1. Management commitment to clearly advocate the management’s stance on quality.

2. Quality improvement team to run the quality improvement process.
3. Measurement of current and potential non-conformance to objectives.
4. Cost of quality to define the ingredients of the cost of quality (COQ).
5. Quality awareness
38 | P a g e
6. Corrective action to offer a systematic method for resolving the problems.
7. Zero defects
8. Employee education to brief the employees about the quality management processes
9. Planning and zero-defects day to create an event that will let all employees realize the
change.
10. Goal setting to turn pledges and commitments into action.
11. Error-cause removal to offer the employees a means of communicating to management the
problem situations
12. Recognition to appreciate those who participate in the process.
13. Quality councils to bring together the appropriate people to share quality management
information
14. Do it all over again so as to emphasize the quality improvement process as continuous.
Comparison
The fundamental point of difference between the three American quality gurus lies in their basic
orientation towards the concept of quality. While Deming views quality as a technical phenomenon,
Juran views it from the process perspective and Crosby has a motivational orientation towards
quality. Similarly, the concept of quality is also viewed differently. Deming defines quality in terms of
non-faulty systems, Juran defines it in terms of fitness for use, and Crosby defines it in terms of
conformance to requirements. Moreover, the goals of quality also vary for each of the quality gurus.
For Deming, meeting and exceeding customer requirements is the basic goal, and the inherent focus
remains on continuous improvement. Juran also considers continuous improvement as an important
quality objective where pleasing customer remains the core. Crosby, however, takes a step further
to include the concept of zero defects in the goals of quality. Furthermore, another point of
difference between the frameworks suggested by the three quality gurus lies in the methods they
advocate for achieving quality. Deming encourages the use of statistical methods, seeks continuous
improvement and promotes cooperation between functions. Juran, on the other hand, uses the
concepts of cost of quality, the quality triology, and planning, control and improvement. Crosby,
however, deploys the 14-point framework for achieving quality.
Interestingly, the gurus are unanimous on the accountability factors and consider management as
the primary responsibility bearer for ensuring quality. Similarly, they consider customer and
39 | P a g e
customer requirements as very important. Also, they all agree that training is of vital significance for
the success of a quality system and equally important for managers and employees.
2.3.4 Oakland’s Model of TQM

According to Oakland (2014), TQM essentially is a combination of 3 Cs (culture, commitment and
communication) and 4 Ps (planning, performance, process and people). The 3 Cs have been referred
to as ‘soft outcomes’ as opposed to the 4 Ps that are referred to as ‘hard management necessities’.
The following figure illustrates the model:
Figure 5: Oaklan'd Model of TQM
(Source: Oakland, 2014, pp 1)
Culture – this primarily encompasses all the important aspects of the culture at work including
delegation of decision authority, reward for results, teamwork and cooperation, job security,
equitable rewards, and ownership. Culture is essentially the core of TQM (Oakland, 2014).
40 | P a g e
Commitment – this aspect of the model presented by Oakland (2014) essentially signals the
necessary requirement of organizational commitment and top management support in order for
TQM implementation to be a success.
Communication – adequate communication that is aimed at the appropriate target audience

remains a fundamental requirement for the smooth implementation and success of the TQM
program (Oakland, 2014).
Planning – this refers to development and deployment of strategies and policies that essentially
facilitate the implementation of TQM. Furthermore, planning calls for setting up appropriate and
adequate resources and partnerships that aid in designing quality (Oakland, 2014).
Processes – these refer to understanding, managing, designing and redesigning of the work
processes as well as quality management systems. Moreover, continuous improvement remains an
integral component of the processes under TQM (Oakland, 2014).
People – given the fact that people remain a key resource, managing this critical human resource is a
crucial aspect of TQM. This aspect primarily deals with teamwork, communications, innovation and
learning of the HR (Oakland, 2014).
Performance – establishing a performance measurement framework and carrying out self-

assessment exercises, audits and reviews all remain the key to the success of TQM (Oakland, 2014).
2.4 Practical and Empirical Evidence regarding importance of TQM

According to empirical study conducted by Powell (1995), TQM enhances firm value and
organizational performance. Majority of the firms implementing TQM tend to benefit from
consistence performance advantages. However, empirical evidence suggests that the results begin
41 | P a g e
to flow in after the third year of implementation, “at which point most organizations have had
sufficient time to adapt, assimilate, and stabilize under the new approach” (Powell, 1995, pp 23).
Moreover, since TQM originally emerged from manufacturing environments, it remains more
commonly practiced in manufacturing environments. Furthermore, the author found that TQM
performance bears a positive relation with the firm’s incorporation of the basic components of TQM,
whereby the capacity depends upon both the complementary organizational resources and its ability
to adapt and assimilate TQM principles over time. Also, TQM performance is positively associated
with close customer and supplier relationships. The study finally concluded, “TQM can produce
economic value to the firm…TQM success appears to depend critically on executive commitment,
open organization, and employee empowerment, and less upon such TQM staples as benchmarking,
training, flexible manufacturing, process improvement, and improved measurement” (Powell, 1995,
pp 29).
Bardoel and Sohal (1999) conducted a study on seven Australian construction companies to study
the impact of TQM implementation and the perceived benefits of the initiative. The study concluded
that the quality management program implementation results in better control of the processes
which in turn enhanced the consistency from design through to delivery. Similarly, the construction
cycle time was reduced and the quantity of goods damaged in transit and construction were also
reduced. Moreover, the delivery time to the site was reduced and there was a decrease witnessed in
the fallout of chemicals. At the same time, TQM implementation significantly increased
measurement of performance and greatly enhanced customer perception of the construction itself.
Sandbkken (2006, cited in Hasan et al, 2013) conducted a similar study regarding the impact of
customer satisfaction aspect of TQM on organizational performance. The study concludes that the
greater the firm satisfies the customer needs and requirements, the better it is at continuous
improvement, and hence the higher is organizational performance.
Arumugam, Ooi and Fong’s (2008) study also conclude that TQM elements such as customer focus,
process management and leadership, are positively related to the quality performance. Miyaga and
Yoshida (2010) also concluded that the extent of implementing TQM factors has a significant impact
on organizational performance. The most important factors thereby remain leadership, quality of
42 | P a g e
information, implementation of strategies, meeting customer expectations and human resource
management.
Similarly, Wang, Shieh and Tang (2010)’s study also revealed that leadership and human resource
management both tend to positively affect the organizational performance. “Furthermore, with the
help of visionary leadership, subordinates will apply their hidden potential more positively towards
the organization and hence performance will be improved” (Hasan et al, 2013, pp 5).
Timothy et al (2011)’s more recent study also reveals that transactional leadership is positively
related to organizational performance. The most prominent aspects of transactional leadership is
primarily exchange process, which enhances organizational performance.
Valmohammadi’s (2011) research on implementation of TQM in the manufacturing sector also

concludes that factors such as process management and customer factors largely positively impact
organizational performance. The results of the study indicate that there is a significant positive
relationship between these factors and performance. While leadership enhances the performance
through inculcating a work culture conducive to productivity, process management and customer
focus also enhance firm performance through continuous improvement of quality.
According to Harrington, Voehl and Wiggin (2012, pp 353), “The TQ culture varies from one company
to another and from one industry to another. However, the TQ culture, regardless of its differences,
aims to achieve common objectives: namely, removal of waste, reduction of costs, improvement of
reputation, and increased market share. As can be observed, TQ objectives are dynamic in their
nature and this dictates continued updating and upgrading.”
Hasan et al (2013) also conducted an empirical study on the relationship between TQM elements
and organizational performance. The focus of the study was manufacturing sector of Pakistan and
examined the impact of TQM elements including leadership, people management, customer focus,
process management, strategic planning and information analysis on organizational performance of
120 selected manufacturing firms. “Findings of this study affirm its title that TQM elements play a
43 | P a g e
vital role in achieving the higher organizational performance in manufacturing sector of Pakistan.
Moreover, the results of correlation analysis portray that all the variables of the study except the
information and analysis are positively and significantly correlated to dependent variable i.e. firm
performance. However, the results demonstrate that customer focus is a quality management
practice that influences greater to the organization performance comparing to other variables of this
study” (Hasan et al, 2013, pp 14).
2.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control in Construction

The world history runs rampant with accidents arising in lieu of poor quality in construction. As
explained in the introductory chapter, quality is of utmost concern in the construction industry.
Particularly reflected in the incidence of serious incidents such as the collapse of high rise buildings
during natural disasters or collapse of bridges and roads due to low quality of construction materials
used, quality management in construction has secured significant importance.
According to Asim, Zaman and Zarif (2013, pp 26), “the constituents in the construction industry have
a propensity to be imprudent to changes being forced on them for instance economics, political, and
technological pressures, which results insufficient performance in the industry.”
According to David and Gunaydin (1997, cited in Asim, Zaman and Zarif, 2013, pp 27), “product
quality in the construction industry may be thought of as a foremost factor essential to attaining
quality in the materials, equipment and technology that is being utilized in building infrastructure,
whereas 'process quality' may adduce to achieving quality in the course the project is methodized
and handled in three crucial stages of planning and design, construction, and operation and
maintenance.”
Hence, it can be argued that TQM is a viable solution to the quality related problems pertinent to
the construction industry such as the cost overruns, productivity of workforce, occupational health
and safety, and so forth. Undoubtedly, applying the philosophy of TQM to construction will result in
better quality projects. However, what remains crucial to establish is the fact that quality
management in construction is vividly different than that in the manufacturing industry. Therefore,
44 | P a g e
the methods and effectiveness of implementing various quality control procedures and quality
management programs vary substantially across industries as well as across companies within the
same industry.
“As a result of successful TQM implementations in the manufacturing industry, the construction
industry has turned to the manufacturing industry as a source of innovation, and endeavoured to
adopt and implement this concept in the construction industry” (Polat, Damci and Tatar, 2011, pp
1116).
2.5.1 Quality Control in Construction v/s Manufacturing

Arditi and Gunaydin (1997) conducted a research to study the similarities and differences between
implementation of quality control in the construction industry as compared to its implementation in
the manufacturing industry. While the results indicate that the evolution of quality control in
construction is parallel to that of manufacturing, many dissimilar characteristics exist. Asim, Zaman
and Zarif (2013, pp 27) summarize these differences as under:
• “Almost all construction projects are unique.

• They are single-order, single-production products.
• Unlike other industries, which usually have a fixed site with similar conditions for production,
each construction production site always displays different conditions.
• The life-cycle of a construction project is much longer than the life-cycle of most
manufactured products.
• There is no clear and uniform standard in evaluating overall construction quality as there is in
manufactured items and materials; thus, construction projects usually are evaluated
subjectively.
• Since construction projects are a single-order design project, the owner usually directly
influences the production.
• The participants in the construction project--owner, designer, general contractor,
subcontractor, material.”
Keeping these dissimilarities in focus, it can be reasonably established that the quality control
procedures that work best for manufacturing companies may not necessarily be deemed
45 | P a g e
appropriate in the construction industry. Given the fact that quality procedures most effective for
mass production industry may not be considered suitable and effective for construction companies,
the quality control in the construction industry has not evolved to the level achieved by the
manufacturing industry.
Nevertheless, “the construction industry has inclined towards confound TQM and Quality Control
(QC) and Quality Assurance (QA), holding believe that acquiescence with QA Standards is all that
there is to the claim of TQM on construction projects” (Asim, Zaman and Zarif, 2013, pp 27). Hence,
to establish a quality management culture in the construction industry, it remains imperative not
only to expand the team of contractor, sub-contractor and supplier, but also to ensure a quality
attitude is maintained to ensure high quality procedures.
2.5.2 Benefits of TQM to Construction Companies

Literature indicates that a host of benefits accrue from implementing TQM in construction projects.
These range from better quality products, increased customer satisfaction, and higher market share.
According to Polat, Damci and Tatar (2011), although the application of TQM is vividly different from
its implementation in the construction industry, a host of benefits still accrue from the practice. The
most promising benefits include repeat customers owing to increased customer satisfaction,
reduced rework due to improved quality, improved employee job satisfaction because of increased
employee involvement, higher productivity, improved scheduled performance, and better chances in
the bidding process. The following figure illustrates the most prominent benefits of implementing
TQM in the construction industry:
46 | P a g e
Figure 6: Benefits of Implementing TQM in the Construction Industry
(Source: Polat, Damci and Tatar, 2011, pp 1119)
2.5.3 Inhibitors to Implementation of TQM in Construction

Literary as well as practical evidence also suggests that there are a host of factors that inhibit the
practical implementation of TQM to construction projects. Baden-Hallard (1993), for example,
argues that construction companies tend to recognize cost as an additional expense without
acknowledging the return on investment that accrues from investment in quality management
programs. In the construction industry, costs are essentially accumulated by anticipation and the
assessment costs relevant to non-conformance costs. Similarly, Sommerville and Robertson (2000),
contend that since all construction projects are customized in nature and are unique, it is practically
difficult to set standardized quality measures to evaluate such projects.
Moreover, since these projects are specifically designed to meet particular customer requirements,
they cannot be assessed against uniform standards of quality control and assurance. Also, Asim,
Zaman and Zarif (2013, pp 26) further suggest that “construction industry has a lofty number of
organizational collapses, principally during a recession in the economy. Consequently dedication for
47 | P a g e
TQM strategies and policies may take quite a few years to provide ''pay offs'' and may be professed
as pointless of resources.”
More importantly, the implementation of TQM in the construction industry is a cumbersome

process owing to the peculiarities of the industry such as unique nature of the projects, unqualified
workforce, lack of top management’s leadership, and so forth. Given these factors, according to
Polat, Damci and Tatar (2011, pp 1117), “many construction companies still consider quality
programs as extra cost because of the fact that they are not totally aware of that the cost of non-
conformance to quality, i.e., the cost of rework, waste, errors, customer complaints, budget
deficiencies, and schedule delays, is much higher than that of operating a quality program.”
The following figure illustrates the most common barriers to extensive implementation of TQM in
the construction industry, as found out during a study conducted by Polat, Damci and Tatar (2011):
Figure 7: Barriers to Extensive Implementation of TQM in the Construction Industry
(Source: Polat, Damci and Tatar, 2011, pp 1119)
48 | P a g e
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter delineates upon the research methodology underlying the study. It discusses in detail
the research approach guiding the study at hand, shedding light on the nature of the research and
also identifying the research paradigm to which the study relates to. The chapter further discusses
the research design, identifying the sources of primary and secondary data, and presenting a critique
of the primary data collection instruments used. The chapter concludes with discuss ion about the
limitations of the research and the research ethics that remain important consideration regarding
the research at hand.
3.1 Research Paradigm (Interpretivst v/s Positivist)

In interpretivism, the underlying ontology is constructivism, while the empirical focus remains the
socially constructed beliefs. The type of investigation is fundamentally field study and data is
generated through interpretation with the researcher being actively engaged in understanding the
data (Hatch and Cunliffe (2006). According to Denxin and Lincoln (2003), an interpretivism has
essentially developed as a critique of positivism in the social sciences, and assumes that the reality is
constructed inter-subjectively through the meanings and understandings developed experientially
and socially. Moreover, another basic belief remains that the researcher is a part of the study and
cannot be isolated from the investigation since he is linked to the object of investigation. “By
positing a reality that cannot be separate from our knowledge of it (no separation of subject and
object), the interpretivist paradigm posits that researchers' values are inherent in all phases of the
research process. Truth is negotiated through dialogue” (RWJF, 2008). Goldkuhl (2012) adds that
there are a number of variants of interpretivism available such as conservative, constructivist, critical
and deconstructionist. Furthermore, the author argues, “The aim of understanding the subjective
meanings of persons in studied domains is essential in the interpretive paradigm” (Goldkuhl, 2012,
pp 4). Hence, the core idea of interpretivism is to work around with the subjective meanings that are
already existent in the social world, that is, “to acknowledge their existence, to reconstruct them, to
understand them, to avoid distorting them, to use them as building blocks in theorizing” (Goldkuhl,
2012, pp 5). Interpretivist research approach, therefore, heavily relies on naturalistic methods of
data collection such as interviews and observations, and ensures adequate dialog between the
researcher and the research participants (Hatch and Cunliffe (2006).
49 | P a g e
Positivism, on the contrary, relies on the basic premise that in any given population, certain
behavioural patterns are more obvious that are distinct from others (Saunders et al, 2008). Kaboub
(2008, pp 343) discusses, “Positivist research methodology (methodological individualism)
emphasizes micro-level experimentation in a lablike environment that eliminates the complexity of
the external world (e.g., social, psychological, and economic linkages between unemployment, and
crime or suicide).” This tends to reiterate the fact that positivism believes that reality is objective and
is fundamentally independent of the researcher, which means that the researcher can be isolated
from the investigation (Saunders et al, 2008). According to Aliyu, Bello and Martin (2014), the
underlying ontology of positivism remains naïve realism, that is, reality is objective yet
apprehendable. The methodology used under this paradigm is essentially experimental and
manipulative in nature. Hence, the research methods employed under the positivist research are
generally qualitative methods such as verification of hypotheses, etc. the author further notes, “…
positivism could be regarded as a research strategy and approach that is rooted on the ontological
principle and doctrine that truth and reality is free and independent of the viewer and observer… The
self-governing, independent and objective existence of truth can be seen as a definition and meaning
of positivism in a number of write-ups” (Aliyu, Bello and Martin, 2014, pp 81).
The research at hand is fundamentally interpretivist, since it complies with all the main
characteristics of the interpretivist research paradigm.
3.2 Research Approach (Inductive v/s Deductive)

According to Thomas (2006, pp 238), “The inductive approach is a systematic procedure for analysing
qualitative data in which the analysis is likely to be guided by specific evaluation objectives.” Such an
approach primarily refers to using detailed readings of raw data that are used to derive concepts,
themes and models through interpreting this raw data. Thomas (2006, pp 238) also concludes, “The
primary purpose of the inductive approach is to allow research findings to emerge from the frequent,
dominant, or significant themes inherent in raw data, without the restraints imposed by structured
methodologies.” The author further adds that inductive research, therefore, begins with an area of
study and allows theory to emerge from raw data.
50 | P a g e
Thomas (2006) also identifies a number of underlying purposes that inductive research approach
aims to satisfy. One, inductive reasoning allows condensing extensive and varied raw data into brief
summaries. Secondly, it particularly facilitates in establishing clear links between the summary
findings and the research objectives while also ensuring the transparency of both. Thirdly, inductive
reasoning is the most appropriate intervention for developing a theory or a model about the
underlying structure of experiences that are being explored.
Deductive research, on the other hand, is moving the other way around as compared to inductive
research. While inductive approach moves from specific to general, deductive approach begins with
the general and ends with the specific (Soiferman, 2010). Hence, it can be inferred that while
deduction is theory generation, induction refers to theory testing. Creswell and Plano Clark (2007)
define that a deductive researcher “works from the top down”, using a theory of hypotheses to data
as a baseline to either add to or contradict an existing theory. Hence, the data analyses conducted
under deductive research approach tend to be consistent with prior assumptions, theories and
hypothesis that were initially identified by the researcher (Soiferman, 2010).
The research at hand is primarily deductive since it does not aim at theory generation; instead the
primary objective of the research is to test existing theory in the light of practical evidence from a
different setting as compared to previous researches.
3.3 Nature of Research (Qualitative v/s Quantitative)

Soiferman (2010) argues that the major point of difference between qualitative and quantitative
approaches is how they view nature of reality. And it is basically the relationship between the
research participants and the researcher himself that characterises the disciplines. According to
Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005, pp 270), “The quantitative theorists believe “in a single reality that
can be measured reliably and validly using scientific principles”, while qualitative theorists “believe in
multiple constructed realities that generate different meanings for different individuals, and whose
interpretations depend on the researcher’s lens”.
51 | P a g e
According to Soiferman (2010), in quantitative research, the researcher is viewed as separate from
the research participants. The author further adds, “The quantitative researcher believes in
maintaining an objective approach to the experiment by remaining in the background” (Soiferman,
2010, pp 11). Furthermore, quantitative research rests on the premise that “research should be
value-free” and makes use of statistical analysis to establish connections between what is known
and what can further be learned through research. Moreover, data used in quantitative research is
fundamentally numerical, which is why statistical analysis is deemed the most appropriate strategy
to analyse such data (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). Understanding and establishing relationships
amongst variables using descriptive or inferential statistics remains a fundamental feature of
quantitative research (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007). Hence, it can be inferred that the underlying
assumption in quantitative research remains that each individual has different perception of the
world which makes it difficult to generalize findings and draw inferences for an entire population
based on evidence from a sample population (Soiferman, 2010).
Quantitative research, on the contrary, relates to the notion that “the research is influenced to a
great extent by the values of the researcher” (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005, pp 271). Hence, the
researcher is not perceived as being independent from the research or the research participants, yet
the researcher becomes the instrument for data collection. Creswell (1998, pp 39) defines
qualitative research as “a type of educational research in which the researcher relies on the view of
participants, asks broad, general questions, collects data consisting largely of words (or texts) from
participants, describes and analyses these words for themes, and conducts the inquiry in a subjective,
biased manner.” Hence, qualitative research seeks patterns or themes in images and texts to make
inferences and interpretations (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007). According to Soiferman (2010), the
underlying assumption for quantitative research remains that knowledge is relatively objective. This
allows the researcher to generalize and draw inferences about the general population from a
selected sample (Soiferman, 2010). The most common methods of gathering qualitative data include
observations, interviews and document analysis (Soiferman, 2010).
Creswel (1998) defines six key steps commonly used while analysing qualitative data:
• Generate a large consolidates picture from the detailed data collection to the most specific;
coding and identifying themes.
• Analyze data while still collecting data
52 | P a g e
• Recursive approach; whether the researcher can move back and forth between collecting
analyzing data
• Read and review the data over and over again, and conduct analysis each time
• Remain eclectic
• Remain interpretive; make personal assessments of the data in descriptive format
The nature of the research at hand is essentially qualitative owing to the research objective and
primary research questions identified in chapter one. However, the responses gathered regarding
the qualitative variables from the primary research were then converted into numbers and/or
percentages to give them a numerical form and make comparison possible. In this way a quantitative
analysis was also carried out.
3.4 Research Design (Primary v/s Secondary)
3.4.1 Primary Research

Primary data, according to Kothari (2008), is raw data collected precisely and particularly for the
purpose of the research at hand. It is relevant to the research questions relevant to the research at
hand and is collected for the first time. Primary data is, therefore, original in character (Kothari,
2008). According to Hox and Boeigi (2005, pp 593) Primary data are data collected for the specific
research problem at hand, using procedures that fit the research problem best. On every occasion
that primary data are collected, new data are added to the existing store of social knowledge.”
Bhattacharyya (2009) adds that the various methods of collecting primary data include
questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups and surveys.
Primary data for the purpose of this research was collected through semi-structured interviews with
the top construction companies in the UK. Interviews were aimed at providing first hand in-depth
detail about the various quality systems implemented in the construction industry as well as their
importance in achieving the desired results. The semi-structured interviews were scheduled in
advance at a pre-designated time, and were organized around a set of predetermined questions.
Other questions emerged from the dialogue with the flow of the conversation. One interview on
average lasted around 30 minutes.
53 | P a g e
Sample:
A sample of 20 research participants was drawn from 4 top construction companies in various
locations across UK, to gain maximum results for the research questions at hand. The research
participants were primarily middle to top management personnel, with at least 5 years of experience
in the relevant field. The sample was designed to necessarily include construction engineers,
contractors, sub-contractors and labour, for deriving an extensive and reliable data set:
Engineers 4
Contractors 4
Sub-Contractors 4
Labor 4
Total 20
3.4.2 Secondary Research

Secondary data, according to Kothari (2008), is already existing data, both published and
unpublished, that was originally collected by another researcher for another previous study with
different research objectives. Such data is fundamentally used as a baseline for the study at hand, to
offer theoretical, conceptual and empirical background for the current research (Hox and Boeigi,
2005).
Secondary research has been conducted through a systemic review of literature and presented in
the form of critical analysis in the second chapter of the dissertation. Secondary data was collected
through a multitude of sources including:
• academic journals on quality management and construction projects

• books on quality management and construction projects
• industry publications and manuals
• internet
54 | P a g e
3.4.3 Justification
Semi-structured interviews, as identified in section 3.4.1, were chosen as the most appropriate
intervention for the purpose of conducting primary research for the study at hand. The choice was
primarily made on the basis of the host of advantages that semi-structured interviews serve over
other alternatives available. Saunders (2003) discusses that semi-structured interviews allow
flexibility of responses from the research participants while also allowing the researcher to dig
deeper into these responses through follow-up questions. Opdenakker (2006) adds that semi-
structured interviews also ensure that the research participants responds more spontaneously and
without extended reflection, which eventually minimizes bias. According to Bryman (2012), this tool
of primary data collection offers reliable, comparable and qualitative data. At the same time, semi-
structured interviews also allow the researcher to observe, understand and interpret the non-verbal
behaviour of the research participants, such as their body language, and derive meaningful insights
from them (Mitchell and Jolley, 2012). Moreover, the inclusion of open-ended questions also offer
an opportunity to identify new ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand (Bryman, 2012).
Freedom of expression of views is another accredited benefit of semi-structured interviews (Walsh
and Wigens, 2003).Mitchell and Jolley (2012) further note that semi-structured interviews are less
intrusive to the research participants since they encourage two-way communication while also
functioning as an extension tool.
3.4.5 Methodology Triangle

Deploying the concept of the methodology triangle, the following three sources of data were used
for the purpose of this study:
1. semi-structured interviews with top construction companies in the UK as primary source of

data
2. journals, books and the internet as secondary sources of data
3. case study approach to back the findings
3.5 Structural Limitations

There are a few inherent limitations of relying heavily on qualitative data and research. One, the
findings generated through qualitative research cannot be generalized to other settings (Munhall
and Chenail, 2008). For example, the best quality system identified for the UK construction industry
may not be presumed to benefit equally in Asia. Secondly, qualitative data suffers with the concerns
55 | P a g e
of lower credibility since the research participants have ample room to report biased responses
(Mitchell and Jolley, 2012). Thirdly, qualitative research is time-consuming process and requires a lot
of effort on the part of the researcher (Thomas, 2006). Finally, the results generated through
qualitative research are subject to researcher bias and idiosyncrasies (Munhall and Chenail, 2008).
Similarly, semi-structured interviews also possess certain inherent drawbacks and weaknesses.
According to Walsh & Wigens (2003), validity of data is always a primary concern for semi-structured
interviews. The authors argue that while conducting a semi-structured interview, it can never be
maintained with 100% accuracy that the research participant is not deliberately lying or is recalling
the truth correctly. Similarly, Opdenakker (2006) suggests that recording data collected through
semi-structured interviews is a difficult task since writing down what people say is potentially
difficult and can be intrusive. Moreover, it is hard to keep up with the flow of conversation and it
also interrupts the interviewee if the interviewer keeps on stopping to note down points. Thirdly,
semi-structured interviews in a time-taking and difficult process, which also includes time taken to
transcribe into a written record of what was said (Walsh & Wigens, 2003). Finally, Mitchell and Jolley
(2012) discuss that the reliability of data generated from semi-structured interviews is potentially
poor and it is potentially difficult to compare the responses between respondents. While they may
be asked the same questions, different respondents may produce completely different data. This
also bring in the element of researcher bias. “By deciding which answers to probe and how to probe
them, the interviewer may affect what participants say in response to the standard questions”
(Mitchell and Jolley, 2012, pp 302).
3.6 Research Ethics

Since the research involved direct contact with human participants, the following ethical
considerations were given due significance, as suggested by Shamoo and Rensik (2009) and Bryman
and Bell (2011):
• It was ensured that the identity of the research participants was not disclosed to any third
party without consent of the participant (if need be). Hence, anonymity of the respondents
was strictly maintained.
• The research participants were not forced to yield any specific responses, and no undue
pressure was exerted on them in any form. The findings of the primary research was,
therefore, honestly reported and without any fabrication and misrepresentation.
56 | P a g e
• No harm, whether physical, mental, or emotional, was inflicted upon the research
participants during the course of the research.
• It was ensured that the integrity of the research and the research process were strictly
maintained during the course of the research.
• Finally, researcher bias was carefully and intentionally avoided at all possible instances
thereby seeking to allow room for objectivity and in order to minimize self-deception.
57 | P a g e
Chapter 4: Findings, Analysis & Discussion
This chapter presents the primary research findings and provides a detailed analysis and discussion
thereupon. It discusses the interview findings with relevance to the research questions identified in
the first chapter, with the underlying aim to seek solutions to each of these questions. The results
are fundamentally generated from the interviews conducted with 20 research participants, from 4
different construction companies operating in diverse locations across UK. The sample included one
engineer, one contractor, one sub-contractor, and one on-site construction employee (classified as
labour) from each firm.
4.1 RQ 1: How and why is TQM important in modern day construction industry?
The engineers identified that the construction industry is essentially the backbone of a nation. Being
a major contributor to the economic wellness of a country, the construction industry plays a crucial
role in the economic development and progression of the state. Hence, ensuring quality in
construction projects is deemed an important component for the success of the industry. Moreover,
while TQM practices have been adopted in the manufacturing and allied industries since long ago, it
is relatively a novel concept in the construction industry. Hence, it can be inferred from the research
findings that TWM in the construction industry has only been adopted in recent times, with the
primary objective of delivering customer satisfaction.
The essential components of implementing TQM in the construction industry, as identified by the
engineers, include the following. Firstly, getting commitment from the client in terms of quality is
the basic step in due process. Project quality assurance plans are then developed and prepares for
all levels of construction work to ensure the establishment of quality standards. The management
then moves forward to generate awareness and educate the staff as well as to change their attitudes
and believes regarding the implementation of TQM. A process approach towards TQM is then
developed and the steps for continuous improvement are then initiated. Staff involvement and
contribution is thoroughly and continuously promoted using quality control circles and motivation
programs. Finally, quality plans are reviewed regularly and performance is measured against
benchmarks.
58 | P a g e
While comparing the implementation of TQM in construction industry vis-à-vis manufacturing and
service industry, the contractors and sub-contractors revealed that the construction industry is more
complex and involves labour intensive work. Hence, labour skills, complex technical skills and
management skills are all required for the successful implementation of TQM in construction
projects. Moreover, since majority of the work is undertaken in open environment, uncertain
weather conditions also greatly affect the progress and success of construction projects. Also, quite
often, the construction industry experiences overshoots from the target date which also results in
exceeding the budget estimates in terms of cost overruns. Finally, the manufacturing industry is
characterized by a steady-state processes, while the construction industry is generally a one-time
process that results in unique projects. The research participants also identified that the
construction industry is also unique in terms of mobility of staff, geographical dispersion the
contractual relationships, diversity in the types and forms of construction projects, and the subtle
forms of waste that often go unnoticed in construction projects.
It was found during the research that the construction companies define TQM as a journey and not a
destination. This conceptualization fundamentally highlights the evolutional nature of quality
management that evolves from the traditional way of management. The complexity of the
construction industry and its customers has grown over the years, both in terms of intensity and
diversity. Hence, implementation of TQM in construction projects enables better quality projects
being delivered to the final customers.
Moreover, research also revealed that the construction industry has always tended to confuse TQM
with quality control and quality assurance. It has always mistakenly believed that compliance with
quality assurance standards such as ISO 9001 and 9002 is sufficient for construction projects and
that it is all that is required to apply TQM in construction projects. However, what remains
imperative to understand is that quality assurance and quality control are only sub-elements of the
total quality technique. While quality assurance and quality control are applied during construction
projects to ensure project quality, TQM is a broader and strategic philosophy that is adopted by the
overall firm and implemented on a continuous basis.
The research participants identified a host of important factors as to why TQM is important to the
construction industry:
59 | P a g e
4.1.1 Focus on Improved Quality
Quality remains the most important critical factor in the success of construction projects. This can in
turn be defined in terms of the customer expectations and meeting of these expectations to yield
customer satisfaction, which will in turn define the quality of the project. TQM, as identified by all
the research participants, is concerned with moving the focus of control from outside the individual
to within, with the objective being to make all the relevant stakeholders accountable for their own
performance as well as to keep them committed to achieving quality. Hence, quality in construction
projects is taken to be user-driven and cannot be imposed from the outside. This implies that for
successful implementation of TQM in construction projects and successful continuous improvements
on activities and processes, thorough knowledge and experience from the workforce is a
requirement to improve the general levels of productivity.
It was discovered during the course of the research that perception of quality was a significant factor
in the process of implementing TQM in construction projects. The contractors and sub-contractors
related TQM implementation to reduced costs while many others still associated it with reduced
follow-up costs. Contractors and sub-contractors were all of the view that TQM helps eliminate
defects and thereby improve quality. All research participants rated quality being an important
feature of the construction projects.
The research respondents were asked about their definition of quality. While engineers associated
quality with satisfying internal and external customers and elimination of defects, the contractors
and sub-contractors related quality with reduced costs, increased profitability and more value for
money. Interestingly, the labour perceived quality as being a function of teamwork and collaboration
between the construction firm and its suppliers and customers. This evidenced the significance of
teamwork to the achievement of TQM in construction projects. However, it was alarming to observe
that none of the construction organizations had a formally implemented quality management
program, while the contractors were still in the planning stage of installing a formal quality
management program. This was somewhat a disturbing finding since contractors and sub-
contractors represent the high grade companies in the country. It can be inferred that the
underlying reason might be the hesitation to implement TQM in the construction industry without
any prior experience in the field. However, there is intense need for the authorities to look into the
60 | P a g e
matter and encourage implementation of TQM techniques in the construction industry. While most
of the research participants asserted benefits accruing from TQM, they yet did not signal the formal
implementation of TQM as a strategic initiative.
Moreover, in terms of the construction industry, TQM is considered as an effective management

tool whereby organizations, people and processes are strategically interwoven in the right manner
so that the right things can be done at the right time. Research participants identified that TQM
essentially emphasises on innovation and adaptation of new technology to eventually improve
quality. It has become one of the most important forces leading innovation in today’s competitive
business environment and has become an integral component of organizational growth and
organizational success in both national and international markets.
4.1.2 Identification of Defects and Continuous Improvement

Using the TQM approach the construction industry is able to identify the causes of defects which can
then be analysed and remedial actions and measures can be taken to handle them. Moreover,
identifying these defects and remedial actions also ensure the safety in construction projects. Also,
the mind-set of the employees can be changes from that of only monitoring to one of continually
aspiring for improvements.
The contractors and sub-contractors perceived quality as being a function of identification and
removal of defects. Hence, ensuring quality to them meant eliminating defects and yielding
competitive advantage for the construction firms with TQM costs being minimal. However, while the
contractors and sub-contractors both view TQM is a strategic manoeuvre to reduce follow-up costs
owing to reduced defects, they also signal the room for continuous improvement in various aspects
of the construction projects.
The research participants were asked to rate the potential for improvement in various work
processes and activities on construction sites. The engineers cited on-site supervision and redesign
processes as holding the maximum potential for improvement through the implementation of TQM
practices. The contractors and sub-contractors identified that testing procedures at job sites and
certification of materials carried the maximum potential for improvement. The labour, on the
61 | P a g e
contrary, stated that TQM improvement initiatives must be directed towards on-site safety and
personnel management of employees since these aspects of construction projects are perceived to
be of great significance for the on-site construction workers.
4.2 RQ 2: What are the benefits of implementing TQM systems in construction

projects?
Each one of the research participants clearly signalled the importance of implementing TQM systems
in construction projects, primarily owing to the host of benefits that are expected to accrue from this
strategy. The benefits identified varied from better control of processes resulting in consistency from
design through delivery, to reduced construction cycle time, reduced quantity of damaged goods in
transit and construction, reduced delivery time to the construction site, increased performance
levels, and improved customer perceptions of the construction firm. However, the participants
further identified that majority of these benefits have not been achieved in the construction industry
due to lack of awareness and focus of employees on customer satisfaction. Nevertheless, they stress
upon the fact that the management objectives such as zero defects, higher productivity, customer
satisfaction, increase in sales and decrease in costs, are all achieved by embodying TQM procedures
in all aspects of the construction projects.
The following have been identified as the major benefits of implementing TQM systems in
construction projects:
4.2.1 Continuous Improvement

The research participants identified that TQM is essentially a collection of improvement-cantered
processes and techniques that aim to transform the management environment in order to trigger
and maintain continuous improvement in work processes. When the quality standards are
implemented and routinely followed on a regular and recurring basis, they form the baseline for
continuous improvement and hence continuous productivity gains. Moreover, this continuous
improvement leads to major shifts in performance levels which in turn foster innovation. Similarly,
avoiding defects by implementing quality programs is usually less costly a technique than the typical
approach to determine defects through inspections and then taken appropriate action to correct
these defects. Hence, continuous improvement derived from TQM implementing in construction
62 | P a g e
projects essentially entails focussing on processes so that they can be improved to become more
efficient.
Process improvements are a relevant added advantage of the continuous improvement concept
derived from TQM implementation in construction projects. Process improvements essentially refer
to the statistical process controls that provide accurate data both for the workforce and the
construction firm, and facilitates them to make better decision regarding improvements. For
example, the contractors and sub-contractors identified that quality improvement teams are
formulated with the objective of identifying and separating the causes of quality problems as well as
proposing solutions to these problems. The proposed solutions are then screened and the best
solution is implemented while subsequent performance is measured and evaluated to determine
further action. The ultimate result is improved processes and quality improvements.
Interestingly, the research participants also discussed a few myths associates with continuous
improvement benefits of implementing TQM. One, it is often argued that ever construction site is
different and hence TQM cannot be generalized to the construction industry at large. However, the
point of contention remains that regardless of the site where the project is being worked upon, the
construction processes are essentially the same, and so are the methods and techniques. Hence,
continuous improvement can be sought on virtually all construction sites and projects. Similarly, it is
perceived that errors and delay are different and can be controlled on a large project as opposed to
a small project. However, the fact is that regardless of the scale of the project, errors and delays still
render negative impacts on the project quality and therefore TQM seeks to minimize such errors and
delays through the continuous improvement philosophy. Another commonly associated myth is
relevant to the cost factor. It is generally perceived that the cost of implementing TQM programs are
too high; costs of training and costs of transforming the company into the quality mode. However, in
practical reality the profits incurred from implementing TQM on a continuous improvement process
far outweigh the costs of a continuous improvement process.
4.2.2 Improved Productivity

It was found during the research that implementation of TQM in construction projects essentially
improves teamwork, communication and efficiency, which collectively improve productivity. With
the prime objective of doing the right things in the first attempt in order to minimize costs as well as
63 | P a g e
seek continually improving processes, TQM improves the competitiveness of the construction
projects, while also improving the effectiveness and flexibility of the projects. The engineers are of
the view that TQM implementation in construction projects is expected to bring along
improvements in quality, and competitiveness while also improving employee relations, operating
procedures, customer satisfaction and financial performance of the projects; the eventual result is
improved overall productivity. Continuous improvements essentially translates into enhanced
productivity levels at both operational and workforce level.
Research participants identified that TQM has emerged as a key philosophy to assist construction
companies in becoming more efficient, more competitive and hence more successful. For instance,
since TQM is essentially a customer-driven concept, it emphasises on organizing to maximize
customer satisfaction through delivering highest possible quality of projects, rather than internal
efficiency.
4.2.3 High Customer Satisfaction

Research participants identify that increased customer satisfaction is one of the most prominent and
desirable benefits of implementing TQM in construction projects. With efficient work processes
seeking continuous improvement, better quality projects are delivered to the customers which
enhances their satisfaction levels eventually translating into repeat purchase behaviour. The
engineers concluded that the main objective of implementing TQM in construction projects is
essentially to achieve high customer satisfaction, regardless of the fact that the customer is internal
(department in the same organization) or external (the final recipient). Moreover, they identified
that the most critical step in achieving customer satisfaction is perhaps the definition of customers’
needs and requirements and then translating them into standards and benchmarks. The contractors
and sub-contractors identified that customer satisfaction must not be limited to meeting customer
expectations but it should go beyond that to seek continuous improvement.
According to the research participants, customer satisfaction in construction projects is

fundamentally derived through four important steps. One, the customers, both internal and
external, are made aware of the quality management initiatives undertaken and deployed by the
relevant construction firm. Secondly, customer expectations are clearly determined and defined to
streamline operations and procedures. Thirdly, customer’s degree of satisfaction is measured and
64 | P a g e
adequately communicated. And finally, appropriate action is taken to improve this customer
satisfaction levels currently attained.
4.2.4 Reduced Costs

The contractors and sub-contractors are most importantly concerned about the costs of the
construction projects at hand. They clearly identify that the cost of non-conformance to standards of
quality are far more than those of implementing the TQM programs. Failure to implement quality
processes fundamentally results in a status quo situation where the unnecessary costs remain and
the improvements are not implemented.
The engineers identified the various costs of non-conformance include accidents, omissions, errors,
poor product quality and time lags. All of these eventually result in rework, recalls, expediting,
removal of punch list items, time extensions, increased insurance costs and often litigation costs and
damages. The contractors and sub-contractors further add that TQM provides the opportunity to
derive cost savings by making improvements in a variety of occasions. For example, costs of
inspection and reviews can be reduced through TQM implementation. Similarly, costs of
unacceptable work can also be reduced; rework, revisions, complaint resolution, insurance
premiums and coverage, removal/replacement, write-offs, overdue receivables, ineffective trade
coordination, etc. The labour representatives essentially classified quality costs into four categories.
Prevention costs are all costs associated with prevention of errors in the project, from design
through delivery. Appraisal costs, all costs associated with the assurance to conformance of quality
standards and requirements. Internal failure costs, all costs associated with the evaluation and
correction of the design before it is released for construction. Finally, external failure costs, all costs
relevant to the output, also including intangible cots such as loss of reputation and goodwill.
4.3 RQ 3: What is the best quality system for construction projects?

The research participants were asked to suggest the important components of the best quality
system to provide a wholesome definition for construction projects. The definition put forward
defines best construction project quality management system (QMS) as the one that covers all
relevant activities related to quality policy, objectives and responsibilities, which are implemented
65 | P a g e
by means such as quality control, quality planning, quality assurance and quality improvement,
within the implemented quality system of the construction company.
The research participants further discussed that quality systems generally encompass both internal
and external aspects. The contractors identified that the internal quality systems essentially covers
the activities that are aimed at providing confidence to the management that the expected quality is
being achieved; also referred to as Quality Management System (QMS). Successful implementation
of a QMS essentially contributes to increased project quality, improves workmanship and project
efficiency, reduced wastage, and hence increased profitability of the company. On the other hand,
an external quality system covers activities that are aimed at inspiring confidence in the customer
that the supplier’s quality system will definitely serve the project that will satisfy the client’s quality
expectations and requirements. This is referred to as Quality Assurance System (QAS).
According to the research findings, ISO 9000-9001 and TQM were identified as the two most widely
acknowledged quality systems for the construction industry:
4.3.1 ISO 9000-9001

The engineers were of the view that ISO 9000 is the best quality system for the construction
industry. They identified that this is the most widely and commonly deployed quality system in the
construction industry worldwide, and prior experience has shown positive results which prove a
strong point for a promising future as well. While ISO 9000 is based on the fundamentals of the eight
management principles, ISO 9001 deals with the organizational requirements to meet the standards
they have to fulfil.
The research respondents discussed that with reference to the construction projects, the various
clauses of ISO 9001 deal with various important aspects of quality managements. For example,
clause 4 relates to the basic of QMS in terms of general and documentation requirements. Clause 5
discusses the management responsibility in terms of commitment, customer focus, planning, quality
policy, and management review, etc. Clause 7 discusses the planning and product realization, design
and development, procurements, production and service provision, customer-related processes, and
control of monitoring and measuring devices. Similarly, clause 8, identified as an important clause of
66 | P a g e
the ISO 9001 requirements, relates to measurement, analysis and improvement aspects in terms of
monitoring and measurement, control for non-conformity, analysis of data, and improvement.
The engineers, contractors and sub-contractors identified that there are essentially four important
elements of an ISO 9001 certified QMS for construction projects:
I. Management responsibilities
II. Resource management
III. Planning
IV. Construction process control
Management Responsibilities
The research participants identified that top management involvement and commitment is a crucial
requirement for ensuring continual improvement of the QMS in a construction project. Without top
management support and commitment, the development and implementation of a QMS is
impossible, and neither is it possible to meet the clients’ requirements or achieve the desired quality
standards. This calls for top management involvement in terms of regular monitoring, establishment
of quality standards and objectives, annual reviews, and ensuring the availability of resources for
smooth construction processes and optimal usage as well.
Resource Management
Resource management, according to the research respondents, emphasises the requirement for
procurement, deployment and controlling of construction resources such as on-site labour, sub-
contractors, and suppliers on other resources such as machinery and materials, as per the project
requirements. Moreover, the contractors stressed upon the need for administration and
management of construction activities such as drawing, method statements, specification, project
quality plan, inspection and testing plan, and so forth. The engineers further discusses that the key
points to effective resource management in terms of construction projects include ensuring resource
availability, establishing programs to develop and enhance the labour resource skill set, ensuring
adequate training of the labour, and timely scheduling and delivery of materials and equipment.
67 | P a g e
Planning
Planning remains a critical element of an effective QMS for construction projects. According to the
contractors and sub-contractors, effective planning essentially requires the company to plan for the
resources and the construction activities through a rigour work program, cost program, project
quality plan, labour, material and plant schedule, a detailed construction method statement, and
inspection and test plan. Once these become the core of the construction process, control and
conformance become easy. What remains imperative is to establish and define the purpose of the
quality system, set up a qualified team that can produce effective quality plans, and maintaining a
customer focus throughout the planning phase.
Construction Process Control
The final component of an effective ISO-9001 certified QMS is construction process control, as
identified by the engineers and contractors both. Hereby the emphasis remains on management the
construction activities in such a fashion that the processes remain in control. The most important
activities include monitoring and supervision of the physical works, cost program, drawing and
specification, and so forth. Moreover, the engineers identify that the final product of the
construction process must always be inspected and tested under the conformance and performance
measurement process.
The contractors discussed that conformance and performance measurement is an essential

requirement to inspect the materials, equipment and workmanship of the construction projects.
While this can be done on daily basis, it can also be done as weekly or monthly site meetings. The
outcome of the process must thoroughly be reviewed by the project management team in rode to
achieve the required quality objectives. Hence, to ensure quality control in construction projects,
established process specification and workmanship standards are clearly defined, processes are
closely monitored, inspections and tests are regularly performance, and construction workers are
hired with special and specific skills.
4.3.2 Total Quality Management (TQM)

The contractors and sub-contractors, in opposition to the views of the engineers, identified TQM as
the most appropriate quality system for construction projects. The reasons cited for why it is the
68 | P a g e
most appropriate intervention are discussed above and so are the benefits derived thereby. The key
findings for this section remain the differences between quality assurance and quality control of a
construction project:
Quality Assurance (QA) Quality Control (QC)
A systematic set of activities to provide A process by which quality is compared to

confidence that requirements are established standards
An activity that established and evaluated An activity that verifies whether or not the
processes project meets the pre-defined standards
Facilitates in establishing the processes Implements the processes
Establishes measurements programs to evaluate Verifies as to whether or not specific attributes

processes are present in the project
Identifies weaknesses in processes and improves Identifies defects
Prevents defects Detects, reports and corrects defects
4.4 RQ 4: What are the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction
projects?
The engineers identify that many construction companies have been frustrated efforts to improve
quality through TQM. However, they failed since they solely focused on financial measures instead
of quality measures. Similarly, the contractors and sub-contractors discussed that most TQM
implementations fail due to too much-too soon effort, and due to lack of proper foundation and
focus for implementation. Hence, for a successful TQM implementation in construction projects, it
remains imperative to understand the critical success factors for TQM implementation.
4.4.1 Continuous Learning

Research particularly highlights the fact that TQM is essentially a way of planning, organizing and
understanding each task of the construction project at each individual level. Therefore, it remains
imperative to maintain the notion of continuous learning and allied concepts such as partnership,
69 | P a g e
collaboration, and empowerment, as major facets of the concept of TQM itself. Moreover,
continuous learning emphasizes the need for change in the behaviour and culture of the
construction company if it is to become a learning organization. Hence, it can be inferred that TQM
application in construction projects essentially facilitates the management in adopting a strategic
concept of quality which fundamentally focuses on prevention and not detection of problem,
thereby ensuring continuous improvement.
Since the underlying philosophy of implementing TQM in construction project remains to discover
and understand better work processes, these can only be delivered by implementing TQM as a
major organizational change. This will require transformation to the culture, processes, believes,
normal and policies, and strategic priorities of the construction firm. Moreover, research
participants also identify that the single most important determinant of success of a construction
firm implementing TQM is the ability to translate, integrate and eventually institutionalize TQM as a
core concept embedded into everyday practice and behaviours.
4.4.2 Education and Training

Engineers, contractors and sub-contractors are all of the view that education and training of the on-
site workers is integral to the success of the construction projects. The particularly stressed on the
importance of training in terms of developing adequate knowledge and skills to perform the on-site
jobs and activities, as well as to inculcate within them the right values, knowledge and skills relevant
to TQM issues and activities. The engineers specifically cited lack of appropriate training and
adequate knowledge as the primary reasons for failure of TQM initiatives. Therefore, the labour
must necessarily be motivate to engage in quality-oriented behaviour and relevant training to align
their quality goals to their everyday tasks and activities.
In more generic terms, strategic quality management concepts must be necessarily put into practice
fundamentally by including the quality objectives into the strategic planning process. This can
essentially be done through strategic planning frameworks, as identified by the engineers. The
contractors and sub-contractors identified that initiatives such as quality function deployment (QFD)
may be deployed to provide specific instructions for executing strategic concepts. Similarly, they
further discussed that internal and external issues necessitate the development of strategic quality
management and emphasized the need to adopt new technologies.
70 | P a g e
Moreover, it remains important to understand the significance of training in terms of implementing
TQM in construction projects. The contractors are of the view that the training programs must
necessarily include an orientation to the basic concepts and procedures of TQM which will
essentially provide the labour with a fundamental knowledge that can later be linked to advanced
concepts. The engineers stressed upon the fact that TQM requires a participative, disciplined and
organized approach to improve work processes and, therefore, encouraging and building teamwork
(as well as teamwork training) are important aspects of TQM training. The labour respondents
further added that training programs must also cover topics such as cause-and-effect analysis, team
problem solving, cost of quality measurement, rudimentary statistical methods, interpersonal
communication, and evaluative techniques for quantitative information.
4.4.3 Employee Empowerment and Involvement

Relevant to employee training and education is their involvement and empowerment. Employee
empowerment and involvement are expected to enhance the self-esteem of the individual workers
as well as improve their ability to solve problems and make low-risk decisions without supervision
and assistance. The contractors are of the view that worker motivation, responsibility and
accountability are all generic concepts that can benefit the quality systems of a given construction
firm. Moreover, the sub-contractors identified that the primary causes of ongoing quality problems
on construction sites fundamentally include lack of team work, conflict and lack of worker
involvement which can essentially be overcome by personally participating in quality improvement
activities and programs. Hence, the success of TQM initiatives somehow does rest on the employee
involvement and empowerment in terms of construction projects.
Other factors that tend to enhance employee satisfaction include commitment and leadership of the
top management, participation, recognition and reward, teamwork, and professional training and
growth prospects. Of these, all research participants stressed upon the need for teamwork for the
TQM initiative to be a success in construction projects. They identified that teams are very important
under TQM programs, particularly for achieving project goals. TQM fundamentally recognized that a
team approach works better for achieving project goals and is a more effective strategy than
individual working. Also, the contractors and sub-contractors highlighted that these teams must not
be limited to internal organizational members but must also include vendors and external customers
71 | P a g e
under its umbrella as well. The engineers stressed upon the fact that the essence of a quality circle is
to have collective awareness and efforts to attain quality.
4.4.4 Customer Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is perhaps the most importance of all critical success factors for a construction
project. A construction project that outperforms the competition in terms of satisfying customer
expectations and requirements is the one termed as successful. Hence, being able to anticipate and
quickly respond to customer demands with innovative ideas (designs) and technologies remain the
key to produce constructed facilities that satisfy or exceed customer expectations. Moreover, the
engineers identified that using latest technologies and techniques for process improvement and
capable management also tend to enhance customer satisfaction levels, while neglect in these
aspects may lead to disaster. Hence, it can be inferred that without a customer focus, the TQM
program will lack the foundations on which to build the projects further.
The contractors and sub-contractors further identified crucial aspects of construction projects that
must be taken into account to enhance customer satisfaction. For example, they mentioned face-to-
face dealings with the end customer as an important method of enhancing customer satisfaction. In
order to be able to meet the customers’ requirements, it remains highly important to interact with
them face-to-face to better understand their needs and thereby meet their requirements. Similarly,
being friendly and approachable was also identified as an important factor; the clients must realize
that the company handling their project is friendly, courteous and always open to suggestions and
requirements. Moreover, the labour representatives mentioned that having a clearly defined
customer service policy is another important method of enhancing customer satisfaction. This not
only saves a lot of time and effort in the long run but also provides a convenient opportunity for the
customers to air their enquiries and concerns.
When asked about various methods that customer satisfaction can be sought and improved, the
research respondents mentioned a host of techniques including regularly seeking customer feedback
through a properly implemented system, conducting thorough market research to understand the
customer requirements and behaviour, conducting focus groups to understand what the customers
are thinking, and scheduling regular customer visits to the project site so that they may know the
progress of the project.
72 | P a g e
The labour representatives further identified a list of key indicators of customer satisfaction for both
the physical products and the services. In terms of services, the customers seek friendliness and
courteousness, safety and security, responsiveness to requests and queries, approachability of the
service provider, willingness of the construction company to listen, and honesty and ability to
communicate in clear language. In terms of the physical aspects of the construction projects, the
customers seek reliability, aesthetics, adaptability, usability, functionality and appropriateness.
Taken together, all these indicators contribute to the list of critical success factors for enhancing
customer satisfaction.
4.4.5 Supplier Quality Management

The study revealed that TQM realized the importance of supplier involvement in the construction
industry. The primary justification for this rationale is that quality of any particular stage of the
construction project is dependent on the quality of the previous stage. For instance, the contractors
cited the example of a team of carpenters who frequently complain about adapting their work to
that done by the electricians and plumbers. Hence, there is dire need for careful identification of the
requirements and respect for each other’s needs. Therefore, supplier management seeks serious
attention from the TQM philosophy. Maintain close and long-term relationships with the suppliers
eventually results in achieving the best economy and quality, as well as drives loyalty from the
suppliers. Moreover, maintaining open communication with the suppliers can further facilitate
understanding of the customers’ requirements. The ultimate result will be high quality construction
projects that surpass customer expectations.
The contractors and sub-contractors particularly stressed upon the need for efficient supplier
management and supplier quality management. This essentially calls for having fewer yet
dependable contractors and sub-contractors, reliable supplier process control and strong inter-
dependence of supplies and customers. Moreover, strong and effective purchasing policies must be
implemented that emphasize quality rather than price. The engineers also stressed upon the
importance of having supplier quality control procedures in place as well as adequate supplier
assistance activities in place in terms of quality development. They cited the example of materials
being a major source of quality problems more than often which tends to greatly affect customer
satisfaction. Hence, instead of relying on tools such as acceptance sampling to establish materials
73 | P a g e
quality, it might be a better idea to purchase from a limited number of qualified and reliable
suppliers who are certified and trustworthy.
4.4.6 Design Quality Management

Design quality management relates to maximizing the efficiency of designs of the construction
projects to reduce both the production and maintenance costs, as well as protect the environment.
For example, the use of recyclable material in construction substantially reduced the environmental
impact. Hence, design management as a critical success factor aims to cove the impact of
construction projects on society and environment and resources.
Moreover, the engineers identified the importance of superior designs as a critical success factor for
the success of construction projects. They discussed that superior designs essentially result in
distinct competitive capabilities such as flexibility and fast delivery of the projects. In the
construction projects, every new design is thoroughly reviewed before construction and before any
experimental design is used extensively in structure design. Moreover, clarity of design specifications
and the chances to avoid frequent redesigns remain the key to success. Similarly, detail design,
schedule and cost estimates, design evaluations, and control of designs activities, all are important
components of design quality management. Hence, it can be inferred thereby that good design
quality management is expected to result in an excellent quality of construction projects which will
consequentially improve customer perceptions of quality as well as enhance customer satisfaction.
4.4.7 Process Management

According to the research participants, process management is one of the most prominent critical
success factors for quality improvements in construction projects. Process management essentially
focuses on managing the construction process so that it operates as expected and without any
breakdowns and delays. The engineers signalled the need for process management in order to
reduce the rework and waste due to misspecification of the processing parameters. Similarly, the
contractors and sub-contractors stated that process management offers clarity of ownership and
reduced reliance on inspection. The labour identified pre-work, demobilisation and execution as
important features of process management. Hence, process management can be classified as a
critical success factor for delivering high quality construction projects.
74 | P a g e
4.4.8 Statistical Process Control
Statistical process control (SPC), as defined by the engineers, is a fundamental approach to quality
control and quality improvement that is essentially based on objective data and analysis. This
basically involves the use of statistical methods to manage and control production quality with the
intention of offering high quality projects. The engineers identified that they are provided with
thorough training on SPC to support continuous improvement and better response to customer
needs. Breaking down the term into three components – statistical, process, and control – the
engineers discusses that the approach essentially focuses on processes and determines the quality
of production output by the process that produced that output. The underlying assumption here
remains that by focusing on how work is done and what process factors affect the construction
project output, quality can be improved and the number of mistakes can be reduced. Hence, SPC in
due regard is a method of collecting and analysing data about processes to facilitate better
understanding of the processes and hence improving them. Improvements of processes eventually
leads to better quality products and services, and less waste and rework. The second component of
SPC – variation and statistics – relates to the fact that any process variation fundamentally results
from the different factors in the system that interact while the construction project is ongoing.
Examples may include temperature, humidity, vibration, etc. quantitative methods and statistical
tools can be used to quantify variation, and identify causes for such variations, and thereby find
solutions to reduce or eliminate the unwanted variation. Monitoring progress hence becomes easy
through statistical procedures. The final component – control – relates to identifying the causes of
variation, both common and special. While common causes of variation in construction projects can
include instances such as replacement of old machinery with newer technology, special causes may
refer to sporadic events such as damage to materials during transit and falling ill of a machine
operator. Hence, a process is said to be in control if is only affected by common causes of variation;
such a project is stable and its performance is predicted within limits of variation.
Interestingly, while the engineers highly stressed upon the importance of control in processes, they
simultaneously discussed that control is not a substitute for continuous improvement; it is but a
means of maintaining improvements. Hence, data collected through SPC can be used productively to
identify further areas for improvement in the project design and processes.
75 | P a g e
4.4.9 Quality Culture
All the research participants emphasized the significance of a strong quality organizational culture
for a successful implementation of TQM in construction projects. They identify culture as being more
powerful than anything else prevalent in an organization, and it has to do with everything, from
implementation to how success is actually achieved. The contractors and sub-contractors related to
factors such as using information for improvement, job security and equality based compensation,
teamwork and collaboration, and an environment conducive to learning being integral components
of a quality culture in a particular construction company. Such factors not only tend to increase
productivity and quality but also enhance customer satisfaction as well as employee satisfaction.
Moreover, lack of such a quality oriented culture or a mismatch of the organizational culture to the
requirements of quality management programs may result in failure of the TQM. More importantly,
since in the construction industry the company culture and project culture both co-exist, there is
intense need for integration of the two to serve success for TQM.
76 | P a g e
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Construction projects are one-of-a-kind production with highly complex products and extremely
fragmented supply chain. While construction industries face serious challenges in terms of
maintaining expected customer satisfaction levels, TQM has evolved as an effective management
tool to ensure achievement of set standards and successful productivity improvements in the
construction industry. It has proven itself as a way of managing processes and operations to improve
the overall effectiveness, efficiency, cohesiveness, flexibility and competitiveness of the business at
large. Implementing TQM in the construction industry, however, is different, and the construction
industry does not essentially follow the lead of manufacturing when it comes to TQM. Nevertheless,
the three essential components on which the entire notion of TQM in construction projects rests are
customer satisfaction, employee involvement, and process improvement.
It must be clearly understood, however, that by adopting TQM in construction projects does not
ensure success on the face of it. The results cannot be achieved instantaneously; it requires time to
adapt the strategic initiative as well as for the results to seep in and translate into success.
Implementing TQM in construction calls for intense organizational change that will completely
modify the organizational culture, policies, and processes, believes and priorities.
This research was aimed at studying the implementation of TQM approach in the construction
industry of UK, with the fundamental objective of delivery high quality construction projects. It
investigated the key theories behind the conceptual framework of TQM and assessed their relevance
to the construction industry in general. Key benefits of and potential impediments to such an
implementation initiative were identified alongside the course of the study, to finally identify and
highlight the critical success factors for successful implementation of TQM in the construction
industry of UK. This chapter presents concluding remarks on the primary findings and attempts to
solve each of the research questions presented in the first chapter.
5.1 Research Objective 1

To investigate the importance of TQM in delivering successful construction projects.
77 | P a g e
TQM for the construction industry has evolved as a strategic tool to remain competitive in the
national as well as international markets. Considering the fact that majority of failures in the
construction industry are primarily due to design, constructional faults ad product faults, TQM
provides a reliable technique to ensure the delivery of high quality construction projects with
minimum waste and virtually zero defects.
It was established during the course of the study that the construction industry is often associated
with a patchy reputation in terms of non-completion of projects on time. The UK industry in
particular has traditionally earned a reputation as a costly, inefficient and confrontational business.
Application of efficient quality management systems, therefore, remains the need of the hour for
the construction industry of UK. While the industry’s client are progressing and become more
demanding, TQM has evolved as an effective technique for enhancing design and service quality,
improving building lead times, and promoting innovations in technology. While seeking sources of
innovation and points of reference from the manufacturing industry, the construction industry has
turned to successful concepts such as JIT, TWM, Six Sigma and Reengineering. Implicitly, the success
of such concepts in the construction industry of UK is heavily dependent upon a culture of teamwork
and cooperation both at intra-organizational and inter-organizational levels.
Moreover, the study concludes that TQM has been adopted by the construction industry as an
initiative to solve quality related problems and to meet (and exceed) the needs and requirements of
the final customer.

To identify the advantages of implementing TQM systems in construction projects
The research participants enumerated a host of key benefits that the TQM implementation in
construction projects brings along. For customers these include fewer problems with the project,
better customer care services and hence greater satisfaction. For the workforce TQM translates into
empowerment, more recognition and more training and professional development. For the
78 | P a g e
construction company on the whole, TQM leads to improved project quality, reduced costs, more
motivated staff, increased productivity, reduced defects, and faster problem solving.
The most valued benefit derived out of TQM implementation for construction projects in particular
is continuous improvement. Since the success of a construction project essentially relies on the
achievement of high quality, seeking this improved quality through the concept of continuous
improvement serves major benefits to the industry. Competitive advantage is another widely cited
benefit of implementing TQM in the construction projects. This competitive advantage itself comes
through benefits such as improved productivity and reduced costs.it furthermore remains
imperative to establish that competition in the construction industry is not only in between the
construction firms but also from other sectors.
The study concludes that while the interface between the construction and non-construction
industries continues to grow wider, the contractors are exposed to intense competition from a
greater proliferation of outside companies. Hence, TQM approach such as quality improvement
teams, quality circles, self-inspection, direct employee involvement and empowerment,
collaboration with the suppliers for quality efforts, and just-in-time deliveries, all contribute to
enhanced competitive advantage for the construction firms. Similarly, various improvement tools
such as statistical process control, process management, and re-engineering also add to competitive
advantage of construction firms. Also, measurement systems such as customer satisfaction and cost
of quality monitoring play a significant role in due regard.

To explore various quality systems and identify the best quality system to be used in construction
projects.
It was found during the study that the construction industry of UK is more than happy with the
accreditation to ISO 9000 series and is a bit hesitant is pursuing TQM programs. The most commonly
cited reason for this apprehension is that the ISO 9000 series has provided enough of a ‘culture
shock for employees’ and another blow in the form of TQM was not desirable. Moreover, owing to
79 | P a g e
the current industrial climate of the construction industry, majority construction companies focus
more on more pressing matters such as survival concerns.
Unfortunately, despite the hail of expected benefits to be derived from TQM, the UK construction
industry has been reluctant to embrace the full fledge concept of TQM. The fundamental reason
might be the age old historical legacy of the construction industry in terms of being hesitant to
change. However, as more and more benefits of TQM come to the forefront, the industry is trying to
catch up with the TQM revolution that has essentially transformed numerous industries. It can,
however, cannot be ignored that the inherent nature of the construction industry itself also poses
barriers for effective quality management systems. For instance, the construction industry relies on
design and assembles structures made up of other industries which calls for formidable problems for
the construction industry in terms of quality management.

To analyse the critical success factors in delivering high quality construction projects.
The study was aimed at identifying the critical success factors for the implementation of TQM in the
UK construction industry. The primary findings suggest the following as important factors:
continuous learning, education and training, employee empowerment and involvement, customer
satisfaction, supplier quality management, design quality management, process management,
statistical process control, and quality culture.
The primary objective of construction projects is to satisfy the customers’ needs and requirements,
which has been identified as a critical success factor for the implementation of TQM in construction
projects. This is fundamentally achieved through continuous improvement in product design and
process management. Companies that can deliver quality projects will be able to compete in the
globalization era. Similarly, supplier quality management through collaboration and partnerships
also has been identified another critical success factor. This will also include clear communication
with the suppliers and strategic supplier quality management.
80 | P a g e
Apart from customer satisfaction and supplier quality management, design quality management and
statistical process control are amongst the other important success factors for the implementation
of TQM in construction projects. While design quality management aims at maximizing the efficiency
of design of the construction projects in order to reduce costs and defects, it also seeks to improve
the sustainability of the projects. On a similar note, statistical process control aims at controlling and
improving quality by means of using statistical tools and techniques. The data collected through SPC
can then be used productively to identify further areas for improvement in the project design and
processes.
Employee empowerment, employee training and education, and employee involvement also have
been identified as major factors of influence. Training and education will not only develop the
knowledge and skills to perform on-site jobs and activities, but will also create a culture conducive to
TQM implementation. Coupled with training, employee empowerment and involvement will
enhance the self-esteem of the workers, improve their problem solving capacities, build up
motivation levels and eventually improve productivity. The end result will be improved quality of the
It can further be inferred from the research findings that the most important factors that act as
major impediments to the successful implementation of TQM in construction projects include lack of
top management commitment and poor vision for implementation. The former factor relates to the
reluctance of top management’s participation in quality management activities, discouraging
employee involvement and hesitation to invest in employees’ training and education. The later
factor relates to the lack of a clear long-term vision for the implementation of the TQM strategy,
inability to devise and implement carefully designs performance plans and product quality goals, and
so forth.
5.5 Contribution
The research makes valuable contribution to the field of TQM as well as construction project
management, providing useful information to the UK construction companies when applying TQM
tools and techniques. This will not only help them overcome the potential barriers that may deter
them from pursuing TQM in construction projects but will also facilitate them in defining the
81 | P a g e
perceived benefits of the process itself. Moreover, besides the UK construction industry, the study
can offer a baseline for other countries as well.
The study concludes that TQM implementation is critical for the modern-day construction
companies to remain in business, in the light of rapid changes in the business environment as well as
increased demand of customers in terms of high quality projects. Hence, this research provides up-
to-date evidence on the implementation of TQM and its impact on construction companies’
competitiveness, productivity and service quality.
Finally, the study is intended to offer a background for further studies which might be initiated by
other researchers both within and outside the UK.
82 | P a g e
Chapter 6: Recommendations
It remains imperative to highlight the fact that research in the field of construction management,
and in particular appertaining to the application of TQM in the construction industry, is not utilized
to its full potential. Although TQM has evolved as a scientific technique to managing and improving
quality and is gaining popularity and momentum, very little research has been undertaken so far to
determine as to whether or not the organizations that have implemented TQM has witnessed
improved performance and enhanced competitive position. It has generally been observed that
despite the significance of quality to an organization’s competitive position in the market, the
contribution of quality to organizational performance has largely been unexplored.
6.1 Partnerships and Collaborations

Partnering is of the most effective way of overcoming any conflicts between the actors in the
construction process. This can either take the form of a single project agreement or that of a longer
term strategic agreement that covers a number of projects. Project partnering in construction
projects essentially refers to forming a synergy amongst the contracting and related parties. This
collaboration is essentially aimed at completing a project in the most efficient and cost-effective
manner, keeping in lines of the common goals set at the outset of the agreement. Moreover, this
cooperative is open to communication and seeks to solve the problems collectively when they arise.
The underlying assumption remains that all the related parties will work as if they were a single
organization. Examples of partnerships may include those between the architects, between
engineers, between designers and contractors, between contractors and sub-contractors, and
between the contractors and the suppliers.
What remains crucial to the success of such partnering is commitment and mutual trust and
discipline. Moreover, such initiatives tend to exert considerable positive impact on the overall
project performance as well as on the customer satisfaction levels. Moreover, partnering requires
involves the inclusion of the most significant elements of design management such as customer
focus, management commitment, process management, strategic planning, and cultural change.
However, it must also be kept in mind that the challenges of partnering are to be addressed
alongside too. Organizational culture, climate and structure are three major barriers to this initiative
83 | P a g e
since resistance to change always comes from within. Partners in the construction industry must,
therefore, necessarily realize that while organizational change is not an easy process, it is still an
important aspect of TQM implementation and hence requires a lot of effort.
6.2 Standardization
Another major issue facing the construction industry is the non-standardization of procedures and
the unavailability of a standard definition of ‘quality’. The results of this study indicate that it is
essentially difficult to define quality in the construction industry, primarily owing to the fact that
each project is unique, has its own set of goals and requirements, and is one-of-a-kind. It is,
therefore, particularly hard to quantify quality. While the engineers view quality in terms of
longevity and sustainability of the project, the contractors and subcontractors define it in terms of
aesthetics, materials and customer satisfaction. Hence, fore mostly a standardized definition of
quality must be devised for the construction industry.
Secondly, standardization of critical success factors of the TQM implementation in the construction
industry is a necessity. For example, if all contractors use the same customer satisfaction
questionnaire, it will become easier and practically possible to compare the quality of construction
projects as well as the quality records of the contractors. Moreover, it will offer a benchmark to
analyse which factors contribute to higher customer satisfaction and high quality.
Similarly, similarities of the different stages of the construction process must be drawn together to
seek standardization. Hence, instead of emphasizing the uniqueness of each construction process
and project, the contractors and designers must necessarily focus on the similarities amongst these
processes and make use of standardization, prefabrication and system-building.
6.3 Competitive Bidding and Pre-Qualification

It is further recommended to avoid competitive bidding, which is a major obstacle to
implementation of quality programs in the construction industry. The underlying assumption
traditionally had remained that low cost essentially means low quality. However, this is not the case
with competitive bidding in recent times. Interestingly, the UK construction industry is rapidly
84 | P a g e
adopting the competitive bidding process which has resulted in superior quality construction
projects. However, with the introduction of the pre-selection of contractors in the bidding process,
the service quality is particularly enhanced. Furthermore, pre-qualification criteria requires that the
bidders must necessarily meet the requirements of performance, experience, safety and
management programs implemented, before they can be screened for the process.
6.4 Quality Culture – Clan Culture

Changing the culture of the construction industry in UK is perhaps the need of the hour. Here is must
be clearly identified that while being a complex phenomenon, organizational culture is embedded in
the behavioural norms and hidden assumptions of the organization. The study indicates that the
implementation of quality management programs essentially requires a thorough understanding of
the organizational culture and the changes needed therein for quality to become a state of mind of
the organization staff.
However, although organizational culture is understood to play a significant role in adapting TQM
and other innovative solutions, no recent studies have been conducted to examine its role in the
context of the construction industry. What is required is a quality culture that is conducive to the
implementation of TQM, essentially characterized by team-work, employee involvements and
corporate commitment. The clan culture is perhaps the most suitable culture for implementation of
quality programs since it treats the customers as partners and employees as family.
6.5 Corporate Social Responsibility

Construction industry is plagued with environmental related issues that the construction processes
render on the surrounding communities. These include (but are not limited to) environmental
degradation, to environmental pollution, loss of biodiversity, contamination of water resources, land
usage change, and deforestation. Hence, while implementing TQM as quality management program
in the construction industry of UK, it is highly recommended that a keen eye is maintained on the
social responsibility aspect of construction. For example, when setting the quality goals, reducing
emissions of greenhouse gases from the construction process and safe waste disposal must also be
included into the list of objectives. Similarly, energy efficiency of residential construction projects
must be taken into account during the design phase. At the same time, the quality goals must
85 | P a g e
necessarily include relevant measures to deal with recycling and recovery, raw material extraction
and consumption, aesthetic degradation, water use and waste water generation, increased
transport need and the consequent pollution arising from it, resource consumption and
environmental loadings, delays in ecosystem wellbeing, safe disposal of toxic construction waste,
and so forth. Enhancing and better protecting the natural environmental must stay a top priority of
the construction companies and adequate measures must be included in the quality goals while
implementing TQM in construction projects. This will not only result in buildings that are durable
and long lasting but will also ensure that the future environment is safe and that he materials used
are derived from sustainable resources. Moreover, the use of ‘smart’ building materials will also
pave path of further advancement in eco-innovations.
6.6 Areas of Future Research

Over the course of the study a host of areas of potential research were identified and are discussed
as under:
Further and in depth research can be conducted on the measurement of TQM implementation in the
UK construction industry in the form of Information Technology related software. It can, for
instance, be proposed that a customized software be implemented in the construction companies
that defines the function of each construction process within a given project and also defines the
defects associated with each of these processes. This can essentially be done by setting up a control
chart based on quality objectives and any deviations from these objectives will be identified by the
software. Studying the success of such a software carries immense potential for future research.
Further research can also be conducted to identify and study the impact of changes that occur in
construction firms owing to the implementation of TQM. A wide array of measurement tools can be
investigated in due regard such as time efficiency, turnover, and market share, etc. to study the
impact of TQM on system improvements in the UK construction industry. This will also facilitate
devising a best practice strategy for the adoption of TQM system in the industry.
86 | P a g e
Similarly, the impact of external factors can also be studied on the adoption of TQM program in
construction industry. These factors may include (but not limited to) government regulations,
political relations, economic wellness of the country, lack of efficient equipment, availability or lack
of technological support, transportation delays, and so forth. The focus of study can further be
refined to investigate the impact of any one most significant factor, such as government
commitment to provide financial and technical support, on the implementation of TQM and project
success.
Moreover, the role of engineers, contractors and sub-contractors can be individually studied to
investigate as to how they contribute to the successful implementation of TQM in the construction
industry. This may include studying various processes of the construction projects and the role of all
relevant stakeholders therein, such as procurement process, design stage, and so forth.
It is further suggested that the appropriate levels of human as well as financial resources are
investigated that play a significant role in the successful implementation of TQM in the construction
industry. The study can further attempt to explore the key skills that tend to enhance construction
site management (such as teamwork), the psychological relationship between the workers and the
community, and the local acceptance of construction related impacts on the community.
Finally, further research may also be conducted to explore the perceived significance of other quality
management systems such as Six Sigma and Lean Construction with particular relevance to the
construction industry of UK.
87 | P a g e
Chapter 7: Project and Risk Management
7.1 Project Risks

The primary risk involved in this dissertation was to successfully meet the deadlines for various
milestones, illustrated in the form of a gantt chart in the proceeding section. Time management,
therefore, was a major concern for the researcher. This was essentially done through devising a time
table for each of the research phases, highlighting the important milestones and also setting
deadline targets for achieving these milestones.
Another relevant risk was primarily associated with the human subjects. Generally speaking, for
researches involving human subjects, there are significant chances that the subjects might be
physically, psychologically and/or socio-economically disturbed. Hence, the researcher for this study
ensured that no physical, mental of emotional harm was inflicted upon the research participants,
and their self-esteem was not affected.
One of the most pertinent risks faced during the course of primary research was the safety and
wellbeing of the research himself. While the interviews with the on-site workers involved visiting
construction sites, there was considerable risk posed to the research’s physical state and health.
Important measures were taken in due regard to ensure the researcher did not encounter any
issues. For example, personal protective equipment was worn while visiting the construction sites.
88 | P a g e
7.2 Important Milestones
Month April May June July August

Week 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2
Task
Background Research
Identification of Aims and Objectives
Proposal Submission
Literature Review
Interview appointments
Interviews (Data Collection)
Compiling Data
Generating Results and Documenting
Analysis of Results
Conclusion
Final Review/Proofing
Final Submission
References
1. Aized, T. (2012) Total Quality Management and Six Sigma. [Online] Available at:
http://www.mescenter.ru/images/abook_file/Total_Quality_Management_and_Six_Sigma.p
df [Accessed 2 April 2015]
2. Aliyu, A.A., Bello, M.U. & Martin, D. (2014) Positivist and Non-Positivist Paradigm in Social
Research: Conflicting Paradigms or Perfect Partners? Journal of Management and
Sustainability, 4(3), pp 79-95.
3. Arditi, D. and Gunayadin, M. H. (1998) Total Quality Management in the Construction
Process. International Journal of Project Management, 15(4), pp 235-243.
4. Arumugam, V., K. B. Ooi, K.B. and Fong T.C. (2008) TQM practices and quality management
performance: An investigation of their relationship using data from ISO 9001: 2000 firms in
Malaysia. The TQM Journal, 20(6), pp 636-650.
5. Asim, M., Zaman, S., Zarif, T. (2013) Implementation of Total Quality Management in
Construction Industry: A Pakistani Perspective. Journal of Management and Social Sciences,
9(1), pp 4-39.
6. Baden-Hallard, R. (1993) Total Quality in Construction Projects. Thomas Telford: London
7. Bagad, V.S. (2008) Total Quality Management. Technical Publications: India.
8. Bardoel, E.A. and Sohal, A.S. (1999) The role of the cultural audit in implementing quality
improvement programs. The International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 16
(3), pp. 263-77.
9. Bennett, J. (n.d.). ISO 9001 quality systems. [Online] Iso9001consultant.com.au. Available at:
http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/FAQs-quality-systems-management.html [Accessed
10 June 2015].
10. Bhattacharyya, D.K. (2009) Research Methodology. Excel Books: New Delhi.
11. Brun, A. (2011) Total Quality Management. Quality Culture, Leadership and Motivation.
[Online] Available at:
http://upcommons.upc.edu/pfc/bitstream/2099.1/14422/1/Total%20Quality%20Manageme
nt.pdf [Accessed 12 May 2015]
12. Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011) Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
13. Bryman, A. (2012) Social Research Methods. OUP: Oxford
14. Chandana (n.d.) The Concept of Zero Defects in Quality Management. [Online] Available at:
http://www.simplilearn.com/concept-of-zero-defects-quality-management-article [Accessed
12 June 2015]
15. Chandrupatla, T.R. (n.d.) Quality and Reliability in Engineering. [Online] Available at:
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/15221/excerpt/9780521515221_excerpt.pdf
[Accessed 2 April 2015]
16. Charantimath (2003) Total Quality Management. Pearson Education: India.
17. Chary (2004) Production and Operations Management. Tata McGraw-Hill Education: India.
18. Chowdhury, S. (2005) The Ice Cream Maker: An Inspiring Tale About Making Quality The Key
Ingredient in Everything You Do. Doubleday, Random House: New York.
19. Creswell, J.W. (1998) Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
20. Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
21. Crosby, P. B. (1982) Quality is Free.
22. Cutcher-Gershenfeld, J. (2004). Six Sigma Systems Principles.
23. Dale, B. (2011) Total Quality Management, (Revised Edition). Pearson Education: India.
24. David.A and Gunaydin, H.M. (1997) Total Quality Management in the Construction Process.
International Journal of Project Management, 8.
25. Deming, W.E. (1982) Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position.
26. Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (2003) The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research, in
Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (eds.) Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials, 2nd ed,
SAGE Publications, Inc., California, pp. 1-45.
27. G.E., (n.d.). What Is Six Sigma? The Roadmap to Customer Impact. [Online] Available at:
http://www.ge.com/sixsigma/SixSigma.pdf [Accessed 11 June 2015].
28. Garvin, D.A. (1987) Competing on the Eight Dimensions of Quality. Harvard Business Review.
[Online] Available at: https://hbr.org/1987/11/competing-on-the-eight-dimensions-of-
quality [Accessed 10 June 2015]
29. Goldkuhl, G. (2012) Pragmatism vs. Interpretivism in Qualitative Information Systems
Research. European Journal of Information Systems, 21(2), pp 135-146.
30. Harrington, H.J., Voehl, F.and Wiggin, H. (2012) Applying TQM to the Construction Industry.
The TQM Journal, 24(4), pp 352-362.
31. Hassan, M., Hassan, S., Shaukat, S., Nawaz, M.S. (2013) Relationship between TQM Element
and Organizational Performance: An Empirical Study of Manufacturing Sector of Pakistan.
Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 7(1), pp -1-18.
32. Hatch, M. J. and Cunliffe, A. L. (2006), Organization Theory, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
1|Page
33. Hox, J.J. & Boeiji, H.R. (2005) Data Collection, Primary vs. Secondary. Encyclopedia of Social
Measurement, 1, pp 593-599.
34. ISO (2012) Quality Management Principles. [Online] Available at:
http://www.iso.org/iso/qmp_2012.pdf [Accessed 27 May 2015]
35. Juran, J.M. and Gryna, F.M. (1980) Quality Planning and Analysis – From product
development through Use.
36. Kaboub, F. (2008) Positvist Paradigm. [Online] Available at:
http://personal.denison.edu/~kaboubf/Pub/2008-Positivist-Paradigm.pdf [Accessed 20 June
2015]
37. Knowles, G. (2011) Six Sigma. [Online] Graeme Knowles & Ventus Publishing ApS.
38. Kothari, C.R. (2008) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age
International: New Delhi.
39. Lakhe, R.R. and Mohanty, R.P. (1994) Total Quality Management. Concepts, Evolution and
Acceptability in Developing Economies. International Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management, 11(9), pp 9-33.
40. Lambert, L., Carr, D. and Hubbard, S. (2006). Continuous Quality Improvement Process
Tailored for the School Nutrition Environment. [Online] Mississippi: Applied Research Division
The University of Southern Mississippi. Available at:
http://www.nfsmi.org/documentlibraryfiles/PDF/20080221022907.pdf [Accessed 11 June
2015].
41. Loughlin, M. (2008) Total Quality Management within the Context of the Emerging Business
Environment. [Online] Available at:
https://weemancom.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/discuss-the-key-elements-of-total-
quality-management.pdf [Accessed 7 June 2015]
42. Mandal, S.K. (2009) Total Quality Management – Principles and Practice, 1 Ed. Vikas
Publishing House: India.
43. McCubbrey, D. (n.d.) TQM’s Seven Basic Elements. [Online] Available at:
https://www.boundless.com/users/235420/textbooks/business-fundamentals/operations-
management-7/special-topic-total-quality-management-34/tqm-s-seven-basic-elements-
177-15480/ [Accessed 23 May 2015]
44. Melsa, J.L. (2009) Principles and Tools of Total Quality Management. Systems Engineering
and Management for Sustainable Development. [Online] Available at:
http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c15/e1-28-04-09.pdf [Accessed 1 May 2015]
45. Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. (2012) Research Design Explained. Cengage Learning: USA.
2|Page
46. Miyagawa, M., and Yoshida, K. (2010) TQM practices of Japanese-owned manufacturers in
the USA and China. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 27(7), pp 736-
755.
47. Motwani, J. (2001) Critical Factors and Performance Measures of Total Quality Management.
The TQM Magazine, 13 (4), pp 292-300.
48. Mukherjee, P.N. (2006) Total Quality Management. Prentice Hall of India Learning: New
Delhi.
49. Munhall, P.L. and Chenail, R.J. (2008) Qualitative Research Proposals and Reports: A Guide.
Jones and Barlett Learning: London.
50. National Learning Consortium (2013) Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) Strategies to
Optimize your Practice. [Online] Available at:
https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/tools/nlc_continuousqualityimprovementprime
r.pdf [Accessed 12 June 2015]
51. Oakland, J.S. (2014) Total Quality Management and Operational Excellence: Text with Cases.
Routlege: UK.
52. Omachonu, V.K. & Ross, J.E. (2004) Principles of Total Quality, (Third Edition). CRC Press:
USA.
53. Onwuegbuzie, A., & Leech, N. (2005) Taking the “Q” out of research: Teaching research
methodology courses without the divide between quantitative and qualitative paradigms.
Quantity and Quality, 39, pp 267-296.
54. Opdenakker, R. (2006) Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in
Qualitative Research. Qualitative Social Research, 7(4). [Online] Available at:
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/175/391 [Accessed 22 June
2015]
55. Pereira, R. (2008) 8 Dimensions of Quality. [Online] Available at:
http://blog.gembaacademy.com/2008/05/28/8-dimensions-of-quality/ [Accessed 2 June
2015]
56. Polat, G., Damci, A., Tatar, Y. (2011) Barriers and Benefits of Total Quality Management in
the Construction Industry: Evidence from Turkish Contractors. 7th Research/Expert
Conference with International Participaations QUALITY 2011, Neum, B&H. [Online] Available
at: http://www.quality.unze.ba/zbornici/QUALITY%202011/185-Q11-140.pdf [Accessed 29
May 2015]
57. Powell, T.C. (1995) Total Quality Management as Competitive Advantage: A Review and
Empirical Study. Strategic Management Journal, 16(1), pp 15-37.
3|Page
58. Raisinghani, M., Ette, H., Pierce, R., Cannon, G. and Daripaly, P. (2005) Six Sigma: concepts,
tools, and applications. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 105(4), pp 491-505.
59. Robert Wood John Foundation, RWJF (2008) The Interpretivist Paradigm. [Online] Available
at: http://www.qualres.org/HomeInte-3516.html [Accessed 22 June 2015]
60. Saunders, M. (2003) Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson Education: India.
61. Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2008) Research methods for business students.
New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education Limited.
62. Shamoo, A. and Resnik, D. (2009) Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. New York:
Oxford University Press.
63. Soiferma, L.K. (2010) Compare and Contrast Inductive and Deductive Research Approaches.
[Online] Available at: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542066.pdf [Accessed 22 June 2015]
64. Sommerville, J., and Robertson, H. W. (2000) A Scorecard Approach to Benchmarking for
Total Quality Construction. International. Journal of Quality Reliability Management, 17(4/5),
pp 453-466.
65. Sughanti, L. and Samuel, A.A. (2004) Total Quality Management. PHI Learning: India.
66. Thomas, D.R. (2006) A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data.
American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), pp 237-246.
67. Timothy, O. C., Andy, O. T., Victoria, A. O., and Nwankwere, I. A. (2011) Effects of Leadership
Style on Organizational Performance: A Survey of Selected Small Scale Enterprises in Ikosi-
Ketu Council Development Area of Lagos State, Nigeria. Australian Journal of Business and
Management Research, 1(7), pp 100-111.
68. Valmohammadi, C. (2011) The impact of TQM implementation on the organizational
performance of Iranian manufacturing SMEs. The TQM Journal, 23(5), pp 496-509.
69. Walsh, M. & Wigens, L. (2003) Introduction to Research. Nelson Thornes: UK.
70. Wang, F. J., Shieh, C., and Tang, M. (2010) Effect of leadership style on organizational
performance as viewed from human resource management strategy. African Journal of
Business Management, 4(18), pp 3924-3936.
71. Wiggins, K. and Mathias, D. (2013) Continuous Quality Improvement: An Overview Report for
State QRIS Leaders. [online] BUILD. Available at:
http://qrisnetwork.org/sites/all/files/session/resources/Continuous%20Quality%20Improve
ment,%20An%20Overview%20Report%20for%20State%20QRIS%20Leaders_1.pdf [Accessed
11 June 2015].
4|Page
72. Xiang, X. P. (2007) Total Quality Management Approach, A Case Study in Manufacturing
Industry. [Online] Available at: http://umpir.ump.edu.my/2349/1/YAP_PEI_XIANG.PDF
[Accessed 2 June 2015]
5|Page
View publication stats

TQMthesis

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

TQMthesis

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

An investigation of the importance of Total Quality Management in

Thesis · September 2015

Mohammad Yacoub Nasereddin

MSC desertion View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1. To investigate the importance of TQM in delivering successful construction projects.

Figure 1: Manufacturing v/s Construction Organizations ....................................................................... 7

(Total Quality Management, n.d., pp 139)

1.2 Research Background and Business Context

1.3 Purpose of Research

1.4 Research Title

5. To investigate the importance of TQM in delivering successful construction projects.

1.5.1 Research Outcomes

• Theoretical Framework behind TQM

1.6 Research Question(s)

1. How and why is TQM important in modern day construction industry?

1.7 Key Terms

1.7.2 Total Quality Management

1.7.3 Six Sigma

• A Measure: A statistical definition of how far a process deviates from perfection

(Knowles, 2011, pp 13)

1.8 Structure of the Report

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Chapter 4: Findings & Analysis

Chapter 7: Project and Risk Management

Xiang (2007) expresses quality as an equation:

2.1.1 Dimensions of Quality

Table 1: Dimensions of Quality

Dimension Meaning and Example

Performance Primary product characteristics, such as brightness of the picture

Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards, workmanship

Durability Useful life, includes repair

Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair

Aesthetics Sensory characteristics, such as exterior finish

(Source: Xiang, 2007, pp 12)

2.2 Quality Systems

• Management - planning, goals & objectives, including the reviewing progress

• Resources - people, tools, equipment etc.

• Services or Products 'realization' – processes that are involved in making or distributing

• Monitor, Measurement & Checking –which is the all-important feedback loop.

2.2.1 Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI)

Figure 3: Using CQI to Move from Current State to Future State

2.2.2 Six Sigma

2.2.3 Zero Defects

• Quality is conformance to requirements –the state of assurance to requirements.

2.2.5 Total Quality Management

TQM is essentially a Japanese style management philosophy that focuses on continuous

2.3 Total Quality Management

2.3.1 Evolution of TQM

1. Quality Inspection (QI)

Figure 4: Stages of TQM

Total Quality Management

Table 2: Characteristics of Different Stages of TQM

(Source: Brun, 2011, pp 14)

According to ISO (2012, pp 5), key benefits of employee involvement include:

• “Motivated, committed and involved people within the organization

• “Systematically defining the activities necessary to obtain a desired result

Moreover, applying the continual improvement principle typically leads to:

• “Employing a consistent organization-wide approach to continual improvement of the

• Increased ability to create value for both parties

• Award Models such as MBNQA, EFQM, and PMQA