Approaches

Paper 2
Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution
The first man to call himself a psychologist, he believed that the mind could be studied scientifically. He built the
first experimental psychology lab and paved the way for the acceptance of psychology as a science.

He studied human behaviour in strictly controlled experimental conditions. He aimed to study the structure of the
mind (structuralism) through introspection, asking how someone perceives stimuli (giving insight into the thought
process)

Evaluate Wundt’s methods:

- Unreliable. Behaviourists think that structuralism relies primarily on non-observable responses. Failed
because Wundt couldn’t create reliably reproducible results (unlike pavlov and skinner).
- Introspection isn’t really accurate. Nisbett and Wilson stated that we have little knowledge of our processes,
can’t give everything.

The emergence of psychology as a science

Empiricism: that knowledge comes from observation and experience alone. (wundt used empirical methods).
Psychology began to emerge as a distinct identity, although it was only really after the behavioural approach was
introduced.
Determinism: all behaviour is caused by something. If determined, then it can be predicted how humans would
behave in different conditions.
The scientific method
Methods must be:
● Objective: preconceived ideas or biases don’t influence collection of data.
● Systematic: experiments are carried out in an orderly mannered and recording of data is carried out
accurately
● Replicable: can be repeated to determine if the same results are obtained.

Observe, build and refine, theory, test.

Evaluation of the scientific approach:

+ Relies on objective and systematic methods, not just the passive acceptance of facts.
+ Establish causes of behaviour through empirical and replicable methods.
+ Theories can be refined or abandoned (self-corrective)
- Objectivity and controlled observations (very little about natural environments).
- Lots of data is actually non-observable, and is instead inferential.
- If human behaviour is not subject to the laws of the scientific method, it would be inappropriate.
Behavioural/Behaviourist Approach: CC and OC
This rejected the vagueness of introspection, relied on lab experiments.

Classical Conditioning
Learning through association (stimulus and associated response)
Pavlov and his dogs (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)
Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation, timing (if the NS doesn’t follow shortly after the UCS,
then conditioning doesn’t happen).

Operant Conditioning
The frequency of behaviour depends on the consequence it elicits (Skinner).
+ve/-ve reinforcement increases the frequency.
Punishment decreases the frequency.
Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement is the most effective.
Partial (every 3rd time) is more and best at avoiding extinction
Behaviourist Approach : CC and OC Evaluation
+ Scientific credibility. It focuses on observable behaviour; Skinner’s
methodology relied heavily on the experimental method.
- Skinner used animals (anthropomorphism)
+ Real life applications. OC= token economy systems. CC= phobia therapies
(SD and flooding).
+ OC and CC are well supported.
- Humans are seen as passive in this approach (while in SLT and cognitive, we
play an active role).
- Environmental determinism (ignores emotional and cognitive factors).
Skinner said that everything we do is due to reinforcement history (no free
will).
Behavioural/Behaviourist Approach: SLT
Bandura agreed with the behaviourists, but suggestd we learn
by seeing others (too).
● Observation - watching others
● Imitation - whole patterns of behaviour can be acquired
● Modelling - someone who carries out the action
○ Live modelling - parent, teacher
○ Symbolic modelling - media (tv characters /
celebrities)
● Identification - extent to which one relates to a model (the
more similar, the more effective)
● Vicarious reinforcement - learn from consequences
others receive, and making judgements if the behaviour is
beneficial to imitate.
● Mediational process - internal
○ Attention
○ Retention
○ Motor reproduction
○ Motivation
AO3
+ Explains cultural differences.
+ Useful applications. Akers suggests
that engagement in criminality
increases when exposed to models
who do the same.
- Over reliance on evidence from lab
studies. Demand characteristics.
Tells us little about natural
- Underestimates biological factors
(there is little reference to
them/they are not accounted for).
Boys are perhaps more aggressive
due to hormones (testosterone).
- Issue with causality. Kids who have
deviant attitudes hang out with
other kids who do.
Cognitive Approach
Believe it is necessary to scientifically study internal mental processes, making inferences based on
external behaviour.
Schemas: cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Fills in gaps,
and can take shortcuts when dealing with lots of information.
Theoretical models: diagrams that represent how a particular process works, based on research
evidence.
Computer models: information is inputted through the senses, encoded into memory and then
combined with previous information to perform a task.
Cognitive neuroscience: study of influence of the brain on mental processes.
AO3 of the cognitive approach
+ Scientific. Emphasis on scientific methods, conclusions are based on more than introspection.
+ Cognitive neuroscience. Credibly brought together cognitive and biological approaches.
- Limitations of computer models. Computers don’t make mistakes, don’t forget or ignore available
information
- Ignores emotion and motivation (reductionist). It fails to say why these processes take place. There
is an overdependence on computer analogies.
- Studies may lack ecological validity, as tasks lack mundane realism.
Biological Approach
The biological approach suggests that everything psychological is at first biological.
Genes
Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes. How the
characteristic develops depends on intergene interaction and influence of the environment.
genotype/phenotype
Genetic basis of behaviour: means that we all differ because we all have unique DNA codes.
Heredity refers to the amount of variability in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic
differences. Relies more on genes; increased heritability.
Biological structures
The nervous system consists of CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (somatic and automatic).
Neurons transmit signal in the form of electrical impulses.
The cerebrum/cerebral cortex makes up 85% of the brain, and is responsible for higher order functions
(thought and perception).
Frontal lobes - speech, thought, and learning
Temporal lobes - hearing and memory
Parietal lobes - touch, pain, and temperature
Occipital lobes - visual information.
Neurochemistry
Neurotransmitter travels through synapses and receiving neuron sends/doesn’t send an impulse;
depending on if the net effect is excitatory (dopamine - stimulates the brain, signal is sent), or inhibitory
(serotonin - calms the brain, no signal sent)
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, and secreted into the bloodstream to target cells and exert
influence on receptor of cell or in cell, altering its activities.
Evolution
Darwin stated that over time organisms adapt to their environment through evolution (natural selection).
Those who go on to reproduce will tend to have behaviours that are more likely to lead to survival and
reproductive success than those who do not. The ‘survival behaviours’ are more widespread in the
populations.

Evaluation of the Biological Approach

+ Places importance on the scientific method. Highly controlled = replicable. Validity increases (precise)
= objectivity increases with the development of technology.
- Reductionist (not taking other factors into account (cognitive, cultural, emotional)
- Behaviour can be transmitted genetically and culturally; patterns of human behaviour have cultural
origins.
- Determinist view/perspective. “We have no control”. Implications or legal system (criminals?)
Psychodynamic Approach
The main assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all behavior can be explained in terms of the
inner conflicts of the mind.
Freud highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality and the influence that
childhood experiences have on later life.
Freud believed that the unconscious mind determines most of our behavior and that we are motivated by
unconscious emotional drives.

Tripartite Personality
● Id: it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality. It is present at birth. The Id is
motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its needs.
● Ego: develops from 1 - 3 years. It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the conflicts between
the ID and superego. It uses defence mechanisms to achieve this.
● Superego: develops from 3 - 5 years. It is motivated by the morality principle. It punishes the ego with
guilt for “wrong doing”.
To be mentally healthy the ego has to be able to balance the demands of the Id and the superego. If the
superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis e.g. depression. If the Id is dominant, the
individual might develop a psychosis e.g. schizophrenia.
Psychodynamic pt. 2
The mind is divided in three parts:
● The conscious: this is the part we are aware of and can access without any effort. It contains part of
the ego.
● The preconscious: this a part of the mind that we cannot access without effort. It contains the ego and
some of the superego.
● The unconscious: this part of the mind cannot be accessed without the help of a trained
psychoanalyst. It contains the superego and the Id.
When unconscious conflicts between the Id and the superego cannot be resolved by the ego they create
anxiety. To reduce this anxiety we use defense mechanisms such as repression.

Defence mechanisms:
● Repression: Is used by the ego to keep disturbing memories out of the conscious mind and in the
unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed, e.g. sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood
memories.
● Displacement: An impulse may be redirected from its original target onto a more acceptable one, e.g.
being angry with your father and shouting at your little sister.
● Denial: the existence of unpleasant internal or external realities is denied and kept out of conscious
awareness, e.g. having lost your job and yet you go to work every day.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Stage Source of pleasure Outcome

Oral (0-1 year) Mouth – sucking, If forceful feeding, deprivation or early weaning occur then
swallowing etc. fixation could lead to oral activities (e.g. smoking), dependency,
and aggression.

Anal (1-3 years) The anus – withholding or If toilet training is too harsh or too lax then fixation could lead
expelling faeces. to obsessiveness, tidiness, meanness; or to untidiness and
generosity.

Phallic (3-5 years) The penis or clitoris – If abnormal family set-up leading to unusual relationship with
masturbation. mother/father then fixation could lead to Vanity, self-obsession,
sexual anxiety , inadequacy, inferiority, envy.

Latent (5-puberty) Sexual drives are Fixation does not happen in this stage.
repressed.

Genital The genitals. The adult Fixation at this stage should occur in a mentally healthy adult.
(puberty-death) derives pleasure from
masturbation and sexual
intercourse.
Evaluation of the Psychodynamic approach
- The concepts of Id, ego and superego are very abstract and difficult to test experimentally, evidence is
obtained from case studies (Little Hans). However, the sample used is Austrian = lack population validity.
- These case studies used unstructured interviews = qualitative data. The need for interpretation means
that it is biased on the part of the researchers as they tend to interpret the data in a way that supports
their theory.
- 2 different researchers, reach completely different interpretations of the same case = methods lack
objectivity.
- The theory is not falsifiable as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it is viewed as support, if
they don’t it is argued that they are using defence mechanisms.
- The individual is not seen as responsible for their disorders. Conflicts leading to the disorder are unconscious
so there is nothing they can do about it without an analyst, they are disempowered.
- It cannot explain the biological symptoms observed in some disorders such as enlarged ventricles in
schizophrenics.
+ It has given rise to one of the first “talking cure”, psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are
now based. Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form but it is still used in a shorter version in
some cases.
+ It could be argued that Freud was the first person to highlights the importance of childhood in mental health
and this is an idea extensively used today.
- The psychodynamic approach is determinist (rejects free will). A person’s behavior is determined by their
unconscious motives, shaped by their biological drives and their early experiences.
+ It recognises the influence of social and cultural factors. It suggests we are driven by innate, biological
instincts (nature) but that the way they are expressed is shaped by our social environment (nurture).
Humanistic Approach
This approach believes that people are self-determining and therefore have free will.
Self-actualisation: All people have an innate tendency towards growth and the fulfilment of their potential, they
have a desire to become everything that they are capable of.
Hierarchy of needs (Maslow):
● Self actualisation According to Maslow, people have needs which must be
● Self-esteem/ego met for self-actualisation to be possible. The basic needs
● Social (love and belonging) e.g. food and water have to be satisfied before the
● Safety and security higher.
● Physiological needs (Deficiency needs)

Rogers suggested, people could only self-actualise if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self-regard).
This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and
respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents when they were children).
However, most people don’t perceive the positive regard of others as being unconditional. They tend to think they
will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth. These conditions of worth create incongruity
within the self between the Actual-self (how the person is) and the ideal-self (how they think they should be or want
to be).
Self-actualisation is only possible if there is congruence between their viewed self and their ideal self.
If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it
impossible for self-actualisation to take place.
Evaluation of the Humanistic Approach
+ Supporting research (Maslow’s hierarchy has relevance on a larger scale than the individual growth) Hagerty
(1999) studied the relationship between economic growth and measures of Maslow’s need levels in 88
countries over 34 years. He found that countries in early stages of economic development had lower level
needs (e.g. higher murder rates). In advanced stages of economic development did esteem needs (e.g. female
emancipation) and self-actualisation (e.g. levels of educational enrolment) become important. A significant sign
of self-actualisation is education enrolment as it is seen as a measure of people’s desire to better themselves,
and higher education enrollment = more skilled workers = better economic growth + development.
+ Research with adolescents supports Rogers’ view, i.e. those who experience conditional positive regard are
Iikely to display more ‘false self behaviour’ - doing things to meet others’ expectations even when they clash
with their own values. For exampIe, Harter et al. (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to
fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents’ approval frequently end up not liking themselves. The
researchers found that adolescents who create a ‘faIse self’, pretending to be the kind of person his or her
parents would love, are also more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their own
true self.
- Evaluating the humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support this
approach fails to establish a causal relationship between variables. Rogers in particular was an advocate of
non-experimental research methods, arguing that the requirements of experimental methods make it
impossible to verify the results of counselling. Most psychologists would argue that, without experimental
evidence, evaluation of a therapy, or the theory that underlies it, becomes very difficult. Some studies have
shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling, but these do not show that the therapy
caused the changes, a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology.
Eval. of humanistic pt.2
- Overly idealised + unrealistic view of human nature. People aren’t as inherently good and “growth-oriented” as
humanistic theorists suggests, doesn’t recognise people’s capacity for pessimism + self-destructive behaviour.
The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth = oversimplification,
humanistic assumption = all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation. Encouraging people to focus on
their own self-development rather than on situational forces may not be realistic or appropriate in modern
society.
- In a later development to his theory, Maslow acknowledged some, needs may be in a different order or absent
all together. Cross-cultural evidence. Nevis: a study in China found that belongingness needs were seen as more
fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to
the community than in terms of individual development. Consistent with this, many studies have confirmed that
Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining their self-concept, whereas Chinese,
Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships.
- Non-scientific research methods. Aim is to understand people’s subjectivity. Unstructured interviews +
participant observations = qualitative data. Difficult/impossible to replicate. Interpretation influenced by
researcher bias. It proposes a positive view of human nature = not realistic (can’t explain domestic violence and
genocides). Focus on meeting our needs and fulfilling our growth potential = individualistic, self-obsessed
outlook = part of the problem faced by our society.
+ Recognises the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving
and understanding the world, nature-influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).
+ Non-determinist = recognises free will. but argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat
us (whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those around us).