OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINE FOR COVID 19

Shyamal Chakraborty

The outbreak of Corona virus SARS-COV-2 or novel corona virus (nCoV) first reported to
have occurred in Wuhan, China in the end of December, 2019. The disease infected with
nCov was spreading across several countries beyond China because of its unprecedented
infecting power. On February 11, 2020, World Health Organisation WHO announced the
name for the new coronavirus disease: COVID-19. Covid 19 had spread rapidly throughout
China at high rate of transmission. Within February-March 2020 it caused panic to several
other countries, including Italy, Spain, United States of America, United Kingdom and
Germany. The outbreak was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern,
by WHO on January 30, 2020.
Further considering the devastation and deaths occurred in most countries, WHO on March
11, 2020, declared the COVID-19 outbreak, a global pandemic. The Director General, WHO, ,
Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus noted that over the past 2 weeks, the number of cases
outside China increased 13-fold and the number of countries with cases increased threefold.
Further increases were expected. He expressed deep concern towards the alarming levels of
spread and severity, and for the alarming levels of inaction. He called on countries to take
aggressive actions to contain the virus.
Concern expressed by WHO is found to be infallible with progress of time and aggressive
multiplication of the disease. Statistics as of now is horrifying. COVID-19 has so far affected
215 countries in the world. The disease as on May 09, has infected over 4 million people
globally with death figure running to 276 thousands. In India, COVID-19 has infected 59
thousands and has claimed 1.8 thousand lives so far. During last fortnight numbers of
people infected increased by 1.5 globally and 2.8 times in India.
The affected countries including India invoked lockdown for about 2 months with likely
extension, for arresting the spread. The Governments with expansive health services and
civic administration, facing greatest challenge to contain the virus. Frequent washings with
soaps and sanitizers, using masks and social distancing, as all promulgated in advisories, will
keep some of us at bay from virus for only a brief period. All these awkward measures are
not a permanent solution for the ongoing catastrophe. Pandemic with the lockdown
wrecked havoc on the national and global economy. It has left millions of people jobless,
MSME industry in shambles and Govt. exchequers in quandary. No specific methods of cure
from the disease and containment is on the anvil. All round panic continues to engulf us.
Development of vaccine against the virus is of paramount importance for saving the
mankind, and sooner the better. The vaccine is an agent that mimics the virus to set up B
Lymphocyte and T Lymphocyte cells (a type of white blood cell) , but does not have the
ability to overcome the immune system and cause the disease.
 The spike protein of the virus is a clove-shaped trimmer and contains three segments: a
large ecto-domain, a single-pass trans-membrane anchor, and a short intra-cellular tail. The
ecto-domain consists of,
 a receptor-binding subunit S1
 and a membrane-fusion subunit S2.

The virus prefers to enter human body through nose, throat, eye and finally to respiratory
system and lungs. Its S1 binds to a receptor on the host cell surface for viral attachment,
and S2 fuses the host and viral membranes, allowing viral genomes to enter host cells.
Receptor-binding and membrane-fusion are the initial and critical steps in the corona virus
infection cycle; they also serve as primary targets for human invasion. Thus virus merges
with the body’s host cells and multiply in huge numbers within a short cycle, and infect
the body. It destroys the body’s immune system and may cause death.
The immune system is made up of two armies of cells: innate and acquired. Innate immune
cells are the body's first line of defence. They quickly respond to foreign cells to fight
infection, battle with virus and defend the body. Our acquired immunity—also called
adaptive immunity—uses T-cells and B-cells when invading organisms. While T cells help
destroy infected cells, B cells form antibodies can keep the virus in check. In the case of the
corona virus, these are neutralizing antibodies that bind to the spike protein of the virus.
These cells take longer to develop, because, their behaviours evolve from learned
experiences. Adaptive immune cells remember foreign invaders after their first encounter
and fight them off the next time they enter the body. This is the fundamental premise for
how vaccines work. It uses a small, harmless amount of protein from a disease to allow the
immune system to recognize that protein , if the virus were to invade the body.

DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINE: DIFFERENT METHODS

Globally, about 100 groups of researchers are working relentlessly with lightening speed to
discover a vaccine for Covid-19. There are 4 main methods or directions for developing the
vaccine.
1. Weakened Virus Method - the vaccine use the nCov in weakened or inactivated
form. Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) will bring about the T cells and B cells to
defend the incoming virus from infecting and multiplying. The active features of
weakened virus , fails to infect the body. China has started to test this version in
humans. Many existing vaccines like Measles and Polio were made in this method.
2. Viral Vector Method- By application of methods of genetic engineering some
portions of the genetic information in the virus are deleted or altered. The virus is
then engineered so that the proteins that constitute its envelope, resemble those of
the target virus. This virus acts as a vector and transmits the relevant features to the
 immune system, which develop antibodies against the target virus. The demerits of
such method is that the immune system may act to block the vector itself. (25
groups of researchers)
3. Nucleic Acid Vaccine Method- The genetic information of the target virus are put
directly to body cells. The body cells create the proteins and surface features of
virus , and the immune system creates the antibodies to combat the invading virus.
This method had not been proven for combating any virus, and no vaccine had been
developed earlier. However 20 teams are working to develop vaccines for Covid 19
in this method. (20 groups of researchers)
4. Protein sub-units Method- This method targets the corona virus spike proteins or the
domain that binds to the receptors of target cells. It is done by inserting proteins in
to the body cells, along with added substances that stimulate the immune system.
Another version of this kind, uses virus like similar particles that have no genetic
content, but are cells that possess just the corona virus structure. This could be a
very effective method, but, such particles are extremely difficult to manufacture.
(28 groups of researchers are on the race)
PROGRESS MADE SO FAR (AS ON 09 MAY 2020)
Italian scientists have claimed to develop a vaccine that has successfully generated
antibodies in mice that work on human cells. The vaccine has been tested in the
Spallanzani Hospital in Rome. It is said to be one of the most advanced stages of
testing of a potential vaccine in the country as the vaccine neutralizes the virus in the
human cells.
After a single vaccination, the mice developed antibodies that can block the virus from
infecting human cells. The researchers selected the two best candidates after
observing that the five vaccine candidates generated a large number of antibodies.
Israel on May 07, 2020 announced the country had a remarkable breakthrough in the
development of COVID-19 vaccine. Israel's Institute for Biological Research (IIBR) has
developed a mono-clonal neutralising antibody, which will effectively neutralise novel
corona virus in the body of the carriers.
Oxford University initiated a phase-1 human clinical trial of its Viral Vector vaccine on
April 23, where two volunteers were injected and Ms. Elisa Granato is one of the first
persons to get injected with the vaccine. Their vaccine -ChAdOx1 nCoV-19- was
developed under three months by the University’s Jenner Institute. It uses a weakened
strain of common cold virus (adenovirus) that causes infections in chimpanzees. For
the vaccine to work, scientists have taken the genetic material of the novel coronavirus
present on the surface of the virus, and put it in the vaccine. The University hope to
get the vaccine approved by September.
 Moderna, Massachusetts USA has been cleared by FDA (Federal Drug Administration) for
phase 2 trials and the company will begin such trial with 600 participants shortly. They are
finalizing plans for a phase 3 trial as early as this summer of USA. The firm would line it up
for approval for public sale in the end of December 2020 or early January, 2021.
The Pune-based Serum Institute of India is the world’s largest vaccine maker and India
produces 60 per cent of the world’s requirements. The institute have made a gallant
effort by already starting manufacture of the vaccine following Oxford University’s
development, in anticipation of final approval.
 Development of Covid 19 vaccine is in various phases of trials for guaranteeing the
safety and efficacy. Subsequently pilot-scale production and distribution, will most likely
push the time frame to the early quarters of 2021. However Oxford University is optimistic
of a positive outcome of the candidate vaccine and has planned to get millions of doses of
the vaccine before the end of the current year even as results of the final phase of the trial
(phase-3) are awaited.

 In retrospect, the dawn of convalescence from COVID 19 will be on our horizon; Let
us, by all optimism, hope arrival of desired vaccine by the end of December, 2020 or
early January 2021.

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