Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393

International Conference on Ecology and new Building materials and products, ICEBMP 2016

Mechanical properties of geopolymer composites reinforced

with natural fibers
K. Korniejenko*, E. Frączek, E. Pytlak, M. Adamski
Cracow University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Materials Engineering, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Poland

Abstract

Geopolymer composites have recently become a promising ecological alternative to the traditional cementitious materials. They
are cost-effective, environmentally friendly and their production involves relatively small amount of energy. They have also good
compressive strength, durability and thermal properties being highly resistant to flame and heat. However, these composites have
relatively low tensile and flexural strength, which limits their use in many areas. This paper describes the mechanical properties of
the geopolymer based on fly ash and reinforced with short natural fibers such as cotton, sisal, raffia and coconut. The study is
intended to analyze the influence of addition of various natural fibers on the mechanical properties of the geopolymer. The empirical
part of the research was based on the compressive strength tests, flexural strength tests and detailed microstructure examination.
The results show that the appropriate addition of natural fibers can improve the mechanical properties of geopolymer composites.

©
© 2016
2016TheTheAuthors.
Authors.Published
Publishedby by
Elsevier Ltd.Ltd.
Elsevier This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of ICEBMP 2016.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of ICEBMP 2016
Keywords: Fly ash-based geopolymers; geopolymer composites; natural fibers; cotton fiber; sisal fiber; raffia fiber; coconut fiber; coir

1. Introduction

Nowadays, the fiber-reinforced composite materials, including those produced on the basis of alkali-activated
materials, play an important role in many branches of the industry e.g., in advanced technological solutions used in
the aerospace and automotive industry, naval architecture and ground transportation [1,2]. They have a lot of
advantages in comparison to the traditional materials. The addition of fibers is an efficient method for improving such

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +48-609-974-988; fax: +48-126-283-824.

E-mail address: kinga@mech.pk.edu.pl

1877-7058 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of ICEBMP 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.07.395
 K. Korniejenko et al. / Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393 389

mechanical properties as fracture toughness [3]. The presence of fibers reduces the general effect of cracking, limits
the widths of the occurring cracks (exemplary reduction of the propagation of microcracks), suppresses all brittle
behavior and enhances ductility [4]. Thanks to it damage caused by cracking may be mitigated.
The other reason for using fiber-reinforcement is the fact that it increases the flexural strength of composites [5,6].
The fibers can also improve those properties of geopolymers that are connected with their energy absorption and
resistance to deformation [7]. Here, the introduction of short fibers may particularly contribute to the improvement of
the physical and mechanical properties of the particular geopolymer [8,9]. In fact, it is one of the most effective ways
of strengthening and toughening geopolymer materials through reinforcement [10], especially because of easy fiber
dispersion and fiber aspect ratio. The most common fiber reinforcements added to geopolymer composites are
nowadays inorganic fibers such as carbon or glass fibers [10,11].
It is quite new solution to add natural fibers as a reinforcing material to the composites based on geopolymer matrix.
Growing environmental awareness and the need to ensure sustainability of construction materials has led many
researchers to look for some alternative fibers to reinforce those materials. In this respect natural fibers are attractive
because they are reproducible, have low density, high specific strength and are cheap to obtain. They do not pose any
problems in terms of closing important life cycles (especially CO2) of the products based on natural fibers [7]. The
replacement of the synthetic fibers with their natural counterparts is desirable not only for the environmental but also
economic reasons, because the production of artificial fibers is an energy-consuming process as opposed to the farming
and harvesting natural ones [12].
While reinforcing traditional cement and cementitious materials with natural fibers is popular, only few studies
focused on reinforcing geopolymer-based composites with them. In this area researchers have studied various natural
fiber additives such as: sweet sorghum [7], cotton [8,9], wool [13] and celulose [14] as well as others such as peat-
wood [15], wood flour [16] or sawdust [17]. Promising results have been obtained. This paper describes the research
on the specific geopolymer made from fly ash and reinforced with four short natural fibers i.e. cotton, sisal, raffia and
coconut.

2. Experimental

2.1. The material: geopolymer matrix

The specific fly ash from the CHP plant in Skawina (Poland) was thoroughly investigated as a possible raw material
for the production of the geopolymer matrix being a base for various composites. SEM observations, EDS analysis
and the previous research [5,6,16] confirmed its suitability for such matrix. The chemical composition of the
mentioned ash consists of approx. 56% SiO2, 23.5% Al2O3, 6% Fe2O3, 3.5%, K2O, below 3% CaO and MgO, and less
than 1% of other components e.g., TiO2, Na2O, P2O5 and BaO [16]. The fly ash density amounted to 2.22 g/cm3. The
morphology of the particles of fly ash was typical of such by-products of coal combustion. Regarding the particle size
distribution of the examined fly ash, the size of approx. 60% particles was <56 ȝm [16].
The matrix of the composites was 8M sodium hydroxide solution combined with the sodium silicate solution (liquid
glass at a ratio of 1:2,5). In order to manufacture the composites flakes of technical sodium hydroxide were used and
water solution of sodium silicate R–145 whose modulus was 2.5 and density 1.45 g/cm3. Tap water was used as
batched water instead of the distilled one. The alkaline solution was prepared by means of pouring the aqueous solution
of sodium silicate and water over solid sodium hydroxide. The solution was mixed and left until its temperature
became stable and the concentrations equalized. Then, the solution was mixed with fly ash.

2.2. The material: fibers

To reinforce the geopolymer matrix cotton fibers were used whose length was approx. 30 mm and diameter approx.
1 mm. Mechanical properties of bulk fibers: Young’s modulus approx. 4.8 GPa tensile strength approx. 400 MPa
[8,9].
Sisal fibers (made from agave sisalana) are stiff fibers used to manufacture various products. Mechanical properties
of bulk sisal fibers: Young’s modulus of 9.0–38 GPa, tensile strength of 363–700 MPa and total elongation 2.0–7.0%
390 K. Korniejenko et al. / Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393

[18,19]. To reinforce the geopolymer matrix the fibers were used whose length was approx. 3 mm and diameter
approx. 0.5 mm.
The raffia palm tree belongs to the multifunctional plant family. Its nuts are source of food and cosmetic oil,
whereas the petioles and raw leaves are used as construction materials; the raw fibers are extracted from the upper
surface of the leaflets [20]. These fibers are used to manufacture clothes, shoes, handbags, carpets etc, as well as to
reinforce composites, clay bricks and concrete, or to make panels and geotextiles [20,21]. Mechanical properties of
bulk fibres: Young’s modulus approx. 30 GPa, tensile strength approx. 500 MPa and total elongation between 2% and
4% [20]. To reinforce the geopolymer matrix raffia fibers were used whose length was approx. 3 mm and diameter
approx. 1 mm.
Coconut is one of the most common food and industrial plant. The coir fibers can be extracted from the coconut
husk manually or mechanically. They may be used as a raw material for various products due to their availability, low
price, good mechanical properties, non-toxicity and chemical reliability [22]. Coir fibres are widely used for producing
yarn, rope, and even floor furnishing materials [19,23]. Mechanical properties of bulk fibers: Young’s modulus 2.2–
6 GPa, tensile strength 95–230 MPa and total elongation 15–51.4% [19]. To reinforce the geopolymer matrix coir
(coconut fibers) were used whose length was approx. 3 mm and diameter approx. 0.5 mm.

2.3. Preparation of the samples

Samples were prepared using sodium promoter and natural fibres addition (1% by weight of the composite).
8M sodium hydroxide solution was prepared and combined with the sodium silicate solution. Cotton, sisal, raffia and
coconut were used as a filler. The fly ash, alkaline solution and fibres were mixed in mechanical mixer to form a
homogeneous paste. Then, it was poured into two sets of plastic moulds. The first set consisted of the moulds dedicated
to undergo compressive strength tests and the second set consisted of the moulds dedicated to undergo flexural strength
tests. The samples were hand-formed and then subjected to vibratory removal of air bubbles. Tightly closed moulds
were heated in the laboratory dryer for 24h at 75 °C. Then, the samples were unmoulded. They were investigated after
28 days.

2.4. Tests procedures

Microstructure research has been performed by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) type JEOL JSM
820 with EDS. The investigation regarded the samples previously broken while compressive strength tests. The
samples were sprinkled with a thin layer of gold with JEOL JEE-4X vacuum sputter. The observation was made at
various magnifications (between 50 – 2000×).
Due to the lack of separate standards for geopolymer materials, the compressive strength tests were carried out
according to the methodology described in the standard EN 12390-3. (‘Testing hardened concrete. Compressive
strength of test specimens’). Samples used in the flexural strength tests had cuboid shape and dimensions (approx.):
50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm. The tests involved at least 6 samples. They were performed with a concrete press
(MATEST).
Due to the lack of separate standards for geopolymer materials, the flexural strength tests were carried out according
to the methodology described in the standard EN 12390-5 (‘Testing hardened concrete. Flexural strength of test
specimens’). Samples used to the flexural strength test had cuboid shape and dimensions (approx.): 200 mm × 50 mm
× 50 mm. Tests were performed with a universal testing machine - single-point load (Instron type 4465).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microstructure investigations

Microstructure of all composites is complex and therefore it is important to examine the structure of the particular
geopolymer composites. This research gives a preliminary information about the coherency of natural fibers (filler)
and the geopolymer matrix as well as lets to evaluate of the fiber distribution.
 K. Korniejenko et al. / Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393 391

a b

Fig. 1. (a) SEM image obtained with the 1% addition of coir fibers at the magnification of 80×; (b) SEM image obtained with the 1% addition of
coir fibers at the magnification of 350×.

On one hand the fiber distribution in the case of natural fibers is regular. The fiber distribution in the matrix heavily
influences the properties of the specific composite, as the fibers aggregation can decrease its mechanical properties.
Here, in the same sample one could notice some fiber agglomerations and it was connected with a concomitant
decrease of mechanical properties of the composite.

a b

Fig. 2. (a) SEM image obtained with the 1% addition of carbon fibers at the magnification of 500×; (b) SEM image obtained with the 10% addition
of glass fibers at the magnification of 1000×.

On the other hand, the coherency between the filler and the matrix not always exists. In the case of the composites
reinforced with sisal the structure is similar to such artificial fibers as e.g., carbon or glass [6,16], Fig. 2 (a) and (b).
The observation confirms their cohesiveness. But in the case of other natural fibers such as coir, raffia and cotton the
structure is not coherent with the matrix: most fibers are surrounded by well-visible empty spaces. The exemplary
ones are shown in the Fig. 1 (a) and (b). The incoherent structure has a negative impact on the mechanical properties
392 K. Korniejenko et al. / Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393

of the composites. However, even with such structure the presence of the fibers significantly reduces cracks
propagation (SEM observation was made on the samples after the compressive strength test).

3.2. Results of the compressive strength tests

The compressive strength tests were made for 28-days samples. Tab. 1 presents the average results and standard
deviation of recorded values of strengths.

Table 1. Compressive strenght test after 28 days.

Sample MPa Standard deviation of recorded
values of strengths
Geopolymer (matrix) 24.78 1.89
Geopolymer with coir fibers (1%) 31.36 10.10
Geopolymer with cotton fibers (1%) 28.42 5.30
Geopolymer with raffia fibers (1%) 13.66 1.71
Geopolymer with sisal fibers (1%) 25.16 3.43

The results of the compressive strength tests show that the addition of cotton, sisal and coir fibers improves the
compressive strength of the samples. However, the addition of the raffia fibers decreases the compressive strength,
which was due to the lack of cohesiveness between the fibers and the geopolymer matrix. The results, especially for
coir fibers, are very promising and suggest that further research is advisable.

3.3. Results of flexural strength tests

The flexural strength test were made for 28-days samples. Tab. 2 presents the average results and standard deviation
of recorded values of strengths.

Table 2. Flexural strenght test after 28 days.

Sample MPa Standard deviation of recorded
values of strengths
Geopolymer (matrix) 5.55 0.72
Geopolymer with coir fibers (1%) 5.25 0.57
Geopolymer with cotton fibers (1%) 5.85 0.78
Geopolymer with raffia fibers (1%) 3.05 0.35
Geopolymer with sisal fibers (1%) 5.90 0.14

The results of the flexural strength tests show that the properties of the samples lacking fibers and those reinforced
with the addition of coir, cotton or sisal fibers were roughly similar. The addition of the raffia fibers decreased the
mechanical properties of the samples, as in the case of compressive strength tests. It was caused by the lack of
cohesiveness between the fibers and the geopolymer matrix. The addition of the natural fibers, as opposite to the
artificial ones (such as carbon fiber) [5,6], has not significantly influenced the flexural strength of the composite.

4. Conclusions

Geopolymer composites reinforced with the chosen natural fibers have been produced and characterized. The
samples were prepared using sodium promoter and four various types of fiber additive (each time it amounted to the
1% by mass of the composite (8 M)). The research involved both reinforced samples and 8M geopolymers (for the
sake of comparison). Cotton, sisal, raffia and coir (coconut) fibers were used as a filler. The scanning electron
 K. Korniejenko et al. / Procedia Engineering 151 (2016) 388 – 393 393

microscopy analysis proved that the natural fibers are less coherent with geopolymer matrix than the artificial ones
such as glass or carbon fibers. The compressive strength test and flexural strength test proved that the composites with
the addition of cotton, sisal or coir fibers had relatively good mechanical properties. On the other hand, the composites
with raffia had considerably poor mechanical properties. It was perhaps due to the fiber size and its other
characteristics. Nowadays, geopolymer composites are the most promising alternative to the traditional construction
materials such as Portland cement. They have good mechanical properties. Moreover, the addition of the natural fibers,
such as sisal and cotton, can improve their flexural properties. It is possible to produce the composites of relatively
good properties from the industrial wastes (fly ash) and renewable resources, which makes them a new class of
environmentally friendly materials.

References

[1] F.U.A. Shaikh, Deflection hardening behaviour of short fibre reinforced fly ash based geopolymer composites, Mater. Design 50 (2013) 674–
682.
[2] A. Natali, S. Manzi, M.C. Bignozzi, Novel fiber-reinforced composite materials based on sustainable geopolymer matrix, Procedia Engineering
21 (2011) 1124–1131.
[3] S.A. Bernal, J. Bejarano, C. Garzon, R.M. de Gutierrez, S. Delvasto, E.D. Rodriguez, Performance of refractory aluminosilicate particle/fiber-
reinforcedgeopolymer composites, Compos. Part B-Eng. 43 (2012) 1919–1928.
[4] R. Sakulich, Reinforced geopolymer composites for enhanced material greenness and durability, Sustainable Cities and Society 1 (2011) 195–
210.
[5] K. Korniejenko, J. Mikuáa, M. àach, Fly ash based fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites as the environmental friendly alternative to
cementitious materials, International Conference on Bio-Medical Engineering and Environmental Technology (BMEET-15) March 21–22,
2015 London (UK), 208–214.
[6] K. Korniejenko, J. Mikuáa, M. àach, Characterization of mechanical properties of short glass fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites,
ICCST/10: 10th International Conference on Composite Science and Technology, 2–4 September 2015, Lisboa, Portugal.
[7] R. Chen, S. Ahmari, L. Zhang, Utilization of sweet sorghum fiber to reinforce fly ash-basedgeopolymer, J. Mater. Sci. 49 (2014) 2548–2558.
[8] T. Alomayri, F.U.A. Shaikh, I.M. Low, Synthesis and mechanical properties of cotton fabric reinforced geopolymer composites, Compos. Part
B-Eng. 60 (2014) 36–42.
[9] T. Alomayri, F.U.A. Shaikh, I.M.Low, Thermal and mechanical properties of cotton fabric-reinforced geopolymer composites, J. Mater. Sci.
48 (2013) 6746–6752.
[10] T. Lin, D. Jia, M. Wang, P. He, D. Liang, Effects of fibre content on mechanical properties and fracture behaviour of short carbon fibre
reinforced geopolymer matrix composites, B. Mater. Sci. 32 (2009) 77–81.
[11] T. Lin, D. Jia, P. He, M. Wang, In situ crack growth observation and fracture behaviour of short carbon fiber reinforced geopolymer matrix
composites, Mat. Sci. Eng. A-Struct. 527 (2010) 2404–2407.
[12] F. Pacheco-Torgal, S. Jalali, Cementitious building materials reinforced with vegetable fibers: a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) 575–
581.
[13] M. Alzeer, K.J.D. MacKenzie, Synthesisandmechanicalpropertiesof new fibre-reinforced composites of inorganic polymers with natural wool
fibres, J. Mater. Sci. 47 (2012) 6958–6965.
[14] L. Yan, B. Kasal, L. Huang, A review of recent research on the use of cellulosic fibres, their fibre fabric reinforced cementitious, geo-polymer
and polymer composites in civil engineering, Compos. Part B-Eng. 92 (2016) 94–132.
[15] J. Yliniemi, H. Nugteren, M. Illikainen, M. Tiainen, R. Weststrate, J. Niinimäki, Lightweight aggregates produced by granulation of peat-
wood fly ash with alkali activator, Int. J. Miner. Process. 149 (2016) 42–49.
[16] M. àach, J. Wajs, C. Tempka., K. Korniejenko, J. Mikuáa, Fibre-reinforced Composites with Geopolymer Matrix: Fiber-Geopolymers, in: J.
Mikuáa, K. Korniejenko (eds.), Innovative, Cost-Effective and Eco-friendly Fibre-based Materials for the Construction Industry, Wydawnictwo
Politechniki Krakowskiej, Cracow, 2015, pp. 41–50.
[17] P. Duan, C. Yan, W. Zhou, W. Luo, Fresh properties, mechanical strength and microstructure of fly ash geopolymer paste reinforced with
sawdust , Constr. Build. Mater. 111 (2016) 600–610.
[18] F.A. Silva, N. Chawla, R.D. Toledo Filho, Tensile behavior of high performance natural (sisal) fibers, Compos. Sci. Technol. 68 (2008) 3438–
3443.
[19] L. Yana, N. Chouwc, L. Huangd, Bo. Kasala, Effect of alkali treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of coir fibres, coir fibre
reinforced-polymer composites and reinforced-cementitious composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 112 (2016) 168–182.
[20] R.G. Elenga, G.F. Dirras , J. Goma Maniongui, P. Djemia, M.P. Biget, On the microstructure and physical properties of untreated raffia textilis
fiber, Compos. Part A-Appl. S. 40 (2009) 418–422.
[21] N. Reddy, Y. Yang, Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications. Trends. Biotechnol. 23 (2005) 22–27.
[22] C. Asasutjarit, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, S. Charoenvai, B. Zeghmati, U. Cheul Shin, Development of coconut coir-based lightweight cement
board, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2007) 277–288.
[23] H.U. Zaman, M.D.H. Beg, Preparation, structure, and properties of the coir fibre/polypropylene composites, J. Compos. Mater. 48 (2014)
3293–3301.