REPORT

Mechanical Engineering Topics

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

2. Renewable energy:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

2.1 What is renewable energy and its contrast with non-renewable.............................................................................................................................................. 5

2.2 Why it is important..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 Sustainability..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.2 Fuel Prices.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.3 Emissions and environment.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

2.3 Benefits and costs........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6

2.4 Our source of energy.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

2.5 Solar Energy............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.5.1 Solar spectrum and its Importance.................................................................................................................................................................................. 7

2.5.2 The Stefan Boltzmann law................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8

2.5.3 Wien’s Displacement law.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

2.6 Solar panels and it characteristics............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

2.7 Simple photovoltaic system........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.8 Wind Turbines............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.8.1 Types................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

2.8.2 Factors affecting.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

2.9 How hydroelectric systems work............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

2.10 Hydroelectric systems components........................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

3. 3D Printing:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

3.1 What is 3D printing?................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11

3.1.1 Techniques....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 History of 3d printing............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

3.3 Special features of 3d printing................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12

3.3.1 Additive manufacturing.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12

3.3.2 Use of modern technology............................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.3.3 Parameters....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.3.4 Sustainable technique...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.5 Changing the business strategy................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

3.5.1 Greater flexibility............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13

3.5.2 Digital transformation..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.5.3 Obsoleting the stocking warehouse method................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.5.4 Distributive manufacturing............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13

3.5.5 Freedom of testing........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

3.4 Future of 3D printing............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

4. Wind Energy:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

4.1 Wind Energy............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

4.1.1 Wind and its variation with height................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

4.1.2 Variation of wind speed with time and distance............................................................................................................................................................ 14

4.2 Wind energy technologies concepts......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

4.3 Flow and forces around the wind turbine blade..................................................................................................................................................................... 15

4.4 Beam theory.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15

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 4.5 Control of Wind turbines and Wind power plants................................................................................................................................................................. 15

4.6 Wind energy economics............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

4.6.1 Wind farms...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

4.6.2 Cost of farms.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

5. OSHA Workplace Safety (General Industry):................................................................................................................................................................................ 16

5.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

5.2 Purpose of OSHA...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

5.3 Standard:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

5.3 Industrial Hygiene.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

5.4 Controlling Hazards................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

5.5 Types of hazards....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

5.6 Safety and health programs..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

5.7 Personal protective equipment................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

5.8 Respiratory protection............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

5.9 Blood borne Pathogens............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

5.10 Fire Safety & Prevention........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17

5.11 Work environment in work place.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

5.12 Electrical Safety...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

5.13 Emergency plans..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

6. Introduction to Thermodynamics:................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

6.1 Some definitions and units....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

6.1.1 Heat.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18

6.1.2 Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

6.1.3 Work................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

6.1.4 Pressure............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19

6.1.5 Force................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19

6.1.6 Density.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19

6.2 Thermodynamic properties & measuring Temperatures and pressures.............................................................................................................................. 20

6.2.1 Internal Energy:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20

6.2.2 Enthalpy:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

6.2.3 Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

6.2.4 Pressure............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 20

6.2.5 Measurement of Pressure................................................................................................................................................................................................ 20

6.2.6 Measurement of temperature:........................................................................................................................................................................................ 21

6.3 States of different systems processes and pathways between states....................................................................................................................................... 21

6.3.1 Isochoric Process............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

6.3.2 Isobaric process............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.3.3 Isothermal process........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.3.4 Adiabatic process............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

6.4 Energy of a system.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.5 First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy).......................................................................................................................................................... 23

6.6 Heat and work transfer............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 23

6.7 Energy analysis of Close systems, internal energy, enthalpy & specific heats...................................................................................................................... 23

6.8 Energy analysis of open systems, steady state systems........................................................................................................................................................... 24

7. Material Science: 10 Things Every Engineer Should Know:......................................................................................................................................................... 24

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 7.1 Categories of engineering materials........................................................................................................................................................................................ 24

7.2 Structure leads to properties.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

7.3 Crystallography and the electron Microscope........................................................................................................................................................................ 24

7.4 Point defects and Solid state Diffusion.................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

7.5 Defining a linear Defect – the dislocation................................................................................................................................................................................ 25

7.6 Plastic Deformation by Dislocation.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

7.8 Major 4 mechanical properties................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25

7.7 Tensile test................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26

7.9 Strength & Stiffness.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26

7.10 Ductility................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

7.11 Creep deformation & ductile to brittle transition................................................................................................................................................................. 26

7.12 Fatigue..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

7.13 Phase diagrams....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

8. Digital Manufacturing & design:..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27

8.2 Impact on manufacturing careers........................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

8.3 Advantages of Digital manufacturing and Design.................................................................................................................................................................. 27

8.4 How to protect your organization............................................................................................................................................................................................ 28

8.5 Digital Thread........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

8.6 Benefits, pros & cons of Digital Thread.................................................................................................................................................................................. 28

9. Conclusions:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

List of figures:
Figure 1(Renewable sources of energy).....................................................................................................6
Figure 2(Cost and types of energy source).................................................................................................7
Figure 3(Coal Consumption regional data).................................................................................................8
Figure 4(Oil consumption regional data)....................................................................................................9
Figure 5(Solar spectrum)...........................................................................................................................10
Figure 6(Typical solar panel).....................................................................................................................11
Figure 7(IV characteristics of solar panel)................................................................................................11
Figure 8 (Solar system components)........................................................................................................12
Figure 9(Upwind and downwind turbine)................................................................................................13
Figure 10 (Hydroelectric component).......................................................................................................13
Figure 11(Hydroelectric plant)..................................................................................................................14
Figure 12(FDM).........................................................................................................................................14
Figure 13(Wind installed capacity)...........................................................................................................18
Figure 14(Forces in turbine blade)............................................................................................................19
Figure 15(Pitching (Left), Yawing (Right)).................................................................................................20
Figure 16(Work done by system)..............................................................................................................23
Figure 17(Pressure measurement)...........................................................................................................23
Figure 18 (Manometer).............................................................................................................................26
Figure 19(PV chart of isochoric process)..................................................................................................27
Figure 20(PV chart of isobaric process)....................................................................................................28
Figure 21(PV chart of isothermal process)...............................................................................................28

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 Figure 22(PV chart of adiabatic process)..................................................................................................28
Figure 23(Electron microscope image).....................................................................................................31
Figure 24(Point defects (Top), vacancy diffusion (Mid), Interstitial diffusion (Bottom)).........................32
Figure 25(Tensile test)..............................................................................................................................33
Figure 26 (Ductile to brittle transition).....................................................................................................34

List of table:
Table 1(OSHA Standards)......................................................................................................................22

1. Introduction:
This report covers modern and extremely important research subjects of everyday life. In the very first
subject discussion is carried out for the ‘Renewable energy’ as survival and existence of human race is
dependent upon the energy and energy resources. The major benefits of renewable energy over non-
renewable are that renewable energy is sustainable and are not likely to extinguish till the human race
ends. They also contribute very less to GHGs and environmental degradation. For example, wind
energy, solar energy and hydroelectric energy.
The next subject is ‘3D printing’. The world is facing a new wave of digitalization and modernization
which is also effecting the manufacturing techniques. As 3D CAD software have become more
stringent, 3D printing is rising day by day. Actually 3D manufacturing is an ‘Additive manufacturing’
method in which layers of materials are joined over and over which melts down to for object.
The third subject of interest is ‘Wind energy’ as world is shifting from non-renewables to renewables
which are less harmful for humans and environment too. We owe our environment, if environment
degrades we wouldn’t be able to persist. In this section wind farms, energy conversion, blade design of
turbine and economic is discussed for the wind turbine.
The forth subject of interest is ‘OSHA workplace safety’. All the employers have right of life, to work
in clean environment and being safe from any sort of illness and injury. OSHA is USA based agency
which forces the employees to maintain their workplace according to set of standards. Proper training
and PPEs are supposed to be available to workers in order make the workplace safe and sound.
Thermodynamics deals with the study of heat, work and conversion of heat into work. In this section,
brief discussion about the fundamentals of thermodynamics is carried out. The very next section is about
‘Material sciences’ which covers types of materials, defects in materials, defects leading to plastic
deformation, ductile t brittle transformation and some important mechanical properties of materials like
stiffness, hardness, elasticity, ductility and creep.
The last section is about ‘Digital manufacturing & design’, as explained earlier the world is facing the
entire new wave of digitalization and modernization which is entirely effecting lifestyle and
manufacturing techniques. 3D CAD software are being used for manufacturing which have the tendency
to make manufacturing flexible, customer oriented and digitally controlled. It will alleviate some of the
exhausting factors of conventional manufacturing like inventory setting and mass production.

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 2. Renewable energy:
The existence of human race is significantly dependent upon the energy resources and their better
utilization. It is quite obvious that things exist because they possess energy. Some of the energy sources
are fossil fuels, fissile fuels, geothermal energy, solar energy and wind energy etc. These energy
sources can be classified into two categories,
1. Renewable energy sources
2. Non-renewable energy sources
2.1 What is renewable energy and its contrast with non-renewable
“Renewable energy may be defines as the energy which is obtained from the persistent sources
and flows of energy. These sources are also repetitive in nature and occur in local environment”.
This renewable energy can be sustainable energy (Twidell and Weir 2015) if it does not extinguish and
not affect the local environment like effect of GHG emissions. One of
the most important example of renewable energy is solar energy. Now,
this energy is repetitive in nature and also persistent. This sunlight falls
on plants and they store this energy into their components and grow.
This stored energy can be released from the combustion of the plants.
On comparing the renewable energy with non-renewable we come to
the point that renewable sources produce less GHGs emission into the
environment.
2.2 Why it is important
Renewable energy sources have become more important today when
there is such a high demand of energy and energy sources. Our life
has become dependent upon energy. Its importance can be understood Figure 1(Renewable sources of energy)
by following points (energy 2019),
2.2.1 Sustainability
When a non-renewable energy sources is used, it depletes and vanishes out. This means that our future
generations would not be able to utilize those energy sources which are available to us. This brings us
to the sustainable energy.
Sustainable energy and developments is defined as the consumption of energy sources such that our
present requirement does not compromise availability to future generations. Renewable sources like
wind and solar are sustainable because they are not supposed to wipe out completely, persistent and
does not affect environment. But non-renewable energy sources are not sustainable.
2.2.2 Fuel Prices
According to the economics, as the lifetime of fuel resource shortens its price rises. It also leads to fall
in demand and expensive energy resources pave their way to the market.
Non-renewable sources are not being replenished in a way than they are being depleted. Since their
growth is not significant and are finite so their shortness will lead to utilization of expensive sources
and also result in high price.
2.2.3 Emissions and environment
We exist in this environment and our existence if extremely dependent upon it. Since non-renewable
sources produce high content of GHGs so they are causing pollution in environment. This pollution
leads to greenhouse effect and global warming. Once temperature goes beyond a certain limit, glaciers
will start melting and lives will be at stack.

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But renewable energy sources and nuclear fuels does not cause much GHGs emissions which states that
renewable have high potential to replace the non-renewables.
2.3 Benefits and costs
Some of the major benefits of RE sources over NRE (Twidell and Weir 2015)sources are,
 Renewable sources are naturally persistent.
 RE sources are locally available.
 These energy sources are sustainable which describes that their use is never ever going to affect
their availability in future.
 Renewable energy sources produce practically negligible GHGs than non-renewables.
 These RE sources are easily available but difficult to harness this available form of energy.
 These renewable sources are repetitive which allows them to be stored for a long period of time
and their effective use whenever required.

Figure 2(Cost and types of energy sources) (comparing the cost of renewable and conventional energy sources 2015)

These sources have many positive features but when it comes to the cost of harnessing the energy it
seems to be much more expensive than non-renewables. There is grading among renewables based
upon the cost, The average cost of onshore wind is 59 dollars per megawatt hour but that of
photovoltaic is 79 dollars per megawatt hour. It is interesting to note that this cost is falling with
the passage of time.
2.4 Our source of energy
Currently our sources of energy are mostly non-renewable because these techniques have become
mature and being used to produce maximum amount of energy required. Many countries are striving to
shift their dependence from non-renewable to renewable but this will take time.
Our primary sources today are,
 Coal  Nuclear fuel
 Oil  Natural gas
 petroleum products
The consumption of coal is much higher than all the other non-renewable sources. The coal is burnt in
the presence of oxygen which liberates the heat. This heat energy is then transferred to water in steam
power plant which produces steam that runs the turbine to convert thermal energy into electrical
energy. The consumption of coal is shown below,

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 Figure 3(Coal Consumption regional data) (Fossil fuels 2018)

Other sources are also being used to convert the available form of energy into electrical energy. The
petroleum products combust to produce heat which runs either gas turbines or steam turbines to get
electrical energy. Similarly nuclear fuel produce heat by fission reaction which is utilized to produce
steam to get converted into electrical energy.

Figure 4(Oil consumption regional data) (Fossil fuels 2018)

2.5 Solar Energy

2.5.1 Solar spectrum and its Importance
All the bodies above the absolute zero radiates. The fusion reaction taking place on Sun produces
tremendous amount of the energy which reaches the earth in form of electromagnetic radiations. These
radiations form a bundle of wavelengths with different intensities (Twidell and Weir 2015), this is
regarded as solar spectrum. The solar spectrum is divided into three regions (AGGA),
 UV region: This ranges from 290 nm to 380 nm. This constitutes only 2 %.
 Visible Region: This ranges from 380 nm to 480 nm. This constitutes 47 %.
 Infrared region: This includes wavelengths of 780 nm to 2500 nm. This region constitutes 51 %.
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 Figure 5(Solar spectrum)

Solar spectrum leads to calculations regarding the

intensity distribution of the wavelengths emitted by the sun. Since 98 % of radiations reaching the
earth are visible and infrared so it can be used to design the glass doors and windows in order to keep
2.5.2 The Stefan Boltzmann law
The Stefan Boltzmann law (The Stefan-Boltzmann Law 2016) has played vital role in justifying and
explaining the intensity of radiations from a source. It states that,
“A hot body emits radiations. The total emissive power is proportional to fourth power of its
temperature”. It can be represented mathematically as,
E  T 4
Where ‘  ’ is constant whose value if 5.67*108 Wm-2K-4. This relation revolutionized the theory of
radiations.
2.5.3 Wien’s Displacement law
It has been reported that when the temperature of radiating body increases its spectrum shifts towards
the lower wavelength. This is why the red hot lead becomes white at higher temperatures. Wein’s
displacement law (Wien displacement law 2018) states the relation between wavelength of maximum
intensity and temperature. It states that,
“The product of temperature of body and wavelength corresponding to maximum energy is
constant”.
Mathematically it is written as,
T  2897.6 mK
In black body radiations, when the temperature of body increases its spectrum is shifted to region of
lower wavelength. This Wein displacement law is used to calculate the wavelength corresponding to
temperature.
2.6 Solar panels and it characteristics
Solar panel is the combination of solar cells connected in series or parallel depending upon the
requirement. A solar cell is the most basic unit of solar power generating system which converts light
energy falling on it to electrical energy. It is a specially designed p-n junction and its working principle
is that it absorbs the photon falling on it and electron gains much energy to cross the barrier which
results into electrical energy.

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It is formed by combining p-type semiconductor with n-type semiconductor. At junction there are much
electrons but they cannot cross the boundary but when light falls on it. This energy allows the electron to
flow from p-side to n-side.

The basic IV characteristics (Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and Curve 2017)of a typical solar
panel are given in the figure. It defines three important parameters,

 Short circuit current (ISC)

 Open circuit voltage (VOC)
 Maximum power point (MPP)
The short circuit current is defined as the maximum current through the solar panel
when voltage across it is zero. Open circuit voltage is defined as the maximum
voltage that is typically available for that solar panel and it is the voltage when
current is zero. Maximum power point is defined as the point on IV curve where the
product of current and voltage is maximum. It may be defines as the point where
Figure 6(Typical solar panel)
solar power produces maximum power.

Figure 7(IV characteristics of solar panel)

2.7 Simple photovoltaic system

A simple photovoltaic system consists of major four components,
 Photo cell
 Inverters
 Racking
 Other electrical components
A solar panel consists of series of solar cells connected together. When light falls on solar panels they
produce electricity and convert light energy into electrical energy. The output of photovoltaic cell is
direct current so an inverter is used to convert this direct current into alternating current. This is done
because many components operate on AC current. The racking constitutes the mechanism on which
photovoltaic cells are fixed. It is made up of either steel of aluminum. Some other components like
circuit breaker, combiners and electric meters are present in PV system.
2.8 Wind Turbines
Wind energy is abundant form of energy. There are many regions in the world which are quite
sufficient in wind potential. One of the simplest way to harness wind energy is the use of wind turbines.
A wind turbine or windmill is a mechanical system which converts kinetic energy of wind into

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electrical energy. The wind impinges on rotor blades which turns the turbine. The turbine is
linked with electric generator which produces the electricity and converts wind energy into
electrical energy.

Figure 8 (Solar system components)

2.8.1 Types
The wind turbines can be classified on the basis of direction of axis; Horizontal axis wind turbine in
which the axis of rotor blade is parallel to the ground and Vertical axis wind turbine (Twidell and
Weir 2015) in which turbine axis is perpendicular to the
ground.
They can also be classified on the basis of direction of
impingement of wind to blades; Upwind turbine in which
the wind impinges from the front side and downwind in
which wind impinges from back side.
Figure 9(Upwind and downwind turbine)

On the basis of number of blades wind turbines can be

classified into one blade, two blade , three blade or
multi-blade turbine.

2.8.2 Factors affecting

The power produced by the wind turbine depends upon density of wind, area of blades and speed with
which wind impinges to the blades. Wind speed has direct effect on the working of wind turbines. The
power produced by the turbine is found to be proportional to the third power of free velocity, axial
thrust is found to be proportional to second power of velocity and torque is effected by the second
power of free velocity of wind.
2.9 How hydroelectric systems work
Hydroelectric power (Hydroelectric power 2005) is also referred as renewable energy source. We know
from the energy law that energy cannot be destroyed and cannot be created but can be transformed from
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one form to another. So it suggests that in order to produce electrical energy from water it must be in
motion because this is how kinetic energy could be converted into electrical energy.
In hydropower plants, the water is stored at high reservoir. This high
rise water is allowed to run through designed channels. This flowing
water impinges on blades of turbines and its energy is changed into
mechanical energy of turbine which is converted to electrical energy
through generators.
These power plants are located in high dams. These dams can be used for
irrigations, canals division and energy.

2.10 Hydroelectric systems components

A typical hydropower system consists of,
 Dam  Electric generator
 Penstock  Distribution system
 Turbine
In a high rise dam, water is stored at elevated position. It is designed to bear the water pressure.
Penstock is the pipe which supplied the water to turbines. The major mechanical component if turbine
either impulse (Pelton wheel) or reaction turbine (Francis and Kaplan). Here the kinetic energy of water
is converted into mechanical energy. The generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Where this is distributed to for domestic and commercial use.

Figure 10(Hydroelectric plant)

3. 3D Printing:
3.1 What is 3D printing?
Irrespective of common subtractive manufacturing technique, 3D printing is regarded as additive
manufacturing (Coros 2018) in which a real world 3 d object is manufactured from the 3d CAD
model in the computer control. The object is manufactured by allowing the material to form layers
and then solidifying layers to form a 3d object.

Figure 11(FDM)

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  3d printing is commonly regarded as polymer technology because in this technique the used
material is many a times a polymer having low melting point so that it could melt and solidify
easily.
 In our daily life, we mostly encounter with subtractive operation like machining operations in
which a material is subtractive down to form a new object. But in 3 d printing layers are added
up to form a real world 3d object under computer control.
Like all other techniques it has limitations and issue as; Material, Post processing is necessary, support
structure complexity. Price of component, resolution of layer and the production of hollow objects
3.1.1 Techniques
There are many developed and under developed 3d printing techniques like,
1. Fused deposition modelling
2. Selective layer sintering
3. Laminated object modelling
4. Stereo lithography
3.2 History of 3d printing
The concept of 3d printing was introduced by Jones in 1974. It was presented that irrespective of most
common subtractive operations, the additive techniques is also possible and leads to sustainable
environment. It was 1980 when a scientist Kedana used additive technology to fabricate 3 d plastic
models. He used phot-hardening thermoset polymers to produce 3d plastic object and model (3D
printing 2017).

Bill master pioneered the 3d printing systems used today in 1984. In the same year Witte and Claude
andre gave the concept of stereo lithography (SLA). It was best known 3d technique at that time. In
1990, selective laser sintering (SLS) technique was presented which revolutionized the 3d printing
industry.
Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the 3 d technique in which the polymer is allowed to fuse to form
the layers of materials and these layers combine to form new 3 d object. Since 2010, it has become
obvious that additive techniques will overcome the subtractive manufacturing methods in future.
VIPRE technique was coined in 2014 and up till now additive manufacturing is rising and rising.
3.3 Special features of 3d printing
The 3d printing has some special features over the conventional manufacturing,
3.3.1 Additive manufacturing
Irrespective of the conventional manufacturing methods in which the material is subtractive down to
create the object, 3 d printing is regarded as additive manufacturing. In this technique the object is
developed from zero. The layers are joined and fused using photo solidification, thermal solidification
and other sintering techniques.
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3.3.2 Use of modern technology
There is no as such requirement of setting the production sophistications. The object is developed in 3d
CAD software and everything is decided by the computer program; the setting the model, the support
structure and layer resolution.
3.3.3 Parameters
These new printing techniques have high production speed ranging from 250 mm per second to 400
mm per second. It produces accurate parts with durable material.
3.3.4 Sustainable technique
3d printing is regarded as sustainable technique which produces sophisticated parts with little or no
contribution to environment degradation.
3.5 Changing the business strategy
3D printing and rapid prototyping has major impact on business and business strategies (D'Aveni
2015). Some of its major impacts are,
3.5.1 Greater flexibility
3d printing techniques give greater flexibility to the manufacturing. Rather than forcing the customers
to buy a mass manufactured product, it gives freedom to the customers to give their personal
preferences in manufacturing the required parts. It makes the business model flexible an adaptive.
3.5.2 Digital transformation
Rapid prototyping is paving the way to digital transformation of production industry. This is proved to
be the radical step because it does not allow the cost to be switched.
3.5.3 Obsoleting the stocking warehouse method
Conventionally, the mass production leads to accumulation of inventory and filling up the warehouse.
The 3 d printing is allowing the parts to be manufactured at any time and at any place.
3.5.4 Distributive manufacturing
3d printing is striving to revolutionize the business model by the concept of distributive manufacturing.
It permits the industries to use central solution of distributing the 3 d machines to the places close to the
customer where the components is produced and distributed in digital inventory.
3.5.5 Freedom of testing
These technologies give freedom to companies to draw 100 or even more different versions of
components which can be tested to see the effect of change and incorporating new concepts.
3.4 Future of 3D printing
It is not exaggeration that the future of 3d manufacturing is extremely bright and rising day by day.
 In future many industries like automotive industry, defense industry and healthcare industry
(LaSelle)would be using the 3d printing techniques for production of new design and flexible
components. The production of ducts, venting systems and other components is already under
processing.
 3d printing is sustainable technology which is going to rule the world in next generation.
 It is also a conservation technique which says that it requires less energy than conventional
manufacturing techniques. It has also pledged to reduce the waste and scrap.

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  In near future, additive manufacturing (3D printing) will overcome the conventional subtractive
procedures to produce the components.

4. Wind Energy:
Sustainable energy (Twidell and Weir 2015) and developments is defined as the consumption of energy
sources such that our present requirement does not compromise availability to future generations.
Renewable sources like wind and solar are sustainable because they are not supposed to wipe out
completely, persistent and does not affect environment.
4.1 Wind Energy
Wind energy is regarded as the renewable source of energy. It is also regarded as the sustainable energy
resource because its utilization now is not leading to exploitation and does not affect the GHGs
emissions in environment. “The kinetic energy present in the moving wind is called wind energy”..
4.1.1 Wind and its variation with height
The solar energy reaches the earth and earth surface absorbs it. The expansion and convection of sir
results into wind. These thermal effects combine with the rotational effects of earth and prevailing
pattern of wind is produced at specification. This wind pattern is also affected by the height, to an
obstacle 30 m above the surface the effect of wind will be strong as compared to effect on the ground.
4.1.2 Variation of wind speed with time and distance
Wind speed is the one of the most important parameter in analysis of
conversion of kinetic energy into electrical energy. Too high speed and gust
will lead to failure and damage to wind turbine (Twidell and Weir 2015). So
it is obvious to pay attention to wind speed at specific location. This wind
speed is effected by the distance and time. These variations of speeds are
measured through a parameter called dimensionless turbulence intensity.
Correlation time is defined as the time in which these similar changes
become apparent at separated sites.
4.2 Wind energy technologies concepts
Wind energy is harnesses through wind mills which convert the kinetic energy
of wind into electrical energy. The power produced by the wind turbine is
found to be proportional to third power of free steam velocity. It is given by,
1
P  CP  AU o3
2

Where CP is the power coefficient given as CP  4a (1  a ) . The flow of wind

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over the turbine not only lead to power production but also the axial thrust
which may lead to excessive stresses in the turbines. This axial thrust is given by
1
FT  CF  AU o2
2

Where CF is the thrust coefficient given as CF  4a(1  a ) . The torque produced due to wind flow is
given by,

15
 Figure 12(Wind installed capacity)

1
T  CT  AU o3
2
4.3 Flow and forces around the wind turbine blade
Wind turbines have been classified on the basis of their construction
and flow of wind over them. When wind impinges on the turbine blade,
a force (Aerodynamics 2016) acts on blades which can be resolved into
two components,
1. FD is the drag force which is along the relative velocity.
2. FL is the lift force that is perpendicular to the drag force.
These forces can be further resolved into other forces. Frotate is the
force that is in direction of rotation. This force actually rotates Figure 13(Forces in turbine blade)
the shaft and enables it to extract power from the wind.
4.4 Beam theory.
Beams are considered to be one of the most important structure element. Beam theory (Faccio and Neto
2016) is the extension and simplification of linear theory of elasticity. It enables the designers to
calculate the deflection characteristics and load carrying capacity of beams. This theory is used for
design of many other structures. According to this theory the beam cross section remains rigid and keeps
it orthogonal on beam axis.
4.5 Control of Wind turbines and Wind power plants
In order to make the turbine work efficiently and ensuring low maintenance cost wind turbine control is
necessary. There are major two method to control (ni 2019)the wind turbine,
 Pitching control
 Yaw control

16
In pitch control technique, the blade angle is adjusted so that the wind impinging on the turbine causes
rated speed and power. This can be done either by stalling or furling.
In yaw control, the entire rotation of turbine about a horizontal axis is
controlled. This control ensures that the turbine constantly face the
wind which leads to maintain the optimal rotation speed and power
control.
4.6 Wind energy economics
4.6.1 Wind farms Figure 14(Pitching (Left), Yawing (Right))
Wind farms are divided into two major categories, Inland
farms and offshore farms. Inland farms operate for 20 to 25 years with 10 to 100 turbines installed.
While offshore Inlands farms are generally less time and 50 to 300 installed. The installation cost and
operational cost of inland farms is usually less than the offshore farms.
4.6.2 Cost of farms
It has been reported that installation and operational cost of offshore farms is higher than the inland
farms. A typical onshore farms cost is $1000/kW and that of offshore farms is $1600/kW. Similarly
operational cost of offshore is higher than inland farms.

5. OSHA Workplace Safety (General Industry):

5.1 Introduction
Occupational safety and health administration (wikipedia 2019)also known as OSHA is a fully
functional agency of USA. This agency was established after paying full attention and devotion to
working environment, safety of labor and health conditions. It was established by Nixon in 1970 with a
mission to ensure safety and better working environment to workers through implementing the
standards.
5.2 Purpose of OSHA
With reference to the general industry, the purpose of OSHA is to ensure safety and health programs as
identified by the laws. OSHA is to ensure that every worker in the industry have safe and healthful
workplace and this workplace must comply with OSHA standards
5.3 Standard:
Table 1(OSHA Standards)

Standard Concern
29 CFR 1910 General Industry
29 CFR 1926 Construction
29 CFR 1915, 1917, 1918 Maritime
29 CFR 1904 Record keeping
29 CFR 1928 Agriculture
29 CFR 1952 State Plans

5.3 Industrial Hygiene

OSHA standards prescribe set of rules for industrial hygiene. The working environment must be such
that employees would be working in clean, hygiene and healthful place.

17
5.4 Controlling Hazards
Hazard is defined as potential activity if left uncontrolled then lead to illness or injury. Hazard
analysis must be carried out for both routine and non-routine tasks. Hazard analysis uncovers all the
hazards to employees and based upon the requirements the employees are required to wear glasses,
safety shoes and hard hats. All the employees are bound to follow the requirements. All the hazards
must be reported and recorded. Hazard prevention and control must be reviewed and supervisor must
ensure their effectiveness.
5.5 Types of hazards
There are major six types of hazards (A potential material if let uncontrolled will lead to injury or
illness),
 Biological hazard  safety hazard
 Chemical Hazard  Ergonomic hazard
 Physical Hazard  psychological hazard
Compressed gases, pressure vessels, compressed gas cylinders and materials like benzene, lead,
cadmium, chromium and methylene chloride are hazardous materials.
5.6 Safety and health programs
OSHA standard compel the general industries to carry out safety and health programs. First of all safety
goal must be established and according to the requirements training programs must be considered with
proper evaluation. All the incidents must be reported and recorded.
5.7 Personal protective equipment
The main purpose of the PPEs is to protect the workers from any injury as it creates barrier against the
hazardous environment. Personal protective equipment must be given to all the employees and record
must be kept for the future use. The PPEs must be according to the NIOSH standards and sessions must
be carried out regarding the use and importance of personal protective equipment. Eyes and face is to be
protected using glasses and face shields. Head is to be covered with hard hat.
5.8 Respiratory protection
In industries, there are many events when air borne contaminants are produced which lead to respiratory
problem. In order to meet this challenge air respirators must be used to purify the air. A regional
coordinator must be appointed to observe the respiratory problem faced by the workers.
5.9 Blood borne Pathogens
Blood and OPIM (Other Potential infectious materials) are considered to be highly infectious. OPIM
includes semen, vaginal secretion, cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid and HIV containing cells &
tissues. Blood and these OPIM contain blood borne pathogens which may lead to illness so training
must be given about the method to deal with the incident with blood loss and interaction.
5.10 Fire Safety & Prevention
Firs is also regarded as hazardous material. It leads to skin burning which may become fatal. There
must be proper safety from the fire and fire places. The workers must be given PPEs to protect
themselves and managers must ensure that they must be wearing these PPEs. All the potential fire sites
are to be evaluated and proper safety measurements should be taken.

18
5.11 Work environment in work place
Work environment in work place should be persuading and free from all the air borne contaminants and
hazardous materials. The workers have right to get clean, persuading, effective and healthy environment
for execution of tasks.
5.12 Electrical Safety
Electricity is also hazardous as it may lead to shock, blast, and thermal burn and may become fatal. All
the potential hazardous sites regarding the electricity must be evaluated and these must be marked. All
the employees must have PPEs and managers should ensure their use. Keep the record of potential
hazard and make recommendation.
5.13 Emergency plans
All the employees must be trained to tackle with the emergency situations, In case of potential
emergency, the employees must keep themselves safe and there must be annual training regarding
emergency situation. Shelter in place plan allows the occupants to remain in the building when it is safe
there. Local contingency plans and occupant emergency plan focusses to keep the occupants safe at their
offices in case of bomb threats and terror threats .

6. Introduction to Thermodynamics:
The heat energy liberated from combustion of fuel and fission of nuclear fuel is converted into work through
thermodynamic systems. So, applied thermodynamics is the science that deals with the study of heat,
work, and conversion of heat into work and system properties. The thermodynamic systems are studies
through laws of thermodynamics; the first law deals with conversion of heat into work and second law
which deals with investigation that all the heat supplied cannot be converted into work (Eastop and
McConkey 1993).
6.1 Some definitions and units
6.1.1 Heat
“Heat is defined as the energy that crosses the boundary of medium for temperature difference between
system and surrounding”. The temperature difference is the major driving force for heat. The total heat
content of system is known as enthalpy.
Unit: The SI unit of heat is Joule (J). But some other common units are calories and watt second.
6.1.2 Temperature
“Temperature is define as the measure of hotness or coldness of the body”. In gases, the temperature is
considered to be macroscopic manifestation of kinetic energy of gas molecules. The more is the kinetic
energy of molecule, the more is the temperature and vice versa.
Temperature difference is regarded as the main driving force for heat transfer. This property temperature is
the one of the main parameters of system. It is a point function and also intensive property of system.
Unit: The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K) but along-with this there are other two units which are
Celsius and Fahrenheit. These units are related as,
K= 273 + C
F= 9/5 (C) + 32

19
6.1.3 Work
Likewise the heat, the work is also a boundary phenomenon. It is also a path function which means that it
depends upon the process adopted to bring the change rather than only initial and final points. “Work is
defined as the product of displacement and the component of
force in the direction of the displacement”.
W  F d
In the case of fluids this work is represented by,
W  PV
Where ‘P’ is the pressure and ‘V’ is change in volume. Since two
possibilities are there for work either work is being done on the
system or system is doing work so, in former case it is taken –ve and
Figure 15(Work done by system)
later +ve.
Unit: Its SI unit is Joule (J). And this joule is also equal to Nm.
6.1.4 Pressure
In thermodynamics, the system is defined as the portion of universe under study. To define a system, some
quantities are used like Temperature, Volume and Pressure.
“Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force exerted on unit
area”. Pressure is a scalar quantity. When gases and liquids are put
into container, the molecules exert force on the walls of container
which gives rise to pressure. In gases Pressure is also defined as,
Unit: The SI unit of pressure is Pascal. But there are many other
units like atm, bar, mm Hg, cm Hg and Psi. The relation among units
Figure 16(Pressure measurement)
of pressure is,
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 76 cm Hg = 760 Torr = 101325 Pa
6.1.5 Force
“Force is defined as the external agency which changes or tend to change the state of rest or state of
uniform motion of body”.
A body resists in change in its state so force overcome this resistance. By newton’s Second Law this force is
given by,
F = ma
Unit: Its SI unit is N or Kgms-2. Some other units are kgf, pound and dyne.
6.1.6 Density
“The mass per unit volume of a body is called its density”. The density of body defined the heaviness of
material and used to compare two bodies. The density of all materials depend upon temperature and
generally it decreases with the temperature.
m

V

20
Unit: Its SI unit is Kgm-3.
6.2 Thermodynamic properties & measuring Temperatures and pressures
All the thermodynamic properties are divided into two categories; Intensive properties and extensive
properties. Intensive properties are those which are independent of mass of the system. They assume same
value in whole system and extensive properties are those whose value depend upon the mass of system.
The original value is sum of all the values of the same property in different sections of system. For example,
Pressure and temperature are intensive properties and Enthalpy & Internal energy are extensive properties.
6.2.1 Internal Energy:
The sum of all the possible energies of a system is called internal energy. The kinetic energy and
potential energy fall in possible energies of system. The kinetic energy constitutes linear, rotational and
vibrational kinetic energy and potential energy is due to bonds among the medium molecules.
The SI unit of internal energy is Joule and expressed by U.
U= K.E + P.E
Specific internal energy is the intensive property and the ratio of internal energy to the mass of system. In
Isochoric process, internal energy change is equal to heat absorbed or released by the system.
6.2.2 Enthalpy:
The total heat content of system is called enthalpy. Likewise internal energy, enthalpy is also an
extensive property. The value of enthalpy depend upon the mass of the system. It is represented by the H.
The specific enthalpy is an intensive property which is the ratio of enthalpy to mass of the system.
H = U + PV
In isobaric process, enthalpy change is equal to the heat absorbed or released by the system.
6.2.3 Temperature
“Temperature is define as the measure of hotness or coldness of the body”. In gases, the temperature is
considered to be macroscopic manifestation of kinetic energy of gas molecules. The more is the kinetic
energy of molecule, the more is the temperature and vice versa.
Temperature difference is regarded as the main driving force for heat transfer. This property temperature is
the one of the main parameters of system. It is a point function and also intensive property of system.
6.2.4 Pressure
In thermodynamics, the system is defined as the portion of universe under study. To define a system, some
quantities are used like Temperature, Volume and Pressure.
“Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force exerted on unit area”. Pressure is a scalar quantity.
When gases and liquids are put into container, the molecules exert force on the walls of container which
gives rise to pressure. In gases Pressure is also defined as,
6.2.5 Measurement of Pressure
The pressure of system can be measured using different devices such as Manometer, Bourden tube pressure gauge,
Pressure transducers and piezoelectric devices.

6.2.5.1 Manometer

21
A manometer is a device used to measure small and moderate pressure. It uses the principle of
elevation to measure the pressure. When force is exerted to the fluid at rest this pressure causes its height to
elevate which corresponds to that pressure.
It consists of a plastic or glass tube filled with alcohol, water or
mercury. The mercury is the most common fluid for manometer. It has
pressure graduations calibrated on plastic or glass to measure the
pressure.
P= P1 – P2
6.2.5.2 Bourden tube pressure gauge
Bourdon tube is also used for the measurement of pressure. It consist of a Figure 17 (Manometer)
hollow metal tube which is bent like hook. The one end of tube is closed and
connected to dial indicator. In normal state, the tube is un-deflected and
indicator is at zero. But when connected to fluid chamber, the tube is pressurized
and deflects. This deflection causes the indicator to move and it reads the pressure.

6.2.5.3 Pressure Transducers

There are many substance which generate electric potential when external pressure is applied to them. These
materials are used for the measurement of pressure. Piezoelectric transducers are the crystalline materials
which are used to measure the small range pressure. It uses the principle that when external pressure is
exerted on crystalline solids they generate electric current which is proportional to the pressure.
6.2.5.4 Strain Gauges
Strain gauges use the principle of deflection by pressure and its conversion to electric current. It consists of
a diaphragm which deflects between two chambers when there is external pressure. The stretching of
diaphragm causes stretching in strain gauges which produces electric current.
6.2.6 Measurement of temperature:
The temperature is measured using thermometers or thermocouples.
6.2.6.1 Thermometers
Thermometers are the mechanical devices which is used to measure the low range temperatures. It consists
of a glass tube with low boiling material filled in it. This glass tube is calibrated into defined temperature
scale.
When body comes into contact with the thermometer, thermometric materials gains heat and it rises. The
final value of the material is noted from the graduations. The actual temperature of body is the difference of
final and initial temperatures. Temperature is measured under the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
6.2.6.2 Thermocouples and Thermistors
Thermistors are the specially designed ceramic materials used to measure the temperatures. These are used
to measure lower temperature by the fact that when temperature changes the resistance of material also
varies. In thermistors, temperature causes inverse reaction and gives the temperature result.
6.3 States of different systems processes and pathways between states
In thermodynamics, a process is define as any activity which changes the state of the system. The state of system
is defined through parameters like pressure, temperature and volume etc

22
6.3.1 Isochoric Process
A constant volume process is an activity in which volume of the system remain
same. Since the system is not allowed to expand so no work is done in the constant
volume process. This is also known as Isochoric process. The heat change is given
by,
Q  U  mCv T

W= 0 Figure 18(PV chart of isochoric process)

In isochoric process, heat change is equal to the internal energy change.

6.3.2 Isobaric process
Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which pressure of system remains
unchanged. Since the system is allowed to expand so there is change of internal
energy of system and work done by the system. In heat exchangers and
condensers, the heat transfer takes places under constant pressure,
Q  mCP T  H Figure 19(PV chart of isobaric process)

W  PV
6.3.3 Isothermal process
Isothermal process is regarded as the slow and reversible process in which there is
no change of temperature of the system under the action of an activity. Since no
change of temperature is there so internal energy of the system remains same as
internal energy is the function of temperature.
Q W

P2
W  PV
1 1 ln( ) Figure 20(PV chart of isothermal process)
P1

6.3.4 Adiabatic process

Adiabatic process is a reversible process in which there is not transfer of heat
from the system to the surroundings. In adiabatic process since there is no heat
change so work done is equal to change in internal energy. This process is also
regarded as isentropic process because of no change in entropy of the system.
Q=0
mR (T2  T1 )
W
 1
Figure 21(PV chart of adiabatic process)
6.4 Energy of a system
In thermodynamics, all the systems can be broadly divided into two categories. The first one is open
system and other is called closed system. In open system, mass and heat can cross the boundary of
system while in closed system there is no transport of mass but transport of heat only.
The total energy of system is given as the sum of all the possible energies in a system. These possible
energies are divided into two categories; microscopic energies and macroscopic energies.

23
 mV 2
KE 
2
1
ke  V 2
2
PE  mgz
pe  gz

mV 2
E  U  KE  PE  U   mgz
2
V2
e  u  ke  pe  u   gz
2
6.5 First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
The thermodynamic analysis of system is carried out through its laws. First law of thermodynamics
deals with the conservation of energy and conversion of heat into work. It is the manifestation of law
of conservation of energy. It states that (Wikipedia 2017),
“Energy cannot be destroyed and cannot be created but can be transformed from ne form to
another but total energy remains same”.
Alternatively, it can be explained that the total change in energy of system is the difference of final
energy and initial energy of the system. So,
Esystem  E2  E1
Esystem  ( Emassout  Emassout )  (Qout  Qin )  (Wout  Win )

6.6 Heat and work transfer

There are two ways by which energy can transfer the boundary of the system; Heat and Work. It is
quite practical that when hot body is left in environment, the heat transfer takes place from the system
to surrounding and body cools down. Similarly, when a cold body is left in the environment, it gains
heat and get hot. The energy can also be transferred to and from the system by the virtue of work. The
energy transfer by work does not take place due to temperature difference rather it takes place by direct
application of force which brings change in the system.
6.7 Energy analysis of Close systems, internal energy, enthalpy & specific heats
As in closed system (Eastop and McConkey 1993), no mass can cross the boundary of system. In order
to change the state of system from 1 to 2 energy must be transferred by either heat or work or by both
which is equal to the change in internal energy of the system,
2 2
U 2  U1   dQ   dW
1 1

U 2  U1  Q  W
Q  W  U
q  w  u
dQ  dW  du

24
 6.8 Energy analysis of open systems, steady state systems
An open system is a system in which both mass and heat can cross the boundary of system. In the steady state,
the change in energy of system is equal to the final energy and initial energy (Cengel and Boles 2007),

Esystem  E2  E1
Esystem  E1  E2
esystem  e1  e2

. C12
e1  m(u1   gz1  p1v1 )
2
. C22
e2  m(u2   gz2  p2 v2 )
2
. . . C2 . C2
q  w m(u1  1  gz1  p1v1 )  m(u2  2  gz2  p2 v2 )
2 2
. . . C12 . C22
q  w m(h1   gz1 )  m(h2   gz2 )
2 2

7. Material Science: 10 Things Every Engineer Should Know:

7.1 Categories of engineering materials
There are major four categories of engineering materials; Metals, Ceramics, polymers and
composites. Metals are the crystalline solids in which there is regular pattern. They have high melting
point and dense materials. For example, copper, iron and their alloys. Ceramics are in between metals
and non-metals, actually they are oxides and nitrides of metals and non-metals. For example SiO 2 and
glass. Polymers are formed by the polymerization reaction of organic elements. For example
polyethylene and PVC. Composites are the formed by the combination of other categories of
engineering materials such as CFRP and FLMs (Callister Jr and Rethwisch 2020).
7.2 Structure leads to properties
There is a direct relation between structure of an element and its
properties. Structure is defined as the arrangement of particles in that
material. Property of material is its trait that whether it allows the current
to pass through it or not.
There are major six categories of properties; Mechanical, electrical,
thermal, magnetic, optical and deteriorative. Metals have high tensile
and yield strength than wood and plastic because of crystalline nature of metals. When wood is
put to fire it burns down but metal gets hot and melts down also showing conduction but wood
show no conduction. All this is decided by the structure of material.
7.3 Crystallography and the electron Microscope
Crystallography is the branch of science that deals with the study and
determination of structure, arrangement and geometrical structure of
crystalline solids. All the techniques use shorter wavelength rays to pierce through
the materials and locate the arrangement and location of particle in the body. Figure 22(Electron microscope
image)

25
Two major types of electron microscope; transmitting electron microscope (TEM) and scanning
electron microscope (SEM) are being used today to view the crystalline structure of many materials
including metals.
7.4 Point defects and Solid state Diffusion
A crystalline solid in not perfect at all it has imperfections,
Point defect is defined as the vacancy in a material or a
vacant space which is not occupied by the particle. The
point defect has two types; vacancy and self-interstitial
In metals, diffusion is just the transport or migration of a
particle in structure to another vacant position or
interstices. The two dominant diffusion methods are; vacancy
diffusion and interstitial diffusion. In vacancy diffusion the
particle migrates from one location to adjacent vacant position
while in interstitial diffusion the particle is migrated from one
interstices to another interstices (Callister Jr and Rethwisch
2020).
7.5 Defining a linear Defect – the dislocation
When some of the atoms in the crystal structure are
misaligned then the defect is regarded as linear or one
dimensional defect. One of its types is edge dislocation in
which the defect centers on the line. In screw dislocation, the Figure 23(Point defects (Top), vacancy diffusion (Mid),
Interstitial diffusion (Bottom))
front region of crystal is somehow distorted and shifted to one
atomic distance to the other position. It can be thought as shear stress being exerted to the material.
7.6 Plastic Deformation by Dislocation
In crystal structures, the atoms of particle tend to leave their position. When stress is applied to the
material the slip occurs which causes dislocation and this dislocation leads to plastic deformation of
material. In early days, plastic deformation mechanism was unknown to scientists and it was when
Taylor gave the concept of slip in material leading to plastic deformation. This theory has been verified
through electron microscopes.
7.8 Major 4 mechanical properties
In material sciences, the major properties of material are,
1) Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of a material to regain its original shape when load applied
to it is removed. This property is required in springs and specific application.
2) Plasticity: Plasticity is the mechanical property of material to hold the permanent deformation
once load applied to it is removed. The embossing and coining is based upon plasticity.
3) Hardness: Hardness is the mechanical property which enables the material to bear the scratching
and indentation. The hardness and strength are both different terms.
4) Toughness: Toughness is the property of material to absorb energy when it is subjected to shock
load.
7.7 Tensile test
Tensile test is the one of the most fundamental destructive testing method
used to calculate the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of material. It

26
also gives the picture of stress-strain relation. In this test, a standard test specimen is taken and applied
to gradual loading in tensile manner. The length of specimen is 50 mm and diameter to be 12.8 mm. The
specimen is mounted into the grip and elongated. The value of load and change in length is recorded
automatically in modern machines and plotted against each other.
7.9 Strength & Stiffness
The strength is defined as the maximum load that material bears when it undergoes permanent fracture.
This may be tensile strength, compressive strength or shear strength. It must be noted that strength and
hardness are both different terms hardness is related to ability to
resist indentation and scratching.
Stiffness is the property of material which allows it to bear external
forces without undergoing significant displacements. Stiffness is Figure 24(Tensile test)
required in spring elements where the forces are to be revisited by
the material.
7.10 Ductility
Ductility is the physical property of a material which allows it to bear hammering and stretched to form
wire without breaking. The ductility of material is highly effected by temperature and mostly metals are
ductile in nature. In simple way, ductile materials are those which can be stretched to form wire and this
property is called ductility.
7.11 Creep deformation & ductile to brittle transition
Creep is defined as the property of material to undergo slow and complete deformation under the
action of constant load for very long period of time. In creep, the material fails in three stages;
primary stage in which it undergoes slow deformation, secondary stage where it remain same and
tertiary where it deform in high rate.
The ductile to brittle transition is related with the temperature. It is
measured by the impact energy absorption. It has been found that there are
many alloys which undergo ductile to brittle transition for some range of
temperature. The temperature at which ductile failure transits to brittle
failure is called transition temperature.
7.12 Fatigue
Brittle materials are skeptic to static loading and ductile materials to
fatigue loading; the load that varied with time. Fatigue is defined as the
weakening of material when it is subjected to load which changes in Figure 25 (Ductile to brittle transition)
magnitude and may be in direction.
In fatigue failure, the material fails below the yield strength and this failure is linked with the endurance
strength.
7.13 Phase diagrams
A phase diagram is a diagram which represents the relation between compositions of alloy, its
concentration, phase present and temperature when the material undergoes slow cooling and
heating. The phase diagrams are quite important in material engineering and sciences. Its most
important example is iron carbon phase diagram which represents the concentration of each element,
their nature and temperature at particular point.

27
 8. Digital Manufacturing & design:
8.1 Introduction
Manufacturing is defined as the process to add value into the initial material. The term digital
manufacturing is defined as the modern manufacturing process that centers about customer
demand and produces the item with the support of computer, rapid prototyping, additive
manufacturing, resource information and process information. It works under the umbrella of
certain customer demands and quality standards.
With the advancement of CAD models and software the concept of digital design has become fully
developed. In this technique, the product is designed by rapid analyzing, sharing, coordinating and
recombining the information. Digital manufacturing and design is the end product of merging of digital
technology, computer technology, manufacturing systems and production systems.
8.2 Impact on manufacturing careers
As the world is facing the new wave of digitalization. The modern manufacturing techniques are
prevailing and leading to digital manufacturing and design. This new wave is significantly going to
affect the manufacturing careers (Manufacturer 2016) like,
 Robots are to replace and replacing the human workers in industry. This is changing the nature
of job and new challenges are arising. The careers of labor is at stack.
 The future factories will be digitally infused and allowing more customer demands to be taken
into considerations.
 Even the bots are to replace the human in future but it is still believed that it is only the human
that can deal with the customer demands and requirements.
 The labor is now supposed to learn ore skills in order to make pace with the modern
manufacturing method.
 The dull, repetitive and dangerous jobs will be shifted to robots for manufacturing. This will
make labor losing their job but it will also provide alternative means.
8.3 Advantages of Digital manufacturing and Design
The major advantages of digital manufacturing are,
1) The product can be tested before its physical implementation. The simulation and analysis will
result into determination of key features before actual implementation.
2) Digital manufacturing has high potential to optimize the product design and strategy.
3) It saves both time and money as product can be developed and tested before the physical
implementation.
4) It has also the potential to give full real time view of issues and effects caused by change of
machines.
5) Using these techniques, information about the part at any time during the operation can be
extracted from the machine.
8.4 How to protect your organization
The production industries and organization can be protected from the digital manufacturing effect in
later stage implement the digital manufacturing theory in the beginning and let your industry face the
wave of updates and digitalization.

28
 8.5 Digital Thread
In digital world, the phrase ‘Right person for right job’ has become key feature and gave rise to the
concept of digital thread. Digital thread (week 2016) is defined as the framework for the
communication which allows the data flow and assets data to be viewed throughout the cycle of
delivery.
8.6 Benefits, pros & cons of Digital Thread
The key benefits of digital thread and twins are,
1) It enables to assess the current and future capabilities of production.
2) Early deficiencies can be recorded through simulation and can be avoided when the process is to
be implemented physically.
3) At every stage of digital manufacturing, the product can be assessed and refined automatically.

9. Conclusions:
The following conclusions can be derived from the report,
 We exist because of our environment and energy resources, if this perishes out our existence will
be at stake. But our exploitation of non-renewable sources is degrading the environment which
means sources will perish and environment will degrade too. That is why we are seeing paradigm
shift from non-renewables to renewables like solar, wind and hydroelectric power production.
 Wind energy is a sustainable form of energy which is not likely to perish until human race ends
and contribute least to environment pollution. Most of the regions of the world have high wind
potential which requires the energy to be harnessed and used instead of using coal and oil.
 The world is facing a paradigm shift and complete new wave of modernization and
digitalization. That is why manufacturing sector is also shifting from conventional subtractive
methods to modern additive methods which use modern techniques of CAD design and
automatic manufacturing like FDM and SS.
 For safe, healthy and persuading workplace OSHA has set standards for general industry, marine
sector and construction sector. These standards require a proper training and personal protection
methods from hazards and other degrading factors.
 There is a direct relation between structure and properties of material. The structure of material
decides which properties are to be dominant in the material and can be used in that sense.
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