50 Paper No.
98-1063
Nonlinear Analysis of Jointed
Concrete Pavements
M. ASGHAR BHATTI, IDELIN MOLINAS-VEGA, AND JAMES W. STONER
A finite element model for nonlinear analysis of jointed concrete pave-
ments is presented. The model allows for nonlinear representation of the
properties of concrete, both in compression and in tension. It also accounts
for the behavior under cyclic loading considering the nonlinear fatigue
damage accumulation in concrete. An improved model accounting for
the relative deformation between the dowel bars and the concrete slabs is
presented to analyze pavement slabs connected with dowels. The sub-
grade model is capable of representing pumping of the fine material with
repetitive loading. Limited validation of the model is presented using data
available in the literature.
Considerable effort has been devoted to modeling of concrete pave-
ment structures using finite elements in the last 20 years (1–4). A
comprehensive finite element model of concrete pavements should
be able to represent the nonlinear properties of the concrete and the
subgrade, fatigue of structural elements, discontinuities in the slabs,
and pumping of the subgrade. Existing models generally assume lin-
ear material behavior and full subgrade support. This paper briefly
outlines a comprehensive finite element model for jointed concrete
pavements that accounts for the nonlinear behavior under cyclic
loading and effect of repetitive loading on the load transfer effi-
ciency of the dowels. The subgrade model is capable of representing
pumping of the fine material with repetitive loading.
The following sections briefly describe the finite element model
of the pavement. The material models used for concrete in com-
pression and tension, concrete fatigue, and steel reinforcement are
outlined. The subgrade representation, including pumping, and the
dowel bar models are also described briefly. To test the validity of
the models, results are compared with several examples taken from
the literature.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF JOINTED
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
The complete finite element model for analysis of pavement
response consists of the following three separate models:
• Concrete slab model,
• Subgrade model, and
• Dowel bar model.
Within these models nonlinear material properties are used where
appropriate. Geometric nonlinear effects are not included in the model
because of small deformations anticipated in typical pavements.
M. A. Bhatti and J. W. Stoner, Department of Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242. I. Molinas-Vega, Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, Catholic University of Asunción, Paraguay.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1629
Concrete Slab Model
The slab is divided into nine-node quadrilateral elements. The ele-
ment is formulated following the Mindlin approach for thick plates,
and the numerical integration is performed following the heterosis
element (5). The element thickness is discretized into layers, each
layer having different material properties, if desired. This layered dis-
cretization allows for accurate monitoring of crack and fatigue prop-
agation through the pavement thickness. The element considers
yielding and crushing type failures for concrete layers in compres-
sion, cracking of concrete layers in tension, and fatigue for concrete
in tension. Fatigue for concrete in compression is not included in the
model because the compressive stresses in typical pavements are so
low that no significant fatigue effects are anticipated.
Material Properties for Concrete in Compression
Concrete in compression is assumed to behave as an elastoplastic
material. The yield surface can be seen as an extended Von Mises
criterion that accounts for the influence of the hydrostatic pressure
on the loading function. Following Figueiras and Owen (6 ), this
function can be written as follows:
f ( I1 , I2 ) = β(3 J2 ) + α I1 − σ
– =0 (1)
where
I1 = first invariant of stress tensor,
J2 = second invariant of deviatoric stress tensor,
– = equivalent effective stress, and
σ
α, β = material parameters determined experimentally.
A crushing type of failure is controlled by an expression similar to
the yield function but written in the strain space. Using the matrix
formulation for elastoplastic materials presented by Nayak and
Zienkiewicz (7), the failure criterion is readily expressed in a form
suitable for computer implementation.
Concrete in Tension
The response of concrete in tension is assumed to be elastic until the
maximum tensile stress reaches a value equal to the concrete tensile
strength, ft′. After this, a crack forms perpendicular to the direction
of maximum tensile stress and the material is assumed to behave
orthotropically with the principal axes of orthotropy parallel and
normal to the crack. The Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in the
Bhatti et al. Paper No. 98-1063 51

direction normal to the crack are set to zero, and the shear modulus D = α 0 σ 2r ,max + α1σ r ,max σ r ,min + α 2 (σ r ,max − σ r ,min ) (6)
is reduced as follows:

0.25G1.0 − e1  when e1 < 0.004

where
Gc =   0.004 (2)
0 D = damage at a given value of N/NF,
when e1 ≥ 0.004
σr,max = σmax/ft ≥ 0.0 = maximum relative stress applied to pavement
slab,
where e1 is the tensile strain in the direction normal to the crack. The
process of unloading and reloading is assumed to follow a linear σr,min = σmin/ft ≥ 0.0 = minimum relative stress applied to pavement
elastic behavior with a fictitious modulus Ei given by the following slab,
equation: σmax = maximum value of applied stress,
σmin = minimum value of applied stress,
ft = tensile strength of concrete, and
Ei = αft ′1.0 − i  e i
e
et ≤ ei ≤ e m (3) NF = number of cycles to failure obtained from endurance
 em 
relationship.
where α and em are material parameters and ei is the maximum value Table 1 provides the values of parameters α0, α1, and α2 for differ-
reached by the tensile strain. The stresses normal and parallel to the ent values of N/NF. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the results
crack are obtained from the following equation: obtained with Equation 6 and those presented by Cornelissen (17).
The stress limit below which no fatigue damage occurs does not
σ i = αft ′1.0 − i 
e
et ≤ ei ≤ e m ( 4) appear to exist, at least not when up to 10 million cycles of load
 em  applications are considered (18). Clemer (19) found, however, that
up to 2 million cycles of load application an endurance limit for con-
Fatigue of Concrete in Tension crete was between 51 and 54 percent of the static modulus of rup-
ture. To account for this situation, a threshold stress ratio of 0.3 is
During their service lives, concrete pavements are subjected to vari- adopted; that is, it is assumed that no fatigue damage occurs if the
ous types of stresses that are of a cyclic nature. The most noticeable ratio of the induced tensile stress to the tensile strength of concrete
ones are the stresses produced by the traffic loading, but moisture and is less than 0.3.
temperature gradients also induce cyclic stresses. For concrete pave-
ments the fatigue behavior in flexure, resisting cyclic tensile stresses,
is of particular importance. During the last 40 years, several investi-
gations on the fatigue behavior of plain concrete have been carried TABLE 1 Values of Coefficients Defining
out, both for tension and compression cyclical loading and for dif- Damage Evolution Functions
ferent loading conditions and concrete composition. For a more
thorough review on this subject, see work by Molinas-Vega (8).
Fatigue performance is generally expressed in terms of an endur-
ance curve. This curve represents the relationship between the mag-
nitude of the constant amplitude cycling stress and the mean value
of the number of load cycles until failure when subjected to a par-
ticular loading condition. For concrete pavements, the following
endurance curve has been proposed by Darter (9) based on the
experimental results reported by Ballinger (10), Nordby (11), and
Raithby and Galloway (12):

log10 N = 17.61 − 17.71 fr (5)

where N is the number of load repetitions and fr is the relative stress

defined as the ratio of applied cyclic stress to the tensile strength
of concrete. It represents a failure probability of 24 percent (i.e.,
24 percent of the samples failed before this curve was reached for a
given stress ratio).
Fatigue damage is usually assumed to follow Miner’s rule of lin-
ear accumulation. Experimental results (13,14), however, have shown
that the order of application of loading has a significant effect on the
final value of fatigue damage. That is, the total number of applied load
cycles is influenced by the sequence of application. In this work a
nonlinear model for evolution and accumulation of fatigue damage
proposed by Molinas-Vega et al. (15) is used. The model is based on
experimental data provided by Cornelissen (16,17) and has been
compared with the experimental results presented by Oh (14) with
good agreement. Using this model, the modulus of elasticity of con-
crete is reduced by a factor D in accordance with the level of stress
and the number of load repetitions given as follows:
52 Paper No. 98-1063
FIGURE 1 Fatigue damage evolution for σr,max = 0.80 and
σr,min = 0.0.
In the finite element model the material properties of concrete are
modified on the basis of the number of load applications and the
fatigue endurance curve. It is assumed that the following relationships
exist between the tensile strength of concrete and the compressive
strength as well as with the modulus of elasticity (20).
ft ′ = 7.5 fc′
and
Ec = 57, 600 fc′ (in psi) ( 7)
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that the model is
semiempirical. The coefficient in the model and the endurance curve
are obtained from experimental data. Thus, geometry and size effects
are indirectly included. NF is obtained from the endurance curve
based on experimental data.
Steel in Compression and in Tension
The reinforcing steel, if present, is represented as layers of equiva-
lent thickness with unidirectional behavior resisting forces only in
the direction of the bars. An elastoplastic material behavior with
strain hardening is assumed (6).
Finite Element Model of Subgrade
The subgrade is modeled as Winkler foundation that can resist only
the compressive stresses. The values of the modulus of subgrade
reaction are deflection-dependent—that is, they are resilient values.
The subgrade model also takes into consideration the pumping
effect, defined as the decay of subgrade support due to the ejection
of fine material mixed with water as traffic loading is applied. The
pumping of fine material produces zones of low bearing capacity
underneath the concrete slab. After severe pumping, voids are cre-
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1629
ated with a consequent loss of subgrade support. Water can accu-
mulate in these initial voids and be ejected through cracks and joints
when loading is applied. The initial voids can be a consequence of
temperature effects or plastic deformation of the subgrade. The
amount of material pumped depends on a number of factors, such as
structural properties of the pavement, magnitude and number of load
applications, climatic conditions, and type of material used in the
subgrade. Field observations have indicated that the initial pumping
is more severe at the edges of the pavement and along the joints
(21,22). Once the support condition has deteriorated beyond a crit-
ical limit, cracks begin to form, providing additional locations for
pumping development. The pumping model used in this work is
based on the one developed by Larralde (23) using the results of the
AASHO Road Test (24). This model accounts for the effects of
structural properties of the concrete pavement and the amount of
traffic imposed. It is important to mention that the subgrade mater-
ial used during the AASHO Road Test was untreated and had a high
percentage of fine material.
The pumping model is defined in terms of the total energy of
deformation imposed on the pavement and a normalized pumping
index defined as follows:
NPI = eα
where
α = 1.652 log10 
Et 
− 2.884 (8)
10, 000
n
Edef = ∑ ki Aiω i2 ( 9)
i =1
where
NPI = normalized pumping index;
Et = total deformation energy = Edef × number of load applica-
tions;
Edef = energy of deformation due to one application of load;
ki = subgrade modulus associated with location of ωi;
Ai = area of slab associated with ωi;
n = number of locations at which ωi > ωmin; and
ωmin = minimum vertical deflection necessary to induce pumping,
which in this model is taken as 0.000508 m (0.020 in. or
20 mils).
The pumping index is defined as the volume of material pumped out
per unit length of pavement. To account for the fact that slabs of dif-
ferent lengths were used during the AASHO Road Test, the pump-
ing indexes were normalized by dividing their values by the number
of joints per 30.48 m (100 ft).
Dowel Bar Model
The basic representation of a dowel bar is that of a short beam ele-
ment that accounts for shear deformations in the bar. Modifications
are introduced to model the behavior of a dowel bar embedded in
the concrete slab. As a dowel bar deforms, some relative deforma-
tion between the dowel bar and the surrounding concrete slab takes
place, resulting in increased deformations. Several attempts have
been made to model these additional deformations. The pioneering
work was done by Timoshenko and Lessels (25), who modeled the
embedded portion of the dowel as a beam resting on an elastic foun-
dation. On the basis of these results, Bradbury (26) and Frieberg (27)
Bhatti et al.
presented formulas for dowel design. In the finite element context,
the additional deformations can be modeled by generalized springs
capable of supporting both axial and rotational deformations. The
dowel bar is therefore represented by an element composed of a
beam element and two generalized springs attached to the ends of
the beam.
The effect of repetitive loading on the load transfer efficiency of
dowels has not been studied very extensively. Teller and Sutherland
(28) and Sutherland and Cashell (29) were able to characterize some
of the variables that affect load transfer efficiency. The most com-
prehensive study was carried out by Teller and Cashell (30), who
investigated the effects of different variables such as joint width,
dowel diameter, dowel length, and number of load repetitions. They
concluded that there is an exponential relationship between dowel
diameter and load transfer capacity and that a decrease in joint width
increases the load transfer capacity. One of the most important con-
clusions of the study was that the load transfer efficiency of the bars
is directly related to the initial dowel looseness.
On the basis of the results of Teller and Cashell, Larralde (23)
developed the following empirical equation for a reduction factor to
be applied to the modulus of relative stiffness between concrete slab
and dowel bar:
0.0457 log10 ( N )
Rf = (10)
0.268 + 1.123 frb
where
Rf = reduction factor,
N = number of load repetitions, and
frb = Pd /Pc = relative loading acting on dowel, which is a ratio of
shear load acting on dowel and cracking load.
The cracking load, Pc, is given by the following equation:
3φ(h − φ)
Pc = ft ′ (11)
2(1 + ω / l φ )
where
ω = relative deflection between ends of dowel,
φ = dowel diameter,
,φ = embedded length of dowel,
h = thickness of slab, and
f ′t = tensile strength of concrete.
Analysis Procedure
The model is capable of handling concrete pavements of arbitrary
geometry and other physical properties. Continuously reinforced
concrete pavements can be analyzed by defining one of the layers
as an equivalent steel layer. Pavement slabs can be joined across
joints by dowel bars if desired. The loading consists of axle load-
ing placed at any point over the slab model. In addition, a temper-
ature gradient through the slab thickness can also be specified. The
analysis is performed using the Newton-Raphson iterative scheme
in which the total applied load is divided into a number of small
steps. Within each step, iterations are performed until the solution
converges for that load step. For fatigue and pumping analysis, the
total number of load repetitions is divided into a reasonable num-
ber of steps. The reduction in concrete properties due to fatigue and
loss of subgrade support due to pumping is taken into account at the
Paper No. 98-1063 53
end of each step. Obviously, the results will be more accurate if this
updating is done after each load repetition. However, it would
involve huge computational effort to simulate large number of load
repetitions. Numerical experiments performed so far suggest that
reasonable results are obtained with load repetition steps of 25,000
to 50,000 cycles.
The program, implementing the model presented here, produces
a record of deflections, stresses, and strains. Numerical integration
is used to compute finite element stiffness matrices. Stresses and
strains are computed at these integration points, and cracking in con-
crete is monitored at these points. There are integration points in
each concrete layer in the slab element so that stress and cracking
information is available at any depth in the slab. If all integration
points in a layer are cracked, that layer is effectively removed from
the model for subsequent steps. The analysis results will therefore
be more accurate if the slab thickness is divided into a large number
of layers. The pavement is deemed completely failed when at least
one point develops a crack through the entire slab thickness.
ASSESSMENT OF FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
Two examples are presented in this section to validate the finite ele-
ment model. The first example validates the results of the elastic
model using the results obtained by other finite element programs
and those obtained from analytical solutions. The second example is
chosen to validate the nonlinear model. Unfortunately, no experi-
mental data accounting for the progressive deformation of a concrete
pavement slab under increasing load up to failure was available in
the literature. The data used in this example to assess the performance
of the slab model come from a reinforced concrete slab supported at
four corners tested by McNeice (31).
Example 1: WESLIQID Slab
The first example was presented by Chou (3); it shows an excellent
agreement with Westergaard’s solution. The model consists of a rec-
tangular concrete slab of side 201 by 101, where , is the radius of
relative stiffness given by the following equation:
Eh3
l= (12)
12(1 − ν2 )k
4
where
E = modulus of concrete,
h = thickness of pavement slab,
ν = Poisson’s ratio of concrete, and
k = modulus of subgrade reaction.
A concentrated load is applied on one edge. Figure 2 presents the
finite element mesh layout. Because of symmetry, only half of the
slab is modeled. The figure also presents results obtained by using
the Westergaard’s solution as well as those obtained using the
WESLIQID computer program. The results obtained by using the
present model are 4 to 7 percent larger than those obtained by Chou
(3). The difference is primarily due to the type of element used in
modeling. The program WESLIQID uses a rectangular thin plate
element, which does not take shear deformations into account,
whereas in the present model shear deformations are taken into
account.
54 Paper No. 98-1063
FIGURE 2 Mesh layout and deflection comparison (1 in. = 0.0254 m, 1 psi = 6894. 8 Pa,
1 pci = 271 434 N/m3).
Example 2: McNeice Slab
The reinforced concrete slab tested by McNeice (31) is square in
plan and is supported at the four corners. A monotonically increas-
ing concentrated load is applied at the center of the slab. Figure 3
shows the dimensions of the slab as well as the finite element mesh
used to model it. Due to symmetry, only one-fourth of the slab is
modeled. The figure also presents a comparison between the exper-
imental results and those obtained with the present model. It can be
seen that a good agreement with the experimental data is obtained.
The small discrepancies between the experimental and computed
results close to the ultimate load are due to the element used to model
the slab. Additional degrees of freedom (i.e., a shell element) will
produce results closer to the experimental ones. However, concrete
pavements are subjected to small relative deflections during its ser-
vice load, making the use of the plate element a close approximation
of its real behavior.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The finite element model presented in this paper can be used to study
the behavior of jointed concrete pavements under different loading
conditions. A summary of the results is presented in the following
examples; details are given elsewhere (32,33).
Example 1
Example 1 demonstrates the effects of the different components of
the pavement model. It consists of a single slab with dimensions and
other properties as shown in Figure 4. Two point loads are applied
at the edge representing the joint. The magnitude of the load is taken
as 98 kN (22 kips), representing the equivalent effect of a rear
tandem axle of a typical 18-wheel tractor-trailer. The example is
divided in two parts. In the first, only fatigue effects are considered;
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1629
pumping and temperature gradient are neglected. The second
accounts only for the effects of pumping of the subgrade, whereas
fatigue and temperature effects are neglected. The response is eval-
uated after 1, 1 × 105, 2.5 × 105, 5 × 105, 7.5 × 105, 1 × 106, 1.25 ×
106, 1.5 × 106, and 1.75 × 106 tandem axle load replications.
Fatigue Damage
Figure 5 presents a plot of the normalized (with respect to values
obtained after one load application) displacement along a selected
path along the slab, A-A in Figure 4, for five levels of tandem axle
load replications. The actual values of the displacements do not dif-
fer greatly between cases, even though the range of the levels of tan-
dem axle load replications is significantly large. Thus the relative
increase in deflection due to fatigue damage alone is very small.
Nevertheless, the model predicts the beginning of slab cracking after
1.5 × 105 load applications.
Pumping Damage
Figure 6 presents the distribution of deflections along Path A-A for
different levels of tandem axle load replications. It can be observed
that pumping has a large influence on the displacement values. After
750,000 load replications, the relative value of the displacement
under the point of application is approximately six times the deflec-
tion observed after one application. It should be emphasized that the
slab fails when the load is applied with the support conditions that
would prevail after 1 million load repetitions. This implies that the
maximum number of load replications that this structure would
support lies between 750,000 and 1 million.
Figure 7 presents a typical plot of the void depth distribution,
caused by pumping, after a specified number of load replications.
The model predicts void propagation that is consistent with field
observations.
FIGURE 3 Slab tested by McNeice and deflection comparison (1 in. = 0.0254 m,
1 psi = 6894.8 Pa, 1 pci = 271 434 N/m3).

FIGURE 4 Pavement slab characteristics (1 in. = 0.0254 m, 1 ft = 0.3048 m,

1 lb = 4.448N).
56 Paper No. 98-1063
FIGURE 5 Normalized displacements considering
fatigue damage only (1 ft = 0.3048 m).
Example 2
Two pavement slabs, each consisting of the same dimensions and
characteristics as the one used in Example 1, are used to study the
effect of different temperature gradients. Three temperature gradi-
ents are selected: 1.5, 0.0, and −1.5°F/unit thickness of slab. Again,
a total load of 98 kN (22 kips) is applied at two nodal points, repre-
senting the equivalent effect of a tandem axle. Analysis is performed
for a series of load applications. The response is evaluated after 1,
1 × 105, 2.5 × 105, 5 × 105, 7.5 × 105, 1 × 106, and 1.25 × 106 load
applications. Figure 8 presents typical plots of the displacements
that are calculated for different numbers of load applications and a
given temperature gradient.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A comprehensive finite element model for the analysis of jointed
concrete pavements is presented. The concrete model accounts for
FIGURE 6 Displacements along Path A-A
(1 in. = 0.0254 m, 1 ft = 0.3048 m).
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1629
FIGURE 7 Typical void (in.) distribution after 100,000
load repetitions (1 in. = 0.0254 m).
yielding and crushing in compression and cracking in tension. Dis-
cretization of the slab thickness into layers allows for monitoring of
crack propagation throughout the thickness. A recently proposed
model for the nonlinear evolution and accumulation of fatigue dam-
age is incorporated into the concrete slab model. Subgrade behavior
is represented as a Winkler foundation, and the subgrade modulus
is taken as a function of deformation to account for its resilient
behavior. Pumping of the subgrade is modeled, accounting for fac-
tors such as slab stiffness, subgrade type, applied loads, and number
of load applications. A refined representation of dowel bars is devel-
oped. This model allows for a better characterization of the relative
deformation between the embedded portion of the dowel bar and the
surrounding concrete slab. The effect of load repetition on the effi-
ciency of dowels is also taken into account. The pavement model
presented herein has been validated against limited available data
with close agreement. A more thorough validation using actual field
data is currently under way.
FIGURE 8 Effect of temperature gradient
G = +1.5°F/in. on displacements.
Bhatti et al.
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Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Rigid Pavement
Design.