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Studies in Psychology
To cite this article: Sylvia Defior, Gracia Jiménez-Fernández, Nuria Calet & Francisca
Serrano (2015) Learning to read and write in Spanish: phonology in addition to which other
processes? / Aprendiendo a leer y escribir en español: además de la fonología, ¿qué otros
procesos?, Estudios de Psicología, 36:3, 571-591, DOI: 10.1080/02109395.2015.1078552
Article views: 70
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Estudios de Psicología / Studies in Psychology, 2015
Vol. 36, No. 3, 571–591, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2015.1078552
Universidad de Granada
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Abstract: This study reviews some of the most relevant cognitive skills
related to literacy acquisition in Spanish. Beyond the well-known influence
of phonological segmental skills, it highlights the growing importance of
other cognitive skills needed for acquisition, whether explicit or implicit in
nature, to which too little attention has been devoted, including supraseg-
mental or prosodic skills, morphological skills and the implicit learning of
linguistic regularities. It appears that all these skills constitute relevant factors
that should be taken into account in order to understand typical as well as
atypical literacy development.
Keywords: reading in Spanish; phonological skills; morphological skills;
prosodic skills; implicit learning
Reading and writing are complex cognitive skills of particular relevance in our
society, which is why it is an area that has always attracted attention in
Phonological skills
The ability to reflect on the sounds of words and manipulate them, called
Phonological Awareness (PA), is considered an explicit phonological processing
skill because it requires conscious reflection. With their growing vocabulary pool,
children’s phonological representations become increasingly accurate since the
words they are learning often differ by a single phoneme (e.g., gate-late), and
sometimes these phonemes are distinguished by a single articulatory feature (e.g.,
gate-kate). PA emerges gradually and there is a universal sequence in its devel-
opment, which runs from larger units to smaller ones (Defior, 2004).
Since the last quarter of the twentieth century, numerous studies have shown
that PA affects the learning of written language, although there are also effects in
the reverse direction — there is a reciprocal influence. In the case of Spanish, like
other alphabetic orthographies, it is one of the strongest predictors of reading
acquisition (Caravolas et al., 2012; Defior, Serrano, & Marín Cano, 2008; Duncan
et al., 2013).
It has recently been noted that the role of PA appears to differ depending on
the transparency of the code. While studies have shown that it is the strongest and
most durable predictor of accuracy and reading fluency in English, studies into
such transparent orthographies show a decrease of its effects after initial stages of
acquisition. Its role during the early stages of learning in Spanish has been proven
(Defior & Tudela, 1994), but from the second year of learning this role diminishes
(Defior, 2008). This is explained by a regularity and greater simplicity of the
grapheme-phoneme correspondence rules (GPCR), whose acquisition would actu-
ally account for training in PA. However, it continues to play an important role in
writing in both opaque and transparent systems. In addition, although less studied,
differences in the development of PA according to the characteristics of the
spoken language have been noted, specifically in the predominance of certain
syllabic structures, the presence of consonant clusters in starting and/or end
position and the rhythmic properties of language (Defior, 2004).
Other phonological skills of implicit nature, such as verbal working memory
skills and rapid automatized naming (RAN), have also shown a predictive value in
the acquisition of reading (Caravolas, Lervåg, Defior, Seidlová-Málková, &
Hulme, 2013; Caravolas et al., 2012). They are considered implicit because they
Writing and reading in Spanish, associated processes / Leer y escribir en español, procesos asociados 573
known as the double-deficit hypothesis and its occurrence causes more severe
difficulties; it also exists in Spanish (López Escribano, 2007).
The search for the origin of the phonological problems in dyslexia has led
research to focus on speech perception and integration of acoustic signals. Three
decades ago Tallal suggested that the problem lay in the perception of the rapid
transitions between sounds, but this theory has shown little consistency (Peterson
& Pennington, 2012). More recently a deficit in the perception of the rise time in
sound’s amplitude envelope has been evidenced, and has been verified in several
languages, including Spanish (Goswami et al., 2011). Other deficits that have
been observed are difficulties in identifying the stressed syllable in words and
pseudo-words (Jiménez-Fernández, Gutiérrez-Palma, & Defior, 2015), the metric
structure of sentences, perceiving or continue perceiving rhythmic patterns, recog-
nizing voices or the categorical perception of sounds. All this would cause
imprecise phonological representations which, in turn, would make learning
grapheme-phoneme relationships more difficult. Thus the importance attached to
segmental phonology has been criticized, to the detriment of suprasegmental
phonology, and in recent years there has been a growing interest in prosodic
abilities, which are thought to be another important factor influencing the acquisi-
tion of written language, as shown below.
Prosody skills
Suprasegmental phonology, or prosody, refers to the melody of language; it
includes certain acoustic aspects such as accent, intonation, rhythm and patterns
in pauses. Research indicates that prosody is crucial for the development of oral
language and, thus, also reading; in fact, it has been shown that babies are born
with a predisposition to detect the rhythmic characteristics of their language,
which helps them segment continuous speech into words, facilitating access to
language.
To study the role of prosodic awareness in the acquisition of written language,
it has been studied at word level (ability to perceive accents and detect and
manipulate stressed syllables in a word), phrase level (ability to perceive rhythm,
intonation and pauses in phrases or sentences) and text level, where reading
574 S. Defior et al.
expression in regards to reading comprehension has also been analysed (Miller &
Schwanenflugel, 2008).
Most studies have been conducted in English, a stress-timed language where
prosody appears to play a central role in the segmentation of speech stream. In a
pioneering study by Wood and Terrell (1998), results from a filtered sentences
task showed that poor readers (8–9 years old) had worse prosodic awareness skills
compared to their typically developing peers. Other studies supported the con-
tribution of prosody to reader development (Goswami et al., 2002; Holliman,
Wood, & Sheehy, 2010), to the extent that some models propose using prosody as
a key factor in reader development (Holliman et al., 2014).
In other languages which are syllable-timed, such as Spanish, studies are
scarce but also highlight the relationship between these skills and literacy skills.
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It seems that prosodic awareness facilitates identifying the syllable as a basic unit
of speech, thus affecting the distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables
and between words that differ only by their stress. Most studies conducted in
Spanish have analysed prosodic awareness at word level, given that stress is one
of its main suprasegmental elements. One of the first studies was carried out by
Gutiérrez-Palma and Palma-Reyes (2007). They assessed children aged 6–7 years
old by asking them to perform a stress awareness task which comprised of
distinguishing between short pairs of pseudo-words which differed because of
their stress (mípa-mipá), with other pairs which differed by a phoneme (kúpi-kúti).
They found that children who better detected the contrast of stress assigned stress
better in a task that consisted of reading pseudo-words and made fewer fluency
errors. Subsequently, Gutiérrez-Palma, Raya-García, and Palma-Reyes (2009)
partially replicated these results, controlling for the influence of PA. They showed
that stress awareness facilitates reading fluency, probably as a consequence of the
fact that most words in Spanish are polysyllabic, and that a correct emphasis while
reading is necessary. Moreover, as already mentioned, children with dyslexia
show difficulties in stress awareness detection tasks (Jiménez-Fernández et al.,
2015).
Prosodic awareness at word level is also related to writing skills. Defior,
Gutiérrez-Palma, and Cano-Marín (2012) studied the relationship between PA,
stress awareness and reading and spelling in children aged 9–10 years old. To
measure stress awareness, they used a task that consisted of listening to three-
syllable pseudo-words and then indicating the stressed syllable. They found a
direct relationship between stress awareness and reading and writing tasks, after
controlling for memory and PA.
Calet, Gutiérrez-Palma, Simpson, González-Trujillo, and Defior (2015)
recently carried out a longitudinal analysis into the contribution of prosodic
reading skills in children enrolled in kindergarten to the second grade of primary
education (PE), which supported evidence of the causal influence of prosodic
skills in reading in Spanish. They found that these skills have different growth
rates and contribute differently to reading skills during their development. Thus,
non-linguistic rhyming skills during kindergarten seem to be the best predictor of
reading, also confirmed by results from other studies (González-Trujillo, Defior,
Writing and reading in Spanish, associated processes / Leer y escribir en español, procesos asociados 575
& Gutiérrez-Palma, 2012); prosodic skills at word and sentence level would be the
best predictors of reading at the beginning of first grade PE.
Other studies explore the relationship between prosody at text level and read-
ing comprehension. Three Spanish research studies stand out. The study carried
out by Calet, Gutiérrez-Palma, and Defior (2013) examines the relationship
between expression or prosody in reading texts and comprehension in children
in second and fourth PE grades. They found links between reading expression and
comprehension and also found that those links were stronger in the more
advanced year. In an intervention study, González-Trujillo (2005) trained grade
three PE children in expressiveness over 16 weekly sessions who were then
compared with a control group; although the group showed gains in written
prosody (proficient use of punctuation according to the meaning of sentences)
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Morphological skills
Our conscious knowledge of the morphemic structure of words and our ability to
reflect on it and manipulate it is known as morphological awareness (MA).
Several studies have highlighted the importance of MA’s role in learning to read
and write, mainly in English. In Spanish, it has not been so broadly studied, but
the possible relevance has been noted (Defior & Alegria, 2005).
Spanish has a complex morphological system (Defior & Serrano, 2014), which
differs from other languages because of its characteristics and development
(González, Rodríguez, & Gázquez, 2011a). MA development begins at the end
of kindergarten; children manifest it early in skills used to judge morphological
aspects and subsequently morphological production. The first to develop is gender
morpheme, followed by verbal, suffixes, numbers, word families, derived words,
prefixes and compound words (González, Rodríguez, Gázquez, González, &
Álvarez, 2011b). Between grades three and four of PE, inflectional MA develops
576 S. Defior et al.
more than derivational MA, and there is a significant increase in the plural,
gender, verb inflection, nominal and adjectival derivation subcategories
(Montoya & Defior, 2013).
The relationship between MA and reading is evidenced in studies showing that
morphological processing operates separately from phonological processing
(Domínguez & Cuetos, 2011) and that children learn to read using in part,
morphemes (Jaichenco & Wilson, 2013; López-Campelo, Fidalgo, & García,
2008). Thus, Giussani (2009), in a study with Argentine children, showed a
facilitation effect of the morphological structure given that these children made
fewer errors in reading non-words with morphological components and they
showed better performance in a lexical decision task if those words contained
known morphemes. Other studies show the relationship between morphological
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better results in phonological awareness scores. This would indicate that phono-
logical awareness helps during the initial stages of learning to read and write and
that morphology is more relevant at later stages.
Similarly, Suárez-Coalla and Cuetos (2013) found that children with dyslexia
(7–10 years) benefited from the help of morphology as they showed better
performance in morphologically complex items compared to non-complex ones
when reading words and pseudo-words. The morphological structure of the
stimuli serves to compensate for the difficulties children with dyslexia have in
phonological decoding and accessing meaning (Jaichenco & Wilson, 2013).
As implications for intervention, some authors believe that MA could be
improved separately from phonemic awareness, in order to favour reading and
writing of morphologically complex words (Domínguez & Cuetos, 2011).
Training learners to look for morphological relations between words would be
useful for improving reading comprehension, as a novice reader could understand
a new word if it is composed of morphemes they already know.
regularity and the other does not. The participant has to choose which one seems
more real. Typical results show that participants chose the pseudowords which
respect regularity despite not being able to verbalize the reasons for their choice.
Most of the studies that include this task have been conducted in English, and
have demonstrated preliterate children’s implicit knowledge of regularities such as
sequences of allowed letters (Cassar & Treiman, 1997) or the frequency of the
position of groups of letters in words (O’Brien, 2014). However, the opacity-
transparency level of the orthographic system may influence the involvement of
IL processes in literacy acquisition. Thus, learners of transparent orthographic
systems could learn to read using a method that teaches GPCR explicitly, without
the need to focus on implicit processes. By contrast, GPCR would not be
sufficient for opaque orthographies since in many cases these relationships are
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On the other hand, some studies have focused on investigating the hypothesis
that developmental dyslexia is partially caused by a deficit in IL. In Spanish, there
has been a dissociation between a deficit in the ability to learn implicitly in children
with dyslexia and preserved explicit learning skills (Jiménez-Fernández, Vaquero,
Jiménez, & Defior, 2011), as well as a lesser implicit knowledge of regularities
shown in a word likeness judgement task (Espínola & Jiménez-Fernández, 2014).
Conclusions
Research into reading and writing has highlighted the importance of a set of skills
related to their acquisition which, regardless of whether these skills are explicit or
implicit in nature, belong in the field of psycholinguistics. One of the most important
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contributions during the last century was to highlight the role of the PA, particularly
phonemic awareness, which manifests as a powerful ally of learning the written
language. The influence of PA seems to be universal, affecting all alphabetic systems,
although the degree of transparency of the language modulates it according to the
development of reading and writing skills. Other phonological skills, such as supra-
segmental skills, have emerged strongly in research conducted into the cognitive
processes that underpin literacy, as well as morphological awareness skills; in both
cases studies are still needed to explain their relationship with reading and writing and
its difficulties, particularly in Spanish. Additionally, implicit processes play a major
role in learning the Spanish orthographic system, as it does in other orthographic
systems, an aspect that should always be considered, especially when selecting an
approach to use with children who have learning difficulties. The conclusion is that
oral language skills and the ability to detect statistical regularities in the spoken
language and in the orthographic code are significant explanatory factors, relevant
to understanding the progress of typically developing children — as well as those
who have reading difficulties — during the learning to read and write processes.
580 S. Defior et al.
Habilidades fonológicas
La habilidad para reflexionar sobre los sonidos de las palabras y manipularlos,
denominada conciencia fonológica (CF), se considera una habilidad de procesa-
miento fonológico explícito ya que requiere llevar ese conocimiento a la reflexión
consciente. Con el incremento del vocabulario, las representaciones fonológicas
de los niños se van haciendo cada vez más precisas, ya que en muchas ocasiones
las palabras difieren en un único fonema (bata-lata), e incluso a veces esos
fonemas se distinguen por un único rasgo articulatorio (bata-gata). La CF emerge
gradualmente y existiría una secuencia universal en su desarrollo, que iría desde
las unidades más grandes a las más pequeñas (Defior, 2004).
Desde el último cuarto del siglo XX, numerosos estudios han mostrado que la
CF influye en el aprendizaje del lenguaje escrito, aunque también existen efectos
en la dirección inversa, existiendo una influencia mutua. En el caso del español, al
igual que otras ortografías alfabéticas, constituye uno de los predictores más
fuertes de la adquisición lectora (Caravolas et al., 2012; Defior, Serrano, &
Marín Cano, 2008; Duncan et al., 2013).
Recientemente, se ha señalado que el papel de la CF parece diferir en función
de la transparencia del código. Mientras que los estudios en lengua inglesa
muestran que es el predictor más fuerte y duradero de la precisión y fluidez
lectoras, los realizados en ortografías más transparentes muestran una disminución
Writing and reading in Spanish, associated processes / Leer y escribir en español, procesos asociados 581
Habilidades de prosodia
La fonología suprasegmental o prosodia se refiere a la melodía del lenguaje;
engloba ciertos aspectos acústicos como el acento, la entonación, el ritmo y el
patrón de pausas. Diversas investigaciones indican que la prosodia es fundamental
para el desarrollo del lenguaje oral y, por tanto, de la lectura; de hecho, se ha
mostrado que los bebés nacen con una predisposición para detectar las
características rítmicas de su lengua, lo que les ayuda a segmentar el continuo
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Habilidades morfológicas
El conocimiento consciente que tenemos sobre la estructura morfémica de las
palabras y la habilidad para reflexionar sobre ella y manipularla se conoce como
conciencia morfológica (CM). Diversos estudios apoyan la participación de la CM
en el aprendizaje de la lectoescritura, principalmente en inglés. En español, está
poco estudiada aunque su posible relevancia ha sido señalada (Defior & Alegría,
2005).
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por el nivel de CM. Los niños de 5º mostraron menos errores en formas verbales
con h, que en otras palabras que contienen el grafema h, lo que se interpreta como
una ayuda de la CM.
Por su parte, Defior, Alegría, Titos, y Martos (2008) mostraron que los niños
usan información morfológica para escribir la -s final de las palabras cuando es
marca de plural en nombres (rosa-s) y de la segunda persona singular en verbos
(come-s) por contraste a cuando es una -s léxica (lune-s), incluso cuando esta se
omite en el lenguaje oral (como en ciertas regiones de Andalucía). Además, al
contrario que en francés, los niños mostraron mayor conciencia de la -s final en
los verbos que en los nombres, lo que confirmaría el carácter pro-drop del
español, pues los niños españoles tienen que prestar particular atención a las
terminaciones verbales ya que el morfema verbal informa sobre quién es el sujeto.
Respecto a los niños con retraso lector y dislexia existen resultados contra-
puestos. Rodrigo et al. (2004) mostraron que el reconocimiento del morfema
contribuye a la lectura de niños con y sin problemas, sin diferencia entre ellos.
Sin embargo, otros estudios, como el de Rueda e Incera (2011), muestran pro-
blemas de acceso al léxico y en el procesamiento de palabras con morfemas en
niños con dificultades. Con un diseño de edad lectora equivalente encontraron que
los niños más jóvenes sin dificultades obtuvieron puntuaciones más bajas en CM
y mejores resultados en conciencia fonológica. Esto indicaría que la conciencia
fonológica ayuda en el inicio de la lectoescritura y que la morfológica es más
relevante en etapas posteriores.
Del mismo modo, Suarez-Coalla y Cuetos (2013) encontraron que los niños
con dislexia (7–10 años) se beneficiaban de la ayuda de la morfología, pues
mostraban mejor ejecución en los ítems morfológicamente complejos frente a
los no complejos al leer palabras y pseudopalabras. La estructura morfológica de
los estímulos serviría para compensar las dificultades de los niños con dislexia en
la decodificación fonológica y poder acceder al significado (Jaichenco & Wilson,
2013).
Como implicaciones en intervención, algunos autores piensan que se podría
mejorar la CM de forma independiente a la conciencia fonémica, para favorecer la
lectura y la escritura de palabras complejas morfológicamente (Domínguez &
Cuetos, 2011). El entrenamiento en buscar relaciones morfológicas entre palabras
586 S. Defior et al.
resultaría útil para mejorar la comprensión lectora, pues una palabra nueva para un
lector novel puede comprenderse si está compuesta por morfemas que ya conoce.
que los bigramas ve y vi en posición inicial son más frecuentes que be y bi,
mientras que bu es más frecuente que vu. El resto de bigramas (ba-va/bo-vo)
presentan similar frecuencia. Este efecto se evidenció tanto en palabras como en
pseudopalabras y se fue incrementando a medida que avanzaba la escolarización.
Otro trabajo en español sobre la implicación de los procesos implícitos es el de
Vera, Jiménez-Fernández, y Defior (2013), utilizando la tarea de juicio de simi-
litud de palabras. Los resultados mostraron que participantes de 2º, 4º, 6º de EP, 3º
de ESO y universitarios señalaron como más reales pseudopalabras que contenían
grupos consonánticos de alta frecuencia (e.g., elegían prefate en lugar de drufate)
y las que respetaban reglas ortográficas (e.g., elegían gestuli frente a jestuli). No
obstante, el 95% de los participantes no pudieron verbalizar las reglas que
justificaban su elección, lo que confirmó que ese conocimiento era de tipo
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implícito.
Adicionalmente, existen estudios que han observado una relación positiva
entre la capacidad de AI y la lectura y escritura. Aunque la mayoría se han
realizado con participantes anglófonos, Nigro, Jiménez-Fernández, Simpson, y
Defior (2014) aplicaron una tarea de AI y pruebas de lectura y escritura a niños
españoles de 3º de EP. Encontraron que, al contrario que los resultados con niños
anglófonos de Arciuli y Simpson (2012), no existía correlación significativa entre
las medidas de AI y las de lectura pero sí se observó con las de escritura, de modo
que los niños con mayor índice de AI fueron los que escribían mejor palabras con
dificultad ortográfica (e.g., zanahoria o inyectar). Por tanto, parece que en
español los procesos implícitos tendrían una mayor implicación en el caso de la
escritura que en la lectura, aunque serían necesarios más estudios que delimiten
esta relación.
Por otro lado, algunos trabajos se han centrado en indagar la hipótesis de que
la dislexia evolutiva está causada en parte por un déficit en AI. En español, se ha
observado una disociación entre una deficitaria capacidad de AI en niños con
dislexia y unas habilidades explícitas preservadas (Jiménez-Fernández, Vaquero,
Jiménez, & Defior, 2011), así como un menor conocimiento implícito de regula-
ridades en una tarea de juicios de similitud de palabras (Espínola & Jiménez-
Fernández, 2014).
Conclusiones
La investigación sobre la lectura y escritura ha subrayado la importancia de una
serie de habilidades relacionadas con su adquisición que, ya sean de carácter
explícito o implícito, pertenecen al ámbito psicolingüístico. Una de las aporta-
ciones más importantes del siglo pasado fue poner de relieve el papel de la CF, en
particular de la conciencia fonémica, que se manifiesta como un poderoso aliado
del aprendizaje del lenguaje escrito. Su influencia parece ser universal en los
sistemas alfabéticos, aunque el grado de transparencia la modula en función del
desarrollo de las habilidades lectoescritoras. Otras habilidades fonológicas, como
las suprasegmentales, han emergido con fuerza en la investigación sobre los
procesos cognitivos que cimientan la alfabetización, así como las de conciencia
588 S. Defior et al.
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
This research was conducted within the PSI2010-21983-CO2-01 project, funded by the
Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO), and the research group HUM-
820, funded by the Junta de Andalucía (JA). / Esta investigación se ha realizado en el
marco del proyecto PSI2010-21983-CO2-01, subvencionado por Ministerio de Economía
y Competitividad (MINECO), y el grupo de investigación HUM-820, subvencionado por
la Junta de Andalucía (JA).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. / Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
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