ROTARY COMPRESSORS

Rotary air compressors have capability of running at high speeds up to 40,000 rpm and can be
directly coupled to any prime mover such as electric motor, turbine etc. due to compact design,
no balancing problem and less no. of sliding parts. Comparative study of rotary compressor with
reciprocating compressor shows that rotary compressors can be used for delivering large quantity
of air but the maximum pressure at delivery is less compared to reciprocating compressors.
Generally, rotary compressors can yield delivery pressure up to 10 bar and free air delivery of
3000 m3/min. Rotary compressors are less bulky, and offer uniform discharge compared to
reciprocating compressor even in the absence of big size receiver. Lubrication requirement and
wear and tear is less due to rotary motion of parts in rotary compressors compared to
reciprocating compressors.
Rotary compressors may work on the principle of positive displacement and dynamic action
both.
Rotary compressors of positive displacement types:
(i) Roots blower
(ii) Screw type or Helical type compressor
(iii) Vane type compressor

Rotary compressors using dynamic action may be of centrifugal type or axial type depending
upon the direction of flow.
These centrifugal type or axial compressors termed as non-positive displacement type steady
flow compressors.

Roots blower:

Roots blower is a positive displacement type rotary compressor. It has two rotors having two or
three lobes having epicycloid and hypocycloid or involute profiles such that they remain in
proper contact. Figure shows two lobe rotors in a roots blower. To prevent wear and tear two
rotors have clearance in between. Out of two rotors one is driven by prime mover while other
one is driven by first rotor. When two rotors rotate then their typical geometry divides the region
inside casing into two regions i.e. high pressure region and low pressure region. Although there
occurs slight leakage across the mating parts which can only be minimised not eliminated
completely.
It has inlet at section 1–1 and exit at 2–2. Air at atmospheric pressure enters the casing and is
trapped between rotor A and the casing. When the rotor rotate then air trapped in volume space V
is displaced towards high pressure region due to rotation of rotor. Exit end is connected to
receiver in which air is gradually transferred and the pressure inside receiver increases due to
cumulative effect of air being transferred from atmospheric pressure region to receiver region. In
one revolution this positive displacement of air trapped between rotor and casing from inlet end
to receiver end shall occur four times in case of two lobe rotor as shown. While in case of three
lobes rotor this transfer shall occur six times. Every time when V volume of air is displaced
without being compressed to the receiver side high pressure region, then the high pressure air
rushes back from receiver and mixes irreversibly with this air until the pressure gets equalized.
Thus, gradually air pressure builds up and say this pressure becomes p2.
work done per cycle, W = (p2 – p1) V

Total work in one revolution shall depend on number of lobes in rotor and in case of two lobes
rotor,
Wrevolution = (p2 – p1) (4 V)
Let compressed volume in one revolution be Vc = 4V
The efficiency depends upon pressure ratio and the increase in pressure ratio yields decrease in
roots efficiency. At low pressure ratios the roots efficiency is quite high. With high pressure ratio
there occurs the reversal of air flow. This reversal causes the loss of energy thereby lowering
efficiency due to increased actual work requirement.
Roots blower are available in the capacity ranging from 0.15 m3/min to 1500 m3/min and the
pressure ratios are of the order of 1 to 3.5. These are generally used for scavenging,
supercharging of IC engines etc. Generally the roots efficiency is around 50–60% but high
efficiency values up to 80% can also be achieved with low pressure ratios.

Screw type or Helical type compressor:

These may have two spiral lobed rotors, out of which one may be called male rotor having 3–4
lobes and other female rotor having 4–6 lobes which intermesh with small clearance. Meshing is
such that lobes jutting out of male rotor get placed in matching hollow portion in female rotors.
Initially, before this intermeshing the hollows remain filled with gaseous fluid at inlet port. As
rotation begins the surface in contact move parallel to the axis of rotors toward the outlet end
gradually compressing the fluid till the trapped volume reaches up to outlet port for getting
discharged out at designed pressure.
Since the number of lobes are different so the rotors operate at different speed. The material of
casing may be cast iron or cast steel while rotors may be of steel and generally internally cooled
by circulation of lubrication oil. Surface of lobes are smooth and the shaft is sealed by carbon
rings at oil pressure. Two rotors are brought into synchronization by the screw gears. Thrust
upon rotors is taken care of by oil lubricated thrust bearings.
These compressors are capable of handling gas flows ranging from 200 to 20000 m3/h under
discharge pressures of 3 bar gauge in single stage and up to 13 bar gauge in two stages. Even
with increase in number of stages pressures up to 100 bar absolute have been obtained with stage
pressure ratio of 2.
Mechanical efficiency of these compressors is quite high and their isothermal efficiencies are
even more than vane blowers and may be compared with centrifugal and axial compressors. But
these are very noisy, sensitive to dust and fragile due to small clearances.

Vane type compressor:

It has cylindrical casing having an eccentrically mounted rotor inside it. The rotor has number of
slots in it
with rectangular vanes of spring loaded type mounted in slots. These vanes are generally non
metallic and made of fibre or carbon composites or any other wear resistant material. These
vanes remain in continuous contact with casing such that leakage across the vane-casing
interface is minimum or absent. It has one end as inlet end and other as the delivery end
connected to receiver. Upon rotation the eccentric rotor has the vanes having differential
projection out of rotor depending upon their position.
Air is trapped between each set of two consecutive blades in front of inlet passage and is
positively displaced to the delivery end after compressing the volume V1 initially to V2, V3 and
V4. When compressed volume comes in front of delivery passage and further rotation results in
the situation when partly compressed air is forced to enter the receiver as their is no other way
out. This cumulative transfer of partly compressed air in receiver causes irreversible compression
resulting in gradual pressure rise. The p-V representation indicates that the total pressure rise is
due to the combined effect of reversible pressure rise inside casing and irreversible pressure rise
inside receiver. Generally, the contribution of reversible pressure rise and irreversible pressure
rise is in proportion of 50 : 50.
Vane compressors are available for capacity up to 150 m3/min and pressure ratios up to 8 and
efficiency up to 75%. For higher pressure ratios the efficiency of vane compressors is more than
that of roots blower but the vane compressors have maximum speed up to 2500 rpm as compared
to 7500 rpm in case of roots blower. Vane compressors have large power requirement as
compared to roots blower due to large number of vanes on rotor. However, with small number of
vanes the power required by vaned compressor may be comparable to roots blower. Vane
compressors require large maintenance due to wear of vanes and other moving parts.
Work required per revolution for vane compressor with n number of vanes shall be partly in
reversible and partly in irreversible process.
Let the inlet air be at pressure p1 and volume trapped is V1. This volume is partly compressed up
to volume V4 and pressure rises from to p1 to p2, p3 and p4. Thus, the irreversible compression
occurs for volume V4 and pressure rising from p4 to pf.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressor is a radial flow machine compressing the fluid due to the dynamic action
of impeller. Centrifugal compressors have impeller mounted on driving shaft, diffuser and volute
casing. Centrifugal compressors have air inlet at the centre of impeller. The portion of impeller
in front of inlet passage is called impeller eye.
Impeller is a type of disc having radial blades mounted upon it. Compressor casing has a diffuser
ring surrounding impeller and the air enters the impeller eye and leaves from impeller tip to enter
diffuser ring. Volute casing surrounds the diffuser ring. Volute casing has cross section area
increasing gradually up to the exit of compressor. These impellers of centrifugal compressors
may also be of double sided type such that air can enter from two sides (both) of impeller. Thus
double sided impeller shall have double impeller eye compared to single impeller eye.
Air enters the impeller eye axially and flows radially outwards after having entered compressor.
Radial flow of air inside compressor is due to impeller (blades) rotating about its axis. These
impeller blades impart momentum to the air entering, thereby rising its pressure and temperature.
Subsequently the high pressure fluid leaving impeller enters the diffuser ring where the velocity
of air is lowered with further increase in pressure of air. Thus in diffuser ring the kinetic energy
of air is transformed into pressure head. High pressure air leaving diffuser is carried by volute
casing to the exit of compressor.
Due to increased cross section area of volute casing some velocity is further reduced causing rise
in its pressure, although this is very small. Total pressure rise in compressor may be due to
‘impeller action’ and ‘diffuser action’ both. Generally, about half of total pressure rise is
available in impeller and remaining half in diffuser.
Centrifugal compressors are used in aircrafts, blowers, superchargers, etc. where large quantity
of air is to be supplied at smaller pressure ratios. Generally, pressure ratio up to 4 is achieved in
single stage centrifugal compressors while in multistage compressors the pressure ratio up to 12
can be achieved. These compressors run at speed of 20,000–30,000 rpm.
Thermodynamic analysis: In case of centrifugal compressors the fluid is being compressed
following reversible adiabatic process ideally. In actual case the frictionless adiabatic
compression is not possible due the frictional losses between fluid and casing. Irreversibilities
also creep into compression process due to the entry and exit losses such as throttling, shock at
inlet and exit and eddy formation etc. Therefore, the actual compression occurs following
polytropic compression process.
Velocity diagram for centrifugal compressor: Figure shows the velocity diagram for impeller
blade of centrifugal compressor. Air enters the blade at 1 and leaves at 2. The air velocity at inlet
and exit corresponding to the blade angles are shown on velocity diagrams for axial entry i.e. α1
= 90°.
Tangential force acting on blade can be estimated by change in whirl velocity value,
= m (Cw2 – Cw1); for axial entry Cw1 = 0
FT = m Cw2.
This tangential force shall be responsible for rotation of shaft.
The work done on impeller can be estimated using tangential force and distance travelled along
the direction of force. This work is also called Euler’s work.
Thus, it shows that stagnation pressure ratio depends on the square of blade tip speed. Here it has
been assumed that in case of radial blades blade tip speed is equal to the whirl velocity
component, which is not valid condition in reference to actual operation.
Actually, due to turbulence and secondary flow effects the Cw2 ≠ U2 and the Cw2 < U2.
Difference between U2 and Cw2 i.e. (U2 – Cw2) is called the slip. This slip is quantified by the
parameter called slip factor. Slip factor is the ratio of actual whirl velocity component to the
ideal whirl velocity component.

Losses in centrifugal compressor: Centrifugal compressor has losses at inlet. Every compressor
offers its optimum performance at design operation. Any deviation from design condition
increases the different losses occuring in it. Due to friction, turbulence, eddy formation etc. there
are flow losses inside the compressor. These losses are proportional to the square of flow
velocity. Compressibility of fluid at high Mach nos. also offers losses. Losses in diffuser, volute
casing are also there due to friction. Friction and secondary flow losses also cause slip and actual
whirl component is less than theoretical value.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Axial flow compressors have the fixed blades and moving blades mounted along the axis of
compressor. Air enters axially and leaves axially. It has primarily two components i.e. rotor and
casing. The rotor has blades mounted on it constituting moving blade ring. Blades are also
mounted on the inner side of casing thereby constituting stages as fixed blade ring followed by
moving blade ring followed by fixed blade ring, moving blade ring and so on.
Due to the reduction in volume the volume space for compressed air may be gradually reduced.
Gradual reduction in volume can be done by flaring the rotor while keeping stator diameter
uniform or by flaring the stator while keeping rotor diameter constant. The pressure of fluid
entering the axial flow compressor increases upon passing through the fixed and moving blades.
This flow of fluid over moving blades is accompanied by enthalpy rise while the fixed blades
merely deflect the fluid so as to facilitate smooth entry into moving blades. Absolute velocity of
air increases along axis of rotor due to work input from the prime mover. Relative velocity of air
decreases during its flow through rotor. Blades have aerofoil section so as to have minimum
losses due to turbulence, boundary layer formation and separation, eddy formation etc.

The energy analysis is considered for one stage of the compressor. The flow is assumed to occur
tangential to the mean blade speed of u.
Figure shows velocity triangles for one stage of the compressor. Air approaches rotor blade with
absolute velocity V1 at an angle α1 to the axial direction. Combining V1 with blade velocity u1
gives relative velocity Vr1 at inlet, inclined at angle β1 with the direction of motion.

While air flows through the diverging passage between two successive rotor blades, its absolute
velocity increases and air leaves the rotor with relative humidity Vr2 at an angle β2. The reduction
in the relative velocity from Vr1 at inlet to Vr2 at exit causes some pressure rise over the rotor.

The absolute velocity at exit V2 can be found by vector difference between V2 and u2. The
absolute velocity at exit V2 makes an angle α2 with the direction of motion. The air then enters
the next stage via stator blades. Over the stator blades, the pressure of air further increases due to
diffusion action. Air leaves the stator blades with absolute velocity V3 (less than V2) making an
angle α3 with the axial direction. The stator blades are so designed that V3 = V1 and α3 = α1 for a
shockless entry over the next stage.

It may particularly be noted that unlike in centrifugal compressors, in this case all angles are
measured with axial direction and not from tangential direction.

Referring to the velocity triangles,

Degree of Reaction of Axial Flow Compressor:

The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of pressure rise in the rotor to the pressure rise in
the stage.
SURGING AND CHOKING

Fig. shows the variation of theoretical pressure ratio with mass flow rate in case of a centrifugal
compressor running at constant speed.
The compressor be run with completely closed delivery valve thus the mass flow rate is zero and
pressure ratio available is shown by point a. This operating state of compressor shall not have
any amount of air entering into it instead the air trapped inside the impeller and casing shall be
subjected to impeller action (compression) causing its pressure rise upto the state a. Now upon
opening of delivery valve the flow of air into compressor and its discharge begins. With this
gradual opening of delivery valve the pressure ratio increases, say from state a to b and c along
with increase in mass flow rate. The pressure ratio reaches to some maximum value at point c.
Further opening of delivery valve shows that the mass flow rate increases but the pressure ratio
decreases after point c i.e. beyond the point having maximum pressure ratio. The decrease in
pressure ratio is due to the dominance of pressure loss due to friction etc. over the pressure rise
in diffuser. After point c pressure losses are more than the pressure rise thereby, showing net
decrease in pressure ratio as evident from points d and e on the delivery pressure vs mass flow
rate characteristic curve.

Theoretically, the characteristic curve may be extrapolated and the maximum discharge (mass
flow rate) is evident from point f at which the pressure ratio becomes unity and efficiency is zero.
Maximum efficiency is available at the point (c) corresponding to the maximum pressure ratio.
At the state f all work input to compressor is used in overcoming frictional resistance. In actual
case the state ‘e’ shall indicate the maximum mass flow rate practically possible. This maximum
mass flow state is known as choked mass flow. State of operation of compressor at point e is
called ‘choking’ of compressor. Choking gives the maximum mass flow from compressor and
the pressure ratio corresponding to this is less than maximum pressure ratio.
Open delivery valve for increase in mass flow rate from mb to mb1. With this opening of valve
the delivery pressure increases from pb to pb1. At point b1 the pressure on upstream and down
stream do not rise simultaneously instead the pressure at upstream becomes pb1 while in
downstream it remains pb for some time, due to inertia till pressure is not equalized. Since pb <
pb1 so there is no problem in terms of flow reversal. Similarly as the delivery valve is gradually
opened up to state c there is no problem of flow reversal as upstream pressure is always more
than downstream pressure up to c.
On partly closing the delivery valve, say from b to b2 the mass flow rate decreases from mb to
mb2. This is accompanied by decrease in pressure at both upstream and downstream. Pressure at
upstream gets changed (lowered) from pb to pb2 (pb2 < pb) instantaneously while the
downstream pressure remains equal to pb for some time due to inertia. Pressure gets equalized to
pb2 after some time lag. During this time lag the reversal of flow (stoppage of discharge from
compressor) occurs from downstream to upstream as in transient period downstream pressure pb
is more than upstream pressure pb2. Reversed flow stabilizes to normal flow after the pressure
gets equalized. This reversal of flow occurs during part closing of valve in the operating range
from a to c. Reversal of flow causes pulsations to the compressor and the noise, vibration and,
jerks are felt during this transition period. This phenomenon is called ‘surging’. Similar, study of
part closing and opening of valve when carried out in between c and e shows that no such
reversed flow is observed. This changed behaviour is seen as even in case of closing of valve the
mass flow rate shall decrease but the pressure ratio increases and in case of opening of valve the
mass flow rate increases although pressure ratio decreases. Region lying between c and e gives
the safe operating zone where surging phenomenon is not observed and also it is within the limits
of choking of compressor. Compressor should be therefore run between c and e for its’ smooth
running. The
excessive surging may even lead to failure (fracture) of rotating parts in compressor and is
therefore completely avoided. For every compressor the safe zone for its operation is obtained
and compressors
are run in that region.
Surging generally occurs in diffuser passages where the flow is slightly obstructed and gets
retarded due to friction near vanes. Surging tends to increase with increasing number of diffuser
vanes as with large no. of vanes it becomes difficult to divide air equally in all the passages. To
avoid this the number of diffuser vanes is kept less than the impeller blades so that each of
diffuser vane passage is provided with flow from more than one impeller blade channel. Thus,
the condition of flow remain nearly same for all diffuser passages and surging due to flow
reversal does not occur.

For axial flow compressor characteristics and centrifugal compressor characteristics refer
Thermal Engg.book by R.K. Rajput.
Refer book for other important terms of axial flow compressor.